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Reducing cognitive load through the worked example effect within a serious game environment
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Educational games are commonly used to motivate students and provide enhanced learning opportunities. Apps and mobile games play an increasingly important role in education and smartphones are part of the daily lives of most female teenagers: Half of mobile gamers are women and 64% of women prefer smartphones to other platforms. However, gender differences in playing behaviour and preferences raises concerns about potential gender inequalities when games are developed for education. In order to develop a tutorial game that suits the female target group and provides challenging tasks to solve, girls were involved at a very early stage of the development cycle and the idea was developed on the basis of surveys and focus group discussions. A first prototype of the game has been tested in a mixed-gender group to get feedback about the learning content, the worked examples, and the whole structure of the game. Finally, a tutorial game with six worked examples has been released in our Luna&Cat app, a programming tool that has been designed for our female target group in particular.
Serious Games (SGs) are gaining an ever increasing interest for education and traning. Exploiting the latest simulation and visualization technologies, SGs are able to contextualize the player’s experience in challenging, realistic environments, supporting situated cognition. However, we still miss methods and tools for effectively and deeply infusing pedagogy and instruction inside digital games. After presenting an overview of the state of the art of the SG taxonomies, the paper introduces the pedagogical theories and models most relevant to SGs and their implications on SG design. We also present a schema for a proper integration of games in education, supporting different goals in different steps of a formal education process. By analyzing a set of well-established SGs and formats, the paper presents the main mechanics and models that are being used in SG designs, with a particular focus on assessment, feedback and learning analytics. An overview of tools and models for SG design is also presented. Finally, based on the performed analysis, indications for future research in the field are provided.
Stereotype threat is known as a situational predicament that prevents members of negatively stereotyped groups to perform up to their full ability. This review shows that the detrimental influence of stereotype threat goes beyond test taking: It impairs stereotyped students to build abilities in the first place. Guided by current theory on stereotype threat processes and boundary conditions, this review integrates findings on test taking, disidentification, and learning. A new three-stage account of stereotype threat is proposed that includes stereotype threat effects on both ability and performance. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. The external validity and practical significance of goal-setting theory are explained, and new directions in goal-setting research are discussed. The relationships of goal setting to other theories are described as are the theory’s limitations.
Hypothesized that schema acquisition would precede rule automation and that it would have a strong effect on problems similar to initial acquisition problems. We further hypothesized that rule automation would have its primary effect on transfer and that the use of worked examples could facilitate both transfer and performance on similar problems. Experiments 1 and 2 contained simple algebra transformation problems involving the changing of the subject of an equation. The results indicated that subjects whose training included a heavy emphasis on worked examples or an extended acquisition period were better able to solve both similar and transfer problems than were those subjects trained with conventional problems. In Experiment 3, the use of verbal protocols gave some support to the hypotheses. Experiment 4, using algebra word problems, yielded data supporting the hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied the differential effect on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load for 3 computer-based training strategies. The conventional, worked, and completion conditions emphasized, respectively, the solving of conventional problems, the study of worked-out problems, and the completion of partly worked-out problems. The relation between practice-problem type and transfer was expected to be mediated by cognitive load. It was hypothesized that practice with conventional problems would require more time and more effort during training and result in lower and more effort-demanding transfer performance than practice with worked-out or partly worked-out problems. With the exception of time and effort during training, the results supported the hypothesis. The completion strategy and, in particular, the worked strategy proved to be superior to the conventional strategy for attaining transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied 4 computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this conceptual analysis is to investigate how contemporary video and computer games might inform instructional
design by looking at how narrative devices and techniques support problem solving within complex, multimodal environments.
Specifically, this analysis presents a brief overview of game genres and the role of narrative in popular adventure game design,
along with an analysis of how narrative supports problem solving in adventure games. Additionally, an analysis of the underlying
structure used in game design for developing narratives is presented along with design heuristics for constructing narratives
for educational purposes.
Worked examples have been effective in enhancing learning outcomes, especially with novice learners. Most of this research
has been conducted in laboratory settings. This study examined the impact of embedding elaborated worked example modeling
in a computer simulation practice activity on learning achievement among 39 undergraduate students within a classroom environment.
The students from one introductory forensic science course were randomly assigned to one of two groups that worked through
computer-based simulations containing worked example modeling conditions presented in varied order. The computer software
administered the modeled simulations, prior knowledge test, pretest, posttests, and a second domain test. Findings from this
study suggest that embedded worked example modeling within practice simulations can be an effective method for transfer of
learning with novice learners.
