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Strategic Planning for Smart City Development: Assessing Spatial Inequalities in the Basic Service Provision of Metropolitan Cities
Abstract
Spatial inequality in basic service provision is a key challenge for smart city development strategies. With a focus on walkable accessibility, this paper proposes a new methodological approach to analyzing such spatial inequalities in metropolitan cities. In addition to proving the effectiveness of the proposed methodology by using New York City as an empirical case, the insights offered by the analysis contribute to an improvement in the current understanding of the negative implications that spatial inequalities can have on public health. Policies concerning local public service rearrangement should consider spatial inequalities to promote more effective forms of public participation both in the United States and globally.
... Nevertheless, an analysis of the literature on the subject by Bhosale et al. [7] indicates that the scope of research on S.C. goes beyond the technological aspect itself, especially concerning Europe. The subject matter of these scientific works considers a more holistic interpretation of smart cities, emphasizing that their development depends on the balance between human, economic, social, cultural, environmental, and technological factors [22,44,[61][62][63][64][78][79][80][81][82][83]. Smart cities are gradually becoming our reality. ...
... Nevertheless, an analysis of the literature on the subject by Bhosale et al. [7] indicates that the scope of research on S.C. goes beyond the technological aspect itself, especially concerning Europe. The subject matter of these scientific works considers a more holistic interpretation of smart cities, emphasizing that their development depends on the balance between human, economic, social, cultural, environmental, and technological factors [22,44,[61][62][63][64][78][79][80][81][82][83]. ...
... Moreover, it is argued that the goal of smart cities is to achieve good quality of life of the people and sustainability of their neighborhoods. This is the ultimate goal of urban utilities in long run [22,44,[78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86]. ...
This study aimed to explore the case study of Brno city regarding smart city models. We analyzed Brno considering smart and sustainable city elements, i.e., smart mobility/public transport, smart technology, smart people, smart governance, smart economy, smart living, and smart environment based on transport, energy, and environment referred herein as the smart city and sustainability model. Therefore, we investigated a case study of Brno city in the Czech Republic. We used qualitative techniques such as case study, exploration, observation, and description. We analyzed and comprehended the trends in the various features of smart city and sustainable development of the city of Brno. The findings showed that Brno city is doing its best to maintain smart city models through its governance organs and structures. The city is also working hard to improve some of the aspects that are still lagging. The ongoing developments and the future ones are based on strategic planning for both the short term and long term such as Brno2023, Brno2030, and Brno2050. It was found that Brno has a very well-planned transport system and is integrated with other aspects such as technology, energy, such as the electricity that moves the trolleybuses and trams, and environment. We strongly conclude that even though Brno city still struggles to achieve total sustainability, it is still a model and reflection of a smart and sustainable city. Finally, we noted that Brno city has very good plans and vision the “DNA” of a smart city. However, the implementation still suffers political willingness.
... China's seventh national census indicated that by 2020, 264 million individuals aged over 60 would comprise 18.7% of the total population [3]. China's aging is distinguished by its vast scale, rapid emergence, and The distributional characteristics of spatial accessibility can effectively characterize the distribution of the spatial resources of care facilities [15]. The concept of accessibility, originating from the field of transportation, evaluates individuals' potential opportunities to reach other areas through the transportation system [23]. ...
... The adoption of GIS technology has allowed for smaller study scales, such as living circles or 1 km x 1 km grids, offering a more accurate depiction of the spatial inequality of urban care facilities [36,44]. With The distributional characteristics of spatial accessibility can effectively characterize the distribution of the spatial resources of care facilities [15]. The concept of accessibility, originating from the field of transportation, evaluates individuals' potential opportunities to reach other areas through the transportation system [23]. ...
