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Original article
Fostering sustainable consumer behavior
regarding clothing: Assessing trends on
purchases, recycling and disposal
Arminda Pac¸o
1
, Walter Leal Filho
2
, Lucas V A
´vila
3
and
Karen Dennis
4
Abstract
The apparel industry, which includes the clothing/garment sector, encompasses the supply chain of clothing and gar-
ments, starting with the textile and fashion industry, all the way to fashion retailers and the trade with second-hand
clothes and textile recycling. This sector is characterized by substantial wastes, which may be minimized by means of
textile recycling. This paper reports on the results of an international study on sustainable clothing consumption.
This paper identifies and analyzes attitudes and behaviors regarding the clothing industry in a sample of 203 individuals.
The results suggest a number of trends. Firstly, they show the complexity of purchase habits. The reasons why individuals
dispose of their old or not used clothes are manifold, and include objective and subjective factors. Also, the paper
illustrates the existence of disparities in respect of clothing use and disposal behavior. Finally, the results suggest that
there is a need for more awareness-raising initiatives, in order to make consumers more conscious about the options
available and the need for a more sustainable use of clothing.
Keywords
sustainability, clothing, recycling, consumer behavior, second-hand textiles
In a sustainable world, all new clothing would be pro-
duced from pre-existing fabrics and textiles because
resources such as polyester and cotton could be
recycled and processed back into their raw material.
Clothing textiles are usually woven or knitted and
made from natural, manufactured fibers and blended
textiles. Natural fibers are cellulosic fibers such as
cotton, flax and hemp, or protein fibers such as silk
and wool. Unlike these biodegradable natural fibers,
manufactured fibers of petrochemical origin are pro-
duced from a non-renewable resource and cannot be
easily reused because their physical and chemical prop-
erties are difficult to reprocess and reuse.
1
Many
advances in chemical recycling have provided the
opportunity for the growth of blended textile products
that allow garment materials to be recirculated over
many generations of products. Such processes have a
consistent and important supply of textile waste.
2
Both
manufactured fibers and natural fibers require a lot of
energy, water and chemicals for their production.
3
Synthetic fibers are the most common in clothing
production and their consumption increased rapidly
from 1996 to now, so they dominate current global
fiber production.
4
A solution to the previously mentioned problems could
be textile recycling. This process includes benefits such as a
decrease of landfill space requirements, a reduction of con-
sumption of energy and water, lowering pollution, and the
1
Department of Management and Economics, NECE, University of Beira
Interior, Covilha
˜, Portugal
2
Faculty of Life Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences,
Hamburg, Germany
3
Graduate Program in Production Engineering (PPGEP) and Graduate
Program in Accounting Sciences (PPGCC), Federal University of Santa
Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
4
Ketchup Clothes, Leeds, UK
Corresponding author:
Lucas V A
´vila, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Pre
´dio 07, Centro de
Tecnologia – Av. Roraima, 1000 – Sala 305 – Camobi, Santa Maria – RS/
Brazil, 97105–900.
Email: lucas.avila@ufsm.br
Textile Research Journal
0() 1–12
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DOI: 10.1177/0040517520944524
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demand for dyes. It is a significant part of the United
Nations’ sustainable development goals to do more with
less, in an industry that is the second largest polluter of
clean water, and address the issue of 85% of textiles
ending up in landfill or being incinerated before the end
of their material life.
5
Although textiles and clothing are
not mentioned specifically, resource efficiency is a signifi-
cant part of the European Commission’s ‘‘Roadmap to a
resource efficient Europe’’.
6
Textile recycling is embedded in the larger global
movement toward a closed-loop production and a circu-
lar economy that is aligned with ‘‘reduce, reuse, recycle’’,
which is different from the traditional textile and apparel
industry that has adopted the principle of inbuilt obso-
lescence: the production of low-cost, easily accessible and
fashionable clothes.
7
Nevertheless, the fashion industry
plays a relevant role in the path towards sustainability
and the circular economy.
8
Moving to a circular restora-
tive economy reduces the impact of a linear economy:
discarded products are reused (second-hand use) or
used as a source of raw materials (resource efficiency)
to create a new product of value.
1,9,10
Other authors
(e.g. Brokstad
11
) suggest that the solution to combat
the unsustainability caused by textiles is to reduce the
growing consumption of low-quality clothing, ‘‘pushing’’
the industry in a direction where it is possible to produce
durable clothing with profit.
Thus, there is a need to move to a circular economy
model, extending the practices of reducing materials and
other resources, reusing manufactured pieces or material,
and recycling in order to provide inputs to new products,
contributing, as defended by Velenturf and Purnell,
12
to
the resources recovery. Thus, by reusing or recycling there
will be a huge opportunity to reduce the environmental
footprint of the textile and clothing industry and as a
result bring several environmental and economic benefits
to all society.