This paper reviews the research literature on gender and gaming in light of the growing interest in digital games for learning. It outlines three different approaches that have been developed to address gender issues in digital games: 'games for girls' that build on gender differences by promoting different notions of femininity, 'games for change' that support gender play by challenging stereotypes, and 'games as designs' that position girls as creators of their own learning environments. The paper then discusses implications for design methods, choices of game genres and features, research in learning environments, and approaches to data analyses for learning science researchers interested in designing and using games for learning.
Currently casual games feature as the most dynamically developing section of the videogames industry and compared to the more complicated and technologically advanced hardcore games, are characterized by simple rules and game play, do not require long time commitment or special skills on the part of the player. They also have comparatively low production and distribution costs on the part of the producer. This paper investigates the potential of using casual games for student assessment using an educational variation of the widely known game of Snakes and Ladders, implemented for this purpose. The game was received positively by students, as well as teachers participating in its evaluation leading to the conclusion that casual games with the ease and flexibility they offer provide interesting potential for deployment in educational settings.
Abstract
Cognitive load theory has been designed to provide guidelines intended to assist in the presentation of information in a manner that encourages learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. The theory assumes a limited capacity working memory that includes partially independent subcomponents to deal with auditory/verbal material and visual/2- or 3-dimensional information as well as an effectively unlimited long-term memory, holding schemas that vary in their degree of automation. These structures and functions of human cognitive architecture have been used to design a variety of novel instructional procedures based on the assumption that working memory load should be reduced and schema construction encouraged. This paper reviews the theory and the instructional designs generated by it.
Although research has shown that priming negative stereotypes leads to lower performance among stigmatized individuals, little is understood about the cognitive mechanism that accounts for these effects. Three experiments tested the hypothesis that stereotype threat interferes with test performance because it reduces individuals' working memory capacity. Results show that priming self-relevant negative stereotypes reduces women's (Experiment 1) and Latinos' (Experiment 2) working memory capacity. The final study revealed that a reduction in working memory capacity mediates the effect of stereotype threat on women's math performance (Experiment 3). Implications for future research on stereotype threat and working memory are discussed.
In the present manuscript we draw on the Multi-Threat Framework to explore gender-related math attitudes and how they put
girls and women at risk for stereotype threats. Gunderson et al. (2011) detail how negative stereotypes about women’s math abilities are transmitted to girls by their parents and teachers, shaping
girls’ math attitudes and ultimately undermining performance and interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM)
fields. The social psychological phenomenon of stereotype threat complements this approach and demonstrates the additional
ways in which gender-related math attitudes undermine girls’ and women’s interest and performance in STEM domains. Considering
the phenomenon of stereotype threat also identifies how stereotypes and other gender-related math attitudes can undermine
women’s and girls’ interest and performance in STEM domains even when women and girls have positive math attitudes.
This study compared the effects of worked example and problem‐solving approaches in individual or group work settings on learning to solve geometry problems. One hundred and one seventh graders from Indonesia were randomly allocated to four experimental groups using a 2 (problem‐solving vs. worked examples) × 2 (individual vs. group study) design. Performance measures on numeric and reasoning abilities using both similar and transfer tasks were collected. The results indicated a significant superiority of the worked example approach in both the individual and group work settings. Supporting data revealed that students could understand the material more easily using worked examples than when solving problems. The experiment provided evidence that the advantage of using worked examples over solving problems extends to a group work context.
Educational games may offer a viable strategy for developing students' problem-solving skills. However, the state of art of educational game research does not provide an account for that. Thus, the aim of this research is to develop an empirically allocated model about problem-based gaming that can be utilised to design pedagogically meaningful games. The proposed model was evaluated through a business simulation game. The interviews indicated that authenticity, collaboration and learning by doing were found to be the most important characteristics of effective educational games. Results also showed that the proposed model describes well the problem-based gaming process in which the reflection phase seems to be a vital factor. The outcome of the reflection phase may be personal synthesis of knowledge, validation of hypothesis laid or a new playing strategy to be tested. However, because of the small sample size of this study, more research on the topic is recommended. Especially, ways to support reflection in games needs to be studied.
Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies more heavily on example study is more effective for novices’ learning than instruction consisting of problem solving. However, ‘a heavier reliance on example study’ has been implemented in different ways. For example, worked examples only (WE), example-problem pairs (WE-PS), or problem-example pairs (PS-WE) have been used. This study investigated the effectiveness of all three strategies compared to problem solving only (PS), using electrical circuits troubleshooting tasks; participants were secondary education students who were novices concerning those tasks. Based on prior research, it was hypothesized and confirmed that WE and WE-PS would lead to lower cognitive load during learning and higher learning outcomes than PS. In addition, the open questions of whether there would be any differences between WE and WE-PS, and whether there would be any differences between PS-WE and PS were explored. Results showed no differences between WE and WE-PS or between PS-WE and PS. This study can inform instructional designers on which example-based learning strategies to implement: it does not seem necessary to alternate example study and problem solving, but when doing so, example-problem pairs should be used rather than problem-example pairs.