Care facilities are the mainstay of social services for the elderly. As the trend of empty nesting among elderly families intensifies due to the aging population, it is becoming difficult for families to take on the responsibility of caring for the elderly on their own, and the elderly need more formal care to be provided by society. The contradiction between the lag in the construction of care facilities and the growth in the social demand for elderly care has been highlighted, and the spatial equality of care facilities is an important means of achieving an optimal allocation of resources for elderly care. In this paper, we use the two-step floating catchment method to measure the spatial accessibility of care facilities from a fine-grained perspective, using big data, including mobile phone signaling data and points of interest. Then, we use the Gini coefficient to analyze the equality of the spatial allocations of different types of urban care facilities. The results of the study show that, first, the spatial equality of care facilities is good in terms of the Gini coefficient, but the overall spatial accessibility of care facilities is at a relatively low level compared to that in developed cities. This means that the layout of Changchun’s care facilities is good, but there is insufficient service capacity. Second, the spatial accessibility of residential care facilities is characterized by a gradual decline, with high levels in the core and low levels in the periphery. Fewer facilities are located in the peripheral areas of the city, and spatial accessibility is at a lower level, a characteristic different from that seen in cities with a higher level of economic development, such as Beijing. Third, the spatial accessibility of community care facilities showed a polycentric, contiguous distribution. The effect of the study scale on the spatial accessibility of community care facilities was more pronounced, with large scales obscuring the high values of the spatial accessibility of community care facilities in peripheral areas. Fourth, Changchun has better overall equality of care facilities, with differences in the different types and areas of care provided. The spatial balance of care facilities in the core area is better than that observed in other regions. In conclusion, this paper underscores the value of big data, such as mobile phone signaling data, in supporting refined urban research. Furthermore, our comprehensive analysis of social care facility equality can inform policy making and spatial planning.
... Therefore, the strategy taken by local governments does not always have to be oriented towards economic growth alone. Instead, it needs to receive serious attention, namely how to create equitable development for all communities (Dama et al., 2021;Du et al., 2021;Perry et al., 2021;Wahyuni et al., 2020;Winston, 2022). ...
This study is a quantitative study that examines the influence of Regional Original Revenue (PAD), General Allocation Fund (DAU), and Tax Revenue Sharing on economic growth in East Nusa Tenggara province during the period 2008-2017. Secondary data from the Indonesian Bureau of Statistics (BPS) East nusa tenggara Province were used, with independent variables including PAD, DAU, and Tax revenue Sharing, and the dependent variable was economic growth. The analysis method used is multiple linear regression with the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) technique to determine the relationship between these variables. The results of this study are expected to provide an overview of how much PAD and DAU contribute to economic growth during the research period.
... Besides, multiple factors such as resources, economic conditions, financing facilities, infrastructure development policies, population growth rate, etc., can be considered while developing the road infrastructure in a country (Horvat et al. 2021;Koval et al. 2021;Liu et al. 2021). Additionally, strategic planning at the central government level is important for developing the overall transportation system to enhance the living standards of a community linked with economic development (Du et al. 2021;Mansoor & Paul, 2022). ...
Road infrastructure development in a country has been considered an important predictor of economic development and prosperity. Hence applying a systematic analysis approach, this study aims to project the future role of the central government in developing road infrastructure and its significance in the country's economic growth. The main data sources were the literature review and expert opinions in the form of self-administrative surveys and interviews. Besides, the Cross-impact Direct Influence (CDI) matrix was applied to formulate the questionnaire. For the data analysis purpose, MICMAC analysis and Scenario Wizard software were used. The MICMAC analysis results revealed the dominant role of 9 important/key variables in developing the Indonesian road infrastructure. Simultaneously 24 positive states of the important variables what identified via the Scenario-Wizard Method. Findings also depicted stronger consistency among the four scenarios. Whereas Scenario 1 showed the most ideal 9 key features related to Indonesia’s road infrastructure developments with a high intensity of concentrating the efforts on planning road infrastructure development in big cities and use of smart and modern technology. Moreover, presenting a group of constructs for developing road infrastructure and resultant economic growth in the country, the current study adds value to the existing literature.
... The city's economy is emphasised. (Nori and et al., 2020., Du et al., 2020). Experts de ne urban strategy as the process of developing executive plans based on the city's long-term vision in order to achieve balanced growth, sustainability, and improved quality of life in cities (Wang, 2020 A city development strategy is a process that is developed with the goal of comprehensive city development based on societal realities (existing strengths and weaknesses) and attracting the attention of individuals (Abd Elrahman and Asaad, 2021; . ...