13
Here both recycling and reusing are
viewed as the act of getting rid of clothes or other textiles.
In the first case, the products are discarded to be used as
inputs in the production of other goods, that is, can be
transformed into new products; and reusing is when the
product can be used by another owner or with another
purpose.
14
This strategic option can be a source of innovation, by
minimizing waste and keeping materials within the pro-
duction–consumption loop during a considerable period
of time,
8
turning the ‘‘waste’’ into new products.
13,15
Nevertheless, there are authors (e.g. McDonough
and Braungart
16
) that criticized the ‘‘reduce, reuse,
recycle’’ approach because it perpetuates a one-way,
‘‘cradle to grave’’ manufacturing model that dates to
the Industrial Revolution and casts off as much as 90%
of the materials it uses as waste, much of it toxic.
And what about the role of consumers in this
market? As is evident, the move from slow fashion,
long production cycles and classic styles with longevity,
to fast fashion characterized by the quick turnover of
rapidly changing designs, has dented the environmental
credentials of the sector.
17
It has focused the majority
of businesses in the textile and clothing industry on
low-cost mass production, sold at low prices, based
on the latest fashion trends. This encourages consumers
to purchase more and more, resulting in negative
impacts to the environment and society.
18
Thus, the
increasing volume of textile waste has become an envir-
onmental issue. As such, it is necessary to pay attention
to consumers’ environmental attitudes, concerns and
awareness regarding their clothing behaviors. With
the increasing complexity of the human lifestyle, the
demand for functionalized or high-performance textile
materials—or ‘‘fast fashion’’—has seen a sharp
increase. However, the methods for its production are
still creating a negative impact on the environment.
19
This study examines the consumers’ clothing dis-
posal behavior and the thought process behind that
behavior, evidencing aspects such as the philanthropic
awareness factor, the concern for the environment, the
practical problems of accumulating and storing clothes,
and so on. The opinions regarding second-hand apparel
are also analyzed, as well as the factors that influence
the consumers’ attitude toward sustainable clothing
buying, mainly from the environmental perspective.
The present research was conducted in several countries
with different levels of industrialization and awareness,
exhibiting different approaches to clothing disposal
behavior and buying patterns.
Literature review
Sustainable consumer behavior for clothing
Sustainable clothing consumption respects the pur-
chase, use, and disposal of clothes. It considers the
environmental issues and aims to create less pollution
and waste whilst using fewer natural resources. Both
the industry and consumer have a responsibility
for the pollution generated. In fact, in the last decades,
the consumption of fashion items has become increas-
ingly less environmentally and socially harmful.
20,21
The textile industry has a significant impact on the pro-
duction phase of the life cycle due to the use of energy
and non-renewable resources for fiber production, the
consumption of large quantities of water, crop land and
chemicals and the emissions to both air and water.
22
In the disposal phase, landfilling of waste textiles cre-
ates a further problem related to the decomposition
of fibers.
18
There is a growing segment of consumers interested
in knowing whether the product they like has been
made by a producer that respects the environment
2Textile Research Journal 0()
and has ethical principles, and if the raw materials were
acquired in a sustainable and socially acceptable way.
The factors that affect their sustainable consumer behav-
ior include the role of clothing in self-expression, changes
in technology, rising affluence and lower prices.
23
To
these consumers, the industry is expected to contribute
solutions to its ecological and social problems, and to
handle their products with more eco-friendly consump-
tion patterns. This will slow the fashion movement, influ-
encing maintenance processes, and improve the reusing
and recycling of clothing.
24
From the demand point of view, a piece of clothing,
after being used for one season, is often simply thrown
away.
8
However, some changes in consumer environ-
mental ethics are already being felt in the field of activ-
ism: translated as the search for products considered
more ‘‘environmentally friendly’’ (using recycled and
organic materials, fair-trade production, recyclable,
etc.), the rejection of clothes made from animal skins
and paying attention to ecolabels.
25
At this point,
Armstrong et al.
26
consider that there is a growing
interest of consumers for product–service systems that
use arrangements such as renting, upgrading, redesign-
ing or lending to reduce dependence on natural
resources while, simultaneously, improving product
quality and longevity. Nevertheless, this environmental
concern from consumers is not necessarily translated
into decision-making and effective behavior, including
sustainable clothing consumption,
20
generating a gap
between attitudes and behaviors. Usually, consumers
are interested in sustainable consumption, but they
prefer the convenience, facility and low prices for
their fashion.
27
This may be caused by the barriers to
eco-conscious apparel consumption: limited knowledge
of the environmental effects of apparel consumption
and negative attitudes towards sustainable apparel.