Cognitive load theory provides guidelines for improving the training of complex cognitive skills and their transfer to new situations. One guideline states that extraneous cognitive load that is irrelevant to the construction of cognitive schemata should be minimised. Experiment 1 (N=26) compares completion problems, conventional problems, and a learner-controlled con-dition in which learners may choose between problem formats. Completion problems decrease cognitive load during training and have a zero or positive effect on transfer performance. A second guideline states that germane cognitive load that is directly relevant to schema construc-tion should be optimised. In Experiment 2 (N=69) practice schedules of either high or low contextual interference are compared (HCI and LCI). HCI increases cognitive load during training and shows a trend towards higher transfer performance. Experiment 3 (N=87) com-bines both guidelines in a factorial experiment with the factors problem format (completion vs. conventional) and contextual interference (HCI vs. LCI). It is hypothesised that redirecting attention from extraneous to germane processes will improve training efficiency, i.e. positively affect the balance between cognitive load during training and transfer test performance. In support of this hypothesis, it is found that the completion-HCI group shows highest training efficiency. But transfer test performance for this group is disappointing. The results are dis-cussed in relation to the operationalisation of HCI in combination with completion problems. (J.J.G. van Merriënboer). 1 Marcel de Croock is now at the Open University of the Netherlands.
Intelligent tutoring systems are highly interactive learning environments that have been shown to improve upon typical classroom
instruction. Cognitive Tutors are a type of intelligent tutor based on cognitive psychology theory of problem solving and
learning. Cognitive Tutors provide a rich problem-solving environment with tutorial guidance in the form of step-by-step feedback,
specific messages in response to common errors, and on-demand instructional hints. They also select problems based on individual
student performance. The learning benefits of these forms of interactivity are supported, to varying extents, by a growing
number of results from experimental studies. As Cognitive Tutors have matured and are being applied in new subject-matter
areas, they have been used as a research platform and, particularly, to explore interactive methods to support metacognition.
We review experiments with Cognitive Tutors that have compared different forms of interactivity and we reinterpret their results
as partial answers to the general question: How should learning environments balance information or assistance giving and withholding to achieve optimal student learning? How best to achieve this balance remains a fundamental open problem in instructional
science. We call this problem the “assistance dilemma” and emphasize the need for further science to yield specific conditions
and parameters that indicate when and to what extent to use information giving versus information withholding forms of interaction.
Although problem solving is regarded by most educators as among the most important learning outcomes, few instructional design
prescriptions are available for designing problem-solving instruction and engaging learners. This paper distinguishes between
well-structured problems and ill-structured problems. Well-structured problems are constrained problems with convergent solutions
that engage the application of a limited number of rules and principles within well-defined parameters. Ill-structured problems
possess multiple solutions, solution paths, fewer parameters which are less manipulable, and contain uncertainty about which
concepts, rules, and principles are necessary for the solution or how they are organized and which solution is best. For both
types of problems, this paper presents models for how learners solve them and models for designing instruction to support
problem-solving skill development. The model for solving well-structured problems is based on information processing theories
of learning, while the model for solving ill-structured problems relies on an emerging theory of ill-structured problem solving
and on constructivist and situated cognition approaches to learning.
Recently it has been argued that the worked-example effect, as postulated by Cognitive Load Theory, might only occur when compared to unsupported problem-solving, but not when compared to well-supported or tutored problem-solving as instantiated, for example, in Cognitive Tutors. In two experiments, we compared a standard Cognitive Tutor with a version that was enriched with faded worked examples. In Experiment 1, students in the example condition needed less learning time to acquire a comparable amount of procedural skills and conceptual understanding. In Experiment 2, the efficiency advantage was replicated. In addition, students in the example condition acquired a deeper conceptual understanding. The present findings demonstrate that the worked-example effect is indeed robust and can be found even when compared to well-supported learning by problem-solving.
Worked examples are instructional devices that provide an expert's problem solution for a learner to study. Worked-examples research is a cognitive-experimental program that has relevance to classroom instruction and the broader educational research community. A frame- work for organizing the findings of this research is proposed, leading to instructional design principles. For instance, one instructional design principle suggests that effective examples have highly integrated components. They employ multiple modalities in presentation and emphasize conceptual structure by labeling or segmenting. At the lesson level, effective instruction employs multiple examples for each conceptual problem type, varies example formats within problem type, and employs surface features to signal deep structure. Also, examples should be presented in close proximity to matched practice problems. More- over, learners can be encouraged through direct training or by the structure of the worked example to actively self:explain examples. Worked examples are associated with early stages of skill development, but the design principles are relevant to constructivist research and teaching.
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