Border cities face numerous development challenges, including geographical, cultural, economic, and national and regional policies. Javanrood city, located in the northwest of Kermanshah province, is one of the border cities with significant natural and human capacities and potentials to connect and shape Iran's western network with neighbouring countries. To accomplish this, an attempt has been made in this article to study the effective areas in promoting the development of the border city of Javanrood. The study of the feasibility of the scenarios, on the other hand, revealed that the assumption of "increasing the level of economic interaction" is the most effective assumption and has the greatest effect on compatibility in the scenarios, and that the assumption of "complete consideration and improvement of ways," despite being the most effective, has the least effect on compatibility in the scenarios. "The level and extent of communication channels along borders, as well as the connection of borders with interior spaces," is the key factor assumption. Therefore, the natural and human potential of Javanrood's border city is such that, if the strategy of promoting economic interactions with Iraq and the Iraqi Kurdistan region is adopted, this city can become a node city in the west of the country, develop to a large extent, and become an engine of development for other cities around it. The results show that 13 key factors are effective in promoting Javanrood development, and for these 13 factors, 51 possible and different situations were drawn, ranging from favourable to unfavourable conditions.
... Overall, smart cities have been promoted as a way to improve urban livability, becoming almost common sense that smarter cities are naturally better [239]. However, since cities still have different social-economic organizations, many people may not have fair access to the cities resources, smart or not [240]. Actually, some of the initially developed services in the smart cities trend were focused on efficient public lightning and traffic efficiency, which have been mostly implemented in richer areas of the cities that already had better urban infrastructure [241]. ...
The rapid urbanization process in the last century has deeply changed the way we live and interact with each other. As most people now live in urban areas, cities are experiencing growing demands for more efficient and sustainable public services that may improve the perceived quality of life, specially with the anticipated impacts of climatic changes. In this already complex scenario with increasingly overcrowded urban areas, different types of emergency situations may happen anywhere and anytime, with unpredictable costs in human lives and economic losses. In order to cope with unexpected and potentially dangerous emergencies, smart cities initiatives have been developed in different cities, addressing multiple aspects of emergencies detection, alerting, and mitigation. In this context, this article surveys recent smart city solutions for crisis management, proposing definitions for emergencies-oriented systems and classifying them according to the employed technologies and provided services. Additionally, recent developments in the domains of Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence and Big Data are also highlighted when associated to the management of urban emergencies, potentially paving the way for new developments while classifying and organizing them according to different criteria. Finally, open research challenges will be identified, indicating promising trends and research directions for the coming years.
... Several factors were measured including walking distance to stations and bus transit systems around stations, identifying that pedestrian access and opportunities to transfer improve access for elderly. Du et al. (2021) have assessed pedestrian access to urban services such as grocery stores, transportation stations, or green spaces in New York City and relationships with social groups. The study observed the spatial inequity of urban services in the city and some groups has low access to those services such as the elderly and the city's poor. ...
With the spread of an aging society, the mobility constrained seniors' need for public transportation is increasing. This paper investigates accessibility to welfare facilities for elderly people, that is, whether elderly people can easily access the welfare facilities that they frequently visit. We consider welfare facilities including residential welfare institutions, medical and welfare institutions, leisure and welfare institutions, and commuting-system welfare facilities. We verify spatial distribution of welfare facilities and relationship to the unequal development of urban or public transportation networks. Inequality of accessibility was found between the urban and suburban areas of the study area. This paper identified the spatial inequity of facilities for elderly people by measuring spatial accessibility considering public transportation accessibility and walking time to the facilities. This paper suggested that improving public transportation accessibility would increase the spatial equity of welfare services for elderly people.
... Another area that is seen to influence the need for urban sustainability is the economic dimension, which is also observed to be considered as a valuable aspect in most of the frameworks included in Figure 3. From the literature (Mengbing et al., 2020;Pereira et al., 2018), there is evidence that most urban areas have experienced unprecedented levels of inequalities, especially on the economic front, where the smartness of cities is perceived as a potent solution. ...