According to Harris et al.,
23
the intention to buy
environmentally friendly clothing is highly influenced
by social pressure and the concern for the environment.
It is moderately influenced by the feeling of guilt and
lack of knowledge and information about environmen-
tally friendly apparel. Even among green consumers,
clothing purchases are fundamentally determined by
economic and personal considerations, while disposal
behaviors are driven first, and foremost, by habits and
routines acquired. Sustainable behavior regarding fash-
ion is also motivated by both positive desires (‘‘ethical
hedonism’’) and negative emotions, such as the suspicion
and scepticism regarding the large corporate brands.
23
Second-hand clothing
There has been a huge increase in the economic power
and global scope of the second-hand clothing trade
since the early 1990s.
28
According to Norris (p.183)
29
‘‘second-hand clothing is thereby culturally framed as
waste, as a surplus, and as a morally charged product
that has a powerful redemptive capacity for donors,
multiple recyclers and secondary consumers’’.
Donations to humanitarian organizations tend to be
the method most commonly used for disposing of appa-
rel. A considerable number of consumers give their
unwanted textile waste to charity shops.
30
In the recy-
cling units, clothes are sorted and sent to Africa, East
Europe and Asia, where they are reused; the items that
cannot be sold or donated are transformed into clean-
ing rags or sold to other industries.
18,31
Thus, whereas
some textiles are disposed of, there is a significant part
that is recycled or reused, depending on the needs and
the facilities offered by the industry and country.
Usually, studies are more focused on the barriers to
buying second-hand goods. However, for consumers
with a lack of economic resources, this option is prac-
tised.
32
On the other hand, concerns about the environ-
ment have also begun to increase consumers’ tendency
to buy second-hand products. In addition, the con-
sumers’ interest in environmentally friendly fashion
and retro/vintage clothing has contributed to some
growth in this clothing market.
33
Darley and Lim
34
defend that the national interest in
extending the life of the products is one of the major
factors that enhanced the second-hand clothing indus-
try. Another aspect contributing to this growth are the
consumers, (mostly younger) who have shown a high
interest and concern for the environment
32
and have
been creating and expressing their social consciousness
through choosing choice second-hand clothing. Even if
they are not ready to support environmental sustain-
ability by acquiring high-priced green products, they
may be able to contribute by purchasing second-hand
clothing items, which will reduce the volume of new
products produced in the future.
Research exploring consumer attitudes towards
second-hand apparel has focused only on the segment
of consumers who already buy second-hand apparel
regularly. Some studies report that consumers’ willing-
ness to purchase used apparel depends on their know-
ledge about the issue; other barriers are related to the
(negative) opinions of others, the condition of used
apparel, the availability of stores, and the myth that
second-hand apparel is associated with lower
income.
18
Another finding is presented by Janigo and
Wu:
35
if consumers already purchase second-hand
clothing or have friends who do so, the acceptance of
used and recycled clothing could lead to an interest in
purchasing redesigned and recycled clothing.
The use of second-hand channels is motivated by
two main reasons: to find unique or rare products
that are not usually available through traditional retai-
lers, or to dispose of clothing that is old or out of
do Pac¸o et al. 3
style.
28,32
Young consumers are usually the most pre-
disposed to shop for textiles at second-hand markets
due to environmental reasons, lack of money or seeking
vintage fashion. The young consumers are often not
very concerned with the question of contamination,
and they do not care about the ‘‘social stigma’’ asso-
ciated with second-hand products (poverty, embarrass-
ment, etc.).
Clothing recycling and disposal
Clothing disposal practice can be defined as dis-
carding of an outfit or item by giving it to others,
throwing it away, using it for another purpose (reuse,
redesign) or selling it.
36,37
Textile recycling involves
reclaiming pre-consumer waste or post-consumer
waste (garments, vehicle upholstery, household items
and others).
38
There are a number of different recycling processes
possible within the textile and apparel context.
39,40
Recycling means the breakdown of a product into its
raw materials (usually through a melting process).
41
In this way, material is recovered from waste and can
be used for new products.
42,43
When the new product
(after the recycling) is of lower value, the recycling pro-
cess is called ‘‘downcycling’’.
41
In turn, ‘‘upcycling’’
means to use a certain material again but for a different
purpose, for instance, the chemical recycling of
cotton.
40,42
Domina and Koch
31
found that consumers dispose
for a variety of reasons: inadequate size, changes in
taste, lack of space and changes in style and fashion.
The act of discarding textiles may be related either to
convenience or to the lack of information about the
existing options for recycling. For example, Domina
and Koch
31
concluded that the availability of curbside
recycling programmes positively influences the partici-
pation in textile recycling. In addition, Yee et al.’s
37
study demonstrated that clothing disposal behavior is
also affected by philanthropic awareness. This variable
measures the consumer’s altruism in clothing disposal
practices and their willingness to help the needy. In line,
Joung and Park-Poaps
44
study reported that in the
United States altruistic concern was the primary motiv-
ation for donating clothes. Thus, there are several ways
for consumers to dispose of their clothing evidencing an
altruistic attitude, for example by donating to charity
or giving away to family or friends or other members of
the community. However, Ha-Brookshire and
Hodges
45
state that altruism is not the main reason
for the removal of apparel; the motivation for removal
is more related with the lack of closet space and the
‘‘need’’ for something new.
In turn, Lang and Armstrong
46
refer that personal
attributes, especially fashion trend sensitivity, price
consciousness and demographics, are factors that may
motivate and influence clothing disposal behaviors.
According to Joung,
47
attitudes toward general
waste recycling (e.g. paper or glass) are good predictors
of clothing disposal behaviors (such as reuse, resale,
giving to other people and donation), which is in line
with the findings of Bianchi and Birtwistle
48
and
Morgan and Birtwistle.
49
Further, it was found that
consumers who were familiar with recycling in general
preferred apparel made from recycled fiber.
18
Nevertheless, of the disposal possibilities, throwaway
is the most common way consumers get rid of clothing
that they do not use or do not want anymore. The
numbers are dramatic, as is stated by Claudio,
50
espe-
cially when it comes to damaged or worn-out textiles.
Research by Bianchi and Birtwistle
51
found that
environmental consumer awareness and individuals’
age have an influence in donating behavior. In a previ-
ous study, Birtwistle and Moore
52
found that donating
to charities and giving away to family and friends were
the most common and convenient ways of sustainable
clothing disposal. These two methods allow a consider-
able saving of resources in the disposal process, bene-
fiting the needy. Other methods, such as reuse and
redesign, help to prolong the life of the clothing.
Joung and Park-Poaps
44
analyzed the factors moti-
vating and influencing clothing disposal options, and
found that donation and resale were explained by envir-
onmental concerns. In another study, Koch and
Domina
53
found that while environmental attitudes
were highly correlated with the donation and reuse of
textiles, they were not related to resale. Bianchi and
Birtwistle
48
examined sustainable clothing disposal
behaviors in terms of environmental consumer aware-
ness, and reported positive relationships between
awareness of the environment and general recycling
behaviors in the two sampled countries. Awareness of
the environment was positively related to giving to
family or friends, but it was not related to donation
to charities in both countries.
There is also a type of consumer that ‘‘ignores’’ the
clothes they do not wear or use. These consumers
simply hoard their unwanted clothing in their closets,
and this can be explained by several factors, amongst
which mention can be made to the investment value
(expensive items, perceived value), weight management
and emotional value.
47,49
There are also consumers who are concerned with
recycling clothes that use the most environmentally
friendly dyes. This is due to the fact that there are syn-
thetic dyes in some dyeing products.
54
Despite that,
some materials have a huge environmental footprint
(e.g. cotton and polyester). In the case of polyester,
there is a significant waste of water, and because poly-
ester is not biodegradable, it causes several pollutions.
1
4Textile Research Journal 0()
There are some areas where considerable improve-
ments could be made to increase the recycling rate.
These improvements include better infrastructure and
communication flow between textile producers and
recyclers, curbside collection programmes, promotion
and increase in end-user markets of waste recyclables,
and educational programmes of consumers.
31
Understanding the motivation for behavior is therefore
crucial in understanding the obstacles for clothing reuse
and recycling LG.
14
In fact, little is known about the
diversity of reasons behind clothing disposal, or the
condition of disposed clothing that is delivered either
to garbage collection or recycling. The technical and
social aspects of clothing disposal should be studied.
14
Barriers to recycling. As a polluter and ecological
time bomb, the textile and clothing industry has
come under scrutiny from many sectors.
55–58
Its
socio-political structures are questioned for its reliance
on sweatshop-type conditions as well as its manufactur-
ing processes, both of which have been put under the
microscope for the manner in which materials (and
people) are used and abused.
59,60
Time, distance and
connections are all important concepts within the
industry, especially in relation to the speed of produc-
tion and consumption, the global spread of the indus-
try, and the diverse and fragmented linkages that
characterize modes of manufacture. Therefore, when
considering the barriers that occur when attempting
to recycle within this context, many different factors
come into play. WRAP
61
in their report ‘‘Barriers to
recycling at home’’ highlighted how obstacles occur due
to situational, behavioral, attitudinal and knowledge-
based contexts. This implies that in order to recycle
effectively, appropriate mechanisms are needed that
take into account the environment in which people
find themselves, their lifestyles, beliefs and values.