As interest in smart city initiatives continues to grow rapidly, various involved actors and stakeholders increasingly rely on assessment frameworks or indicator sets for different purposes such as monitoring and benchmarking performance, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and determining priority intervention areas. Accordingly, many smart city assessment frameworks and/ or indicator sets have been developed in the last decade. To guide actors and stakeholders in their selection of the most suitable frameworks, several studies have examined contents and structure of smart city assessment frameworks or indicator sets. Such studies have significantly improved our understanding of the thematic focus of assessment tools and their methodological approaches. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on the taxonomy of smart city indicators. In addition, since other concepts such as sustainability and resilience are increasingly recognized to be connected to the smart city concept, more clarity on how different assessment frameworks or indicator sets are aligned with sustainability and resilience dimensions and characteristics is needed. To fill these gaps, we developed a taxonomy and examined 33 assessment frameworks or indicator sets in terms of indicator type, sectoral linkages, and alignment with sustainability and resilience dimensions and characteristics. In terms of indicator type, results show that output indicators are dominant but limited attention has been paid to impact indicators. In terms of sectoral focus, existing indicators are mainly related to information and communication technologies, economy, and governance. Regarding resilience abilities, indicators are mainly related to planning abilities and limited attention has been paid to recovery and adaptation. As for resilience characteristics, reasonable levels of alignment with resourcefulness and efficiency were observed, but indicators are not well-aligned with other important characteristics such as redundancy and diversity. Finally, in terms of sustainability, limited alignment with the environmental dimension was found, which raises concerns regarding the suitability of smart city indicators for guiding environmental sustainability and informing efforts aimed at addressing climate change issues. Results of this study can support interested stakeholders in their efforts to select the most suitable assessment frameworks or indicator sets for promoting resilient, smart, and sustainable communities.
... As such, we recognize that despite the "enduring influence of techno-politics," there is both a need and an opportunity to develop "alternative pathways of urban development that can selectively involve new technologies" (Karvonen, 2020, p. 421). We argue that finding ways to constructively combine different types of knowledge can help achieve this aim, redirecting smartification processes toward creating more sustainable and equitable urban futures (Nochta et al., 2019d;Du et al., 2021;Mora et al., 2021). ...
This paper highlights the need and opportunities for constructively combining different types of (analogue and data-driven) knowledges in evidence-informed policy decision-making in future smart cities. Problematizing the assumed universality and objectivity of data-driven knowledge, we call attention to notions of “positionality” and “situatedness” in knowledge production relating to the urban present and possible futures. In order to illustrate our arguments, we draw on a case study of strategic urban (spatial) planning in the Cambridge city region in the United Kingdom. Tracing diverse knowledge production processes, including top-down data-driven knowledges derived from urban modeling, and bottom-up analogue community-based knowledges, allows us to identify locationally specific knowledge politics around evidence for policy. The findings highlight how evidence-informed urban policy can benefit from political processes of competition, contestation, negotiation, and complementarity that arise from interactions between diverse “digital” and “analogue” knowledges. We argue that studying such processes can help in assembling a more multifaceted, diverse and inclusive knowledge-base on which to base policy decisions, as well as to raise awareness and improve active participation in the ongoing “smartification” of cities.
... Consequently, there is now an emerging literature on public service contracting in China, for example, including analyses of contractual processes and models (Chang and Chen, 2016), critiques of its impact upon societal equity (Wang et al., 2018), and evaluation of its effect upon public service innovation (Lin, 2016). There is emergent evidence that strategic planning and management are now also being adapted to a Chinese context-for example in the context of the implementation of co-production as a service delivery mechanism (Huang and Yu, 2019), education management (Hu et al., 2018), local government management (Du et al., 2020), and urban planning (Xu et al., 2017;Guan et al., 2018). This makes the argument of this paper highly relevant for public management in China and Asia. ...
This paper argues that the application of strategic planning and management to public services has been hampered by the failure to link these to strategic orientation. This paper suggests that this is essential to the development of resilient and sustainable public services for the future and that this orientation needs to privilege creating value in the lives of public service users rather than internal organisational efficiency in isolation from such value.