If the methods of recycling are present but the popula-
tion is unwilling to recycle or if there is a willingness to
recycle but there are no means to do so a dichotomy
occurs between practice and theory. This section
will consider the barriers that exist in the recycling
of textile and clothing waste from the perspective of
manufacturing and retail-based scenarios. It draws on
practical experience as well as theoretical frameworks
and research.
Textile and clothing waste emanates from a number
of processes and transactions, which include the manu-
facture, marketing, consumption and design of prod-
ucts.
62
The quality and quantity of this waste is in
turn determined by industrial tendencies and consumer
preferences, which dictate the types of products on
offer, the rate of consumption and the means through
which these products may be recycled. For instance
some European Union countries such as UK,
Germany and Austria increased their textile waste
from 2004 to 2012, and others (e.g. Greece, Romania,
Portugal, Norway) decreased significantly their level of
waste in this industry.
1
With the growth in fast fashion
practices, which render many products psychologically
obsolete before their physical demise, it would appear
that increasingly effective waste management systems
that people understand, use effectively, and which
draw on both intrinsic and extrinsic values and modes
of behavior are needed. Having been identified as one
of the fastest growing environmental concerns, barriers
to recycling within the textile and clothing industry
need addressing in order to uncover potential obstacles
and lead to safer and more effective practices. In their
study into the South African apparel sector, Larney
and van Aardt
62
argued that the imperative underlying
the effective management of waste was perpetuated by
the ‘‘increasing cost, decreasing availability of landfill
space and dwindling of natural resources’’ (p.36).
As space in landfills becomes sparser and the cost of
this space increases, manufacturers are facing dilemmas
about modes of manufacture and resultant inputs and
outputs. A key barrier in this context thus centers upon
the need to balance environmental concerns with com-
mercial competitiveness.
63
Recycling can be defined as the process of treating
things that have already been used so they can be used
again. Barriers to harnessing this process include the
shortage of markets for recycled products, the lack of
equipment and technology to recycle, the labor inten-
siveness of processes and their associated high cost, and
pressures due to competitiveness with countries with
lower standards of environmental practices.
62
There is
also often the perception that products containing
recycled raw materials are inferior in quality, which in
turn stymies growth in recycling practices.
Remanufacture presents itself as an associated practice
in which items are disassembled, cleaned, inspected,
repaired, replaced and reassembled into a new prod-
uct.
64
This should lead to a product that, if not superior
to the original, should at least be equal to it. It is argued
that growth in this area is hindered by the lack
of a clear definition of what this entails, regulated poli-
cies, legislation and warranties for remanufactured
products.
65
Within manufacturing, cutting room waste is seen as
a primary environmental concern, and approximately
15% of virgin cloth gets discarded.
66
Presently, a large
proportion of this waste is sent to landfills (USA) or
landfills and incineration (UK), and therefore a key
challenge in manufacturing is to find methods for
more effectively utilizing this waste. Zero pattern cut-
ting techniques have been developed, but barriers to
their growth lie within the commercial value of these,
especially seeing as how they relate to mass production.
do Pac¸o et al. 5
Within the charity retail sector, personal observation and
communication have highlighted how time, space, know-
ledge and quality have all contributed to the ability of
staff and volunteers to recycle textile and clothing waste.
In many stores, space for sorting is limited and there is
often a need to move stock out quickly. Knowledge relat-
ing to the material composition of products can also be
limited and this means that items become mixed without
a clear delineation in material types.
Given all the previous, this study aims to examine
the consumers’ clothing disposal behavior, and its
motivations, as well as the perceptions regarding
second-hand apparel and the factors influencing the
consumers’ attitude toward sustainable clothing
buying. Thus, with consideration to the literature
review presented, three research hypotheses arise:
H
1
: Consumers prefer to give/donate old/not-used
clothes than to reuse or sell them.
H
2
: The main reasons for clothing disposal are not
related to altruistic aspects.
H
3
: Consumers do not make their clothing choices with
environmental factors in mind.
Methodology
There is a wide difference in the levels of research on
textiles, and a limited number of international studies
which have investigated the complex relations between
behavior and textiles use. In order to explore the con-
sumer behavior regarding recycled and second-hand
clothing and use of second-hand textiles and its dis-
posal, an extensive literature review was performed.
This was done in order to find adequate scales, already
tested, to measure such behaviors and attitudes. It was
also meant to identify possible problems. In some cases,
it was considered a better option to adapt and re-create
new measures.
An enquiry-based approach was used to test the
proposed hypotheses. The chosen method of data col-
lection was a survey, an internationally used method
for data collection among different groups, taking the
format of a self-administered questionnaire. The
questionnaire consisted of mainly closed questions,
covering three main sections: (a) clothing disposal
behavior (to know what individuals do with the old/
not-used clothes); (b) clothing buying behavior (to
know the factors individuals take into account when
buying, and the reasons why some of them do not buy
second-hand clothing); and (c) demographics (age,
gender, level of education, job and country). The
survey was pre-tested by a group of 10 individuals
in order to identify any language or understanding
problems.