Accessibility is closely related to residents’ well-being and quality of life and is a potential indicator of social equity. This study aims to present a methodology for assessing the combined equity of living service amenities (LSAs) based on accessibility. This study focuses on fourteen types of LSAs in six dimensions and improves the three-step floating catchment area (3SFCA) model by considering the behavioral demand characteristics of different age groups. Taking the main built-up area of Xi’an as an example, the modified 3SFCA model is applied to assess the accessibility of LSAs, and the supply–demand index is used to measure the supply and demand level of the horizontal dimension. Furthermore, random forest regression was used to screen the key socioeconomic indicators affecting the accessibility of LSAs, and then the binary spatial correlation local index was used to reveal the spatial distribution characteristics between LSA accessibility and key socioeconomic indicators in the vertical dimension. Finally, the comprehensive equity of LSAs is evaluated by space superposition. The results showed that there was a serious imbalance between the supply and demand of LSAs in Xi’an’s main built-up area, with polarized oversupply and weak supply areas, especially for accessibility to low-grade LSAs. Accessibility is relatively low for children and young and middle-aged groups, and intergenerational inequalities were particularly pronounced among them. The lower-income group was generally at a disadvantage in accessing the high-demand amenities, and those who resided in affordable housing in the periphery of the city were more likely to face social exclusion. This study emphasizes the importance of distributing urban resources equitably among different social groups, which can help decision makers achieve a balance between horizontal equity and vertical equity in the allocation of urban LSAs and promote spatial equity and sustainable social development.
Information and technology science, artificial intelligence, and other cutting-edge technologies coupled with social aspects, constitute the primary components and identity of a smart city in the modern world. It is crucial to recognize that the concept of "smart," beyond the urban scale, should extend to a regional scale to evaluate connections and functions among cities and metropoles. Demographic challenges, economic recessions, environmental pollution, and other issues have contributed to a regional crisis in the “Tehran-Karaj Metropolitan Region (MR)”. The research advocates for the “Smart Region (SR)” approach as an effective strategy to address large-scale challenges and foster regional development Given the novelty of the smart region approach, this research contributes to its advancement by identifying key smart region indicators. By employing both prescriptive and analytical methods, the study establishes a foundation for assessing the smartness of future smart regions. This study integrated the theoretical basis, Delphi method, and analytic hierarchy process (Delphi-AHP) to specify the main indicators of the smart region from experts’ judgments. Therefore, this research has taken a step forward compared to all previous smart region studies. Data collection involved a comprehensive approach, including the conduct of 13,874 online questionnaires, 10 expert interviews, and a thorough examination of authentic documents and official records. The smartness level of the Tehran-Alborz metropolitan region divided into 36 municipal districts (sub-regions) is finally achieved by an innovative method called the Weighted Hierarchy Scoring Method (WHSM). As a result, the northern and central districts of Tehran (respectively 2-11-1-12) are significantly smarter than other regions in the study area. This gap can be due to the regional disparity and accumulation of main infrastructures. In conclusion, compared with other SRs in the world, the Tehran-Karaj MR is on the path towards smartening.
The use of ICT to optimize urban processes, activities, efficiency and effectiveness of services turns cities into smart. Smart cities make it necessary to plan, monitor and analyze the city, except for the routine functions of the city. The study examined what smart city research projects are in five representative smart cities (London, New York, Singapore, Barcelona, and Istanbul) and whether there are similarities or differences in background assumptions. The literature used has a global reach; cities around the world have been chosen for comparison. By evaluating the existing literature, it has been evaluated that smart cities are the most successful and the weakest issues. Despite the centrality of New York and London's smart city policies ; they are fairly superior in economic competition. Public participation in smart city projects is already weak in Singapore and Istanbul. Barcelona has a more participatory policy than other cities, but it needs to develop a smart governance perspective. The study concludes with how the smart city ideology achieves its goals. The study adds value to smart city research by a critical look at the subject. Combining the results of practical smart city initiatives, it concludes the practicality and usefulness of smart city development.
Facing the socio-economic challenges in urbanization, worldwide governments and industries embrace the smart city concept and establish transformation projects that demonstrate tremendous growth. These projects combine information and communication technologies to engage and integrate citizens, visitors, and business communities into an intelligent ecosystem to support better decision-making and co-creating solutions for urban issues. This engagement positively shifted essential city operations toward sustainable, effective, and efficient functions. This chapter strives to shed light on the drivers behind the concept and sets the scene for the smart city by providing its definition, separating building blocks, and highlighting contemporary technological advances.