The respondents were asked to mark their opinion
using a five point scale varying from 5 ¼totally agree to
1¼totally disagree; individuals were also asked to
point out their level of frequency of certain buying
behaviors by again using a five point scale ranging
from 5 ¼always to 1 ¼never.
The nine statements to measure clothing disposal
behavior were adapted from Bianchi and
Birtwistle
48,51
because of their capacity to measure a
diversity of actions usually associated with sustainable
disposal behavior. Z
ˇurga et al.
18
have also used some of
these variables in their study. All these studies were also
used to inspire the construction of a set of reasons that
could explain the disposal behavior. The tendency to
contribute positively to the natural environment by
having a certain clothing buying behavior was mea-
sured by a set of questions based on Z
ˇurga et al.
18
In
order to examine the second-hand behaviors in terms of
barriers, the Yan et al.
32
research was used.
The questionnaire was used in its original form and
language (English), but it was also translated into
Portuguese using standard back-translation protocol
in order to cover a larger audience. Some adjustments
were made to ensure that the respondents understood
the questions, after the pre-test, which included 15 indi-
viduals from Portugal, Brazil and Germany. The final
version of the questionnaire was made available on the
online platform, SurveyMonkey, for three months.
After collection, the data was statistically analyzed
and interpreted using the statistical software SPSS 25.
Descriptive analyses and parametric tests were used to
analyze the data.
The questionnaire was available during the period
from 1 October to 31 December 2018. In total, approxi-
mately 1200 emails were sent to people from different
regions of the world. In total, 258 responses were
received, but 55 did not complete the survey and
were discarded, totalling 203 valid answers from
the following countries: Germany, Brazil, Thailand,
Mexico, India, Indonesia, England, Tanzania, Italy,
Switzerland, Malaysia, Zambia, Liberia, Sweden,
United States, France, Kenya, New Zealand,
Bangladesh, Australia, Cameroon, Republic of
Liberia, Aruba, Canada, Hungary, Chile, Albania,
Luxembourg, Norway, Netherlands, Ireland, Guinea,
Croatia and Portugal, as shown in Figure 1.
The 203 respondents came from 34 countries in vari-
ous regions of the world, covering all continents. They
have a mean age of 37 years, 74.38% are female and
25.62% are male. Of the respondents, 42.5% have a
master’s degree, 28.5% a higher education degree
(bachelor’s degree), 22.12% a PhD, and 7.88% a sec-
ondary school degree. In addition, participants held
positions such as chief executive officer, manager,
researcher, professor, social worker, senior lecturer
6Textile Research Journal 0()
and student, among others. It is important to note that
the sample of 203 participants from different regions of
the world is representative for the discussion of evi-
dence, especially since it is about analysis of attitudes
and behaviors towards the clothing industry. Several
international studies with a similar sample such as
Avila et al.
67
and Filho et al.
68
were published in high
impact journals.
Results and discussion
In order to examine the results of the questionnaire and
discuss the hypotheses stated previously, several statis-
tical tests were carried out. The variables used to meas-
ure the relevant phenomena were presented in the
format of Likert scales (minimum ¼1, maximum ¼5),
where 3 is the indifference value. Values below 3 (the
median point of the scale) represent negative values in
the scale, and above 3 are the positive values. The first
analysis performed aimed to know the clothing disposal
behavior of our sample (Table 1).
The garment industry is mostly focused on low-cost
mass production, seeking to sell its products at low
prices based on the latest fashion trends. This encour-
ages consumers to buy more and more, resulting in
large consumption. Aiming to avoid waste, the survey
showed that only 1.55% put the clothes in the trash.
It can be observed that the main percentage of user
behavior is directed towards donations to charitable
and humanitarian institutions or to family members
and friends.
Regarding the first hypothesis (H
1
: Consumers
prefer to give/donate old/not-used clothes than to
reuse or sell them), it is possible to confirm the formu-
lated hypothesis, considering the mean scores of the
five first sentences related with giving/donation, with
the exception of ‘‘I swap with family members and
friends’’. In general, these behaviors present a higher
score than the ones related to reuse or sell (the last
three sentences). In addition, the lack of significant dif-
ferences in the respondents’ behavior regarding the
clothing disposal method ‘‘I give to members of my
family’’ should be noted, with individuals tending to
have similar behavior regarding this aspect. In fact,
donations to humanitarian organizations tend to be
the method most frequently used for clothing disposal,
as stated by Birtwistle and Moore
52
and Hiller.
30
In
addition, Koch and Domina
53
noticed that while envir-
onmental attitudes were highly correlated with the
donation and reuse of textiles, they were not related
to resale.
Table 2 presents the results of the main reasons why
individuals dispose of their old or not used clothes.
Regarding the reasons for clothing disposal, more
than 200 respondents from the 34 countries replied
that they would recycle to have a positive impact on
the environment and to help others. The ability to
recycle is one of the objectives of industries that aim
for responsible and sustainable production, which will
allow part recovery of the energy and material used.
The barriers to more efficient recycling could be over-
come by the integration between existing methods of
Figure 1. Participating countries.
do Pac¸o et al. 7
textile production/ready-made design and improved
coordination of post-consumer waste collection. In
order to recycle effectively, appropriate mechanisms
are needed that take into account the environment in
which people find themselves, their lifestyles, beliefs
and values.
61
The second hypothesis (H
2
: The main reasons for
clothing disposal are not related to altruistic aspects)
is not confirmed as the mean scores of the items are
higher in the altruistic indicators (help others, good
impact on the environment), contrary to Domina and
Koch
31
who found relevant factors for disposal due to
incorrect size, the lack of space and the changes in fash-
ion and style. However, there are no significant differ-
ences in the two individualistic reasons: a shortage of
space and no longer used (consumers tend to converge
into these two reasons for disposal). Also Ha-
Brookshire and Hodges
45
found that altruism was not
the main reason for the removal of apparel, pointing
instead to the lack of closet space and the ‘‘need’’ for
something new.
Aiming to know how respondents buy and their atti-
tudes regarding sustainable clothing behavior, a set of
questions related to the topic was analyzed (Table 3).
The results point to small differences between users
who evaluate the origin of the material, composition of
the material and those that follow the trends. It is
appropriate for users to select their products by assess-
ing the origin and composition of the material used and
the company’s social responsibility, since many indus-
tries focus on low cost and do not worry about the
environment. Every day, consumerism is growing and,
as a consequence, increasing the gradual degradation of
the environment. There are several detrimental impacts
on the natural environment caused by new technologies
and products such as clothing, footwear, electronics,
cosmetics and other items acquired in an excessive
and unnecessary way. In order for this situation to
be reversed, or at least stabilized, actions are required
that target the implementation of sustainable develop-
ment, starting with more conscious consumption
habits. Conscious consumption does not mean having
to deprive yourself of a more comfortable life, but
reduce, recycle and reuse everything that is possible in
order to contribute to the preservation of the environ-
ment and the balance of the planet. In fact, the most
efficient way to reduce these impacts is to increase the
usage, because even the secondary user will add other
impacts to the process of production–consumption (e.g.
transportation, redesign, etc.).
Regarding the third hypothesis (H
3
: Consumers do
not make their clothing choices with environmental fac-
tors in mind), apparel made from an environmentally
preferable material is one of the highest factors and
buying clothes with environmental labels is one of the
lowest factors, confirming, at least partially, the
hypothesis.
In their study, Bianchi and Birtwistle
48
found that
awareness of the environment was taken into account
when consumers choose clothes. In fact, there is a con-
siderable number of consumers interested in sustainable
clothing, and very concerned with environment preser-
vation,
32
but the convenience, low prices and fashion
tend to prevail.
27
There are no significant differences in
the responses of the second and fourth items (avoid
buying certain products and consider the composition).
This means that for all the rest of the attitudes and
behaviors the respondents present differentiated
opinions.
In addition, we asked respondents, when applicable,
to indicate the three main reasons why they were
against buying second-hand apparel (Figure 2).
Concerns about the environment contributed to the
increase of consumers’ propensity to buy second-hand
products.
32
However, barriers to this behavior continue
to exist: the opinion of others, the state of the clothes,
Table 1. Clothing disposal behavior: descriptive analysis and one-sample t-test
What do you do with your
old/not used clothes? Mean
Standard
deviation t
I give to members of my family 2.97 1.33 –0.316
I give to friends 2.54 1.34 –4.86
I swap with family members and friends 1.84 1.15 –14.39
I give to charity shops and humanitarian
organizations
3.51 1.32 5.52
I deposit in humanitarian bins 2.70 1.45 –2.95
I throw into the trash bin 1.55 0.92 –22.2
I use as cleaning rags 2.42 1.18 –6.90
I repair and/or redecorate 2.19 1.20 –9.54
I sell 1.62 1.03 –18.92
Note: t-test with 202 degrees of freedom and test value 3.
8Textile Research Journal 0()
18 16
23 22
45
65
20
Figure 2. Reasons to not buy second-hand clothing.
*Other: hard to find stores/articles (7), contamination (4), prefer to buy new (3), new is more durable (2), culturally not acceptable
(2), associated to poverty (1), composition (1).
Table 3. Clothing buying attitudes and behavior: descriptive analysis and one-sample t-test
How is your clothing buying behavior? Mean
Standard
deviation t
I acquire apparel made from environmentally
preferable material
2.74 1.11 –3.26
I avoid buying certain apparel products 2.86 1.30 –1.50
I buy second-hand clothes 2.31 1.29 –7.60
I consider the material’s composition 3.12 1.36 1.28
I buy clothes with environmental labels 2.51 1.12 –6.18
I prefer to follow the fashion trends 2.83 1.22 –2.01
I consider the origin 3.23 1.31 2.51
Table 2. Reasons for clothing disposal: descriptive analysis and one-sample t-test
Reasons for clothing disposal Mean
Standard
deviation t
Shortage of space 2.86 1.44 –1.35
Unfashionable items 2.74 1.35 –2.75
Confectioner defects 2.57 1.29 –4.70
Uselessness 2.87 1.39 –1.31
Inadequate size 3.54 1.34 5.68
To make some money 1.62 1.10 –17.81
To help others 3.68 1.21 7.94
Recycling efforts will bring good impact
on the environment
3.77 1.32 8.30
do Pac¸o et al. 9
the difficulty in finding, and so on.
18
As observed in
Figure 2, the main obstacle for respondents is the per-
ception of cleanliness/contamination (also observed by
Yan et al.
32
) and previous ownership (previously
reported by Z
ˇurga et al.
18
). The lack of choice and
not being fashionable were other relevant barriers
pointed out by the individuals sampled.
Conclusion
The rapid growth in fast fashion retailing has led to the
disposal and destruction of tonnes of clothing around the
world, some of which are in very good condition. To
protect the environment, consumers must make more
responsible decisions between the reuse of clothing and
its disposal, and be prepared to buy these items in a
rational way. Here, education can have a crucial role.
It is necessary to educate citizens, from an early age,
making them aware of the importance of the ‘‘reduce,
reuse, recycle’’ approach to apparel, given the high
impact this industry can have on the natural environ-
ment. Thus, public policy should direct a special effort
not only to sensitize the industry of this sector to being
more sustainable, but also to contribute to a better edu-
cationandtoprovideinformationtotheconsumers.
As this paper has shown, the advantages of reuse
and recycling comprise both environmental and eco-
nomic benefits. At present, most consumers are increas-
ingly urged to stop throwing away their old clothes and
recycle them, preventing resource and environmental
depletion. However, sustainable consumer behavior
cannot alone solve the problem of excessive pollution
caused by the consumption of textiles and apparel. We
need a change in mindset. For instance, motivation of
the population—especially but not only in wealthy
countries—towards the reuse of clothes among family
members and friends would significantly contribute to
the reduction of the environmental impact of clothing
production and make it more sustainable.
Some implications for second-hand businesses can
be also drawn. It is possible that initially low prices
were the main reason for consumers to buy these
pieces, but today’s buyer has begun to associate reuse
with reducing the amount of disposed clothing sent to
landfills, therefore causing less environmental pollu-
tion. Thus, it is necessary to target this segment of con-
sumers that starts to be really concerned with the
depletion of resources, and is available to try other
options, such as buying second-hand clothes or switch-
ing to more sustainable clothes (made from recycled
materials). Also, ecological clothing retailers should
promote their stores and brands by associating the
wearing of used clothing with reducing negative
impacts on the environment, hence reaching a more
environmentally conscious part of the population.
This study has some limitations. Firstly, the gener-
alizability of this study is limited to the sample, since
non-probability sampling was used. Secondly, it did not
take cultural issues into account. A similar study com-
paring consumers of different cultures would be a useful
addition to the literature. Thirdly, the study did not
focus on specific consumer groups. For example, the
mature consumers who are reaching retirement age.
They may need to replace their career-related apparel
by apparel that fits their new lifestyles. These older con-
sumers care about future generations, and tend to help
others. Thus, a future study may focus on older con-
sumers’ clothing and their recycling and disposal
behaviors. Despite the analysis by age, the multicultural
variables should be considered for future studies.
Moreover, the survey managed to obtain information
from only a small sample of respondents; many more
could be reached if more resources were available for
the study. Finally, one further limitation is that the
study was aimed at investigating very specific aspects,
and was not designed to look at the apparel industry on
a larger scale. This work nonetheless sheds light on the
complexity of consumer behaviors as it relates to cloth-
ing, and may provide a basis for further studies.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This study was supported by Foundation for Science
and Technology (FCT) – Project UIDB/04630/2020 and
European School of Sustainability Science and Research,
HAW Hamburg.
ORCID iD
Lucas V A
´vila https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1502-258X
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