To characterize a community-scale urban functional area using geo-tagged data and available land-use information, several supervised and semi-supervised models are presented and evaluated in Hong Kong for comparing their uncertainty, robustness and sensitivity. The following results are noted: (i) As the training set size grows, models’ accuracies are improved, particularly for multi-layer perceptron (MLP) or random forest (RF). The graph convolutional network (GCN) (MLP or RF) model reveals top accuracy when the proportion of training samples is less (greater) than 10% of the total number of functional areas; (ii) With a large amount of training samples, MLP shows the highest prediction accuracy and good performances in cross-validation, but less stability on same training sets; (iii) With a small amount of training samples, GCN provides viable results, by incorporating the auxiliary information provided by the proposed semantic linkages, which is meaningful in real-world predictions; (iv) When the training samples are less than 10%, one should be cautious using MLP to test the optimal epoch for obtaining the best accuracy, due to its model overfitting problem. The above insights could support efficient and scalable urban functional area mapping, even with insufficient land-use information (e.g., covering only ~20% of Beijing in the case study).
Strategic plans are administrative tools that help implement policies in an effective fashion in educational organizations. Through these, elements of threatening sort can be eliminated, making a maximum use of educational advantages becomes possible. Strategic plans constitute a map particularly for disadvantaged cities. As a country with plentiful disadvantages, Turkiye has been benefiting from strategic plans in the field of education for a long time. Howbeit, the limited nature of the studies examining opportunities, and threats in educational strategic plans in the literature is striking. Thereupon, in the present research, an outlook was adopted at the intersection of these components. Document analysis, one of the qualitative research designs, was employed in the research. Educational strategic plans of disadvantaged cities in Turkiye are examined using MAXQDA 2020. Results show a fair number of strategic plans contain similar statements, which is considered a hindrance to authenticity. Moreover, factors regarding principal hiring-development process, stakeholder support, attitudes of families-parents, and socio-cultural activities come to the fore as a threat for education in the disadvantaged cities. However, the importance attached to the professional development of teachers, utilizing an equity-based approach, and educational investments are amongst the remarkable opportunities for those cities. The research contains several implications about the strategic plans as well.
The article presents findings from the multidimensional comparative study focusing on the implementation of the Smart City concept in selected cities of the Visegrad Group (V4). V4 has been established by its member states (Poland, Slovakia, Czech Republic and Hungary) in a joint effort to break from the communist past and develop the common democratic values of the European Community. Aforementioned efforts involved meeting other important goals, such as socio-economic convergence processes including reaching better living conditions for V4 citizens. At present, strategies that aim to improve the wellbeing of citizens are manifested by Smart City concepts and are being implemented in V4 cities. The main research task in this article is to answer the question regarding regional (state) divergence in Smart City implementation in selected cities. The results of the study show that the best Smart City implementation scores are shared by Czech Republic towns. Polish cities (Kielce, Rzeszów, Lublin) located in the eastern regions of the country (which are also eastern border regions of the European Union) have the worst Smart City implementation scores, according to the value of the synthetic measure.
Based on point of interest (POI) data from 2010 to 2020, this paper uses kernel density method and natural point discontinuity method to identify urban fringe areas and analyzes the internal structure and spatial expansion characteristics of new urban fringe areas in two stages from the aspects of expansion quantity, expansion intensity, and expansion direction. By analyzing the spatial characteristics and influencing factors of the expansion degree of Wuhan urban fringe from 2010 to 2020, there are spatial differences in the degree of urban expansion. From 2010 to 2015, Wuhan’s urban growth was dominated by marginal expansion, while the main urban area, suburban new urban area, and other peripheral areas were dominated by infill expansion, marginal expansion, and leaping expansion, respectively, and the expansion degree increased in turn. On the contrary, from 2015 to 2020, the growth of Wuhan is mainly internal filling, and the speed of marginal expansion is relatively slow. In general, the southern part of Wuhan Central urban area was expand the most from 2010 to 2020, and the city center will move southward, indicating that the southern part is the focus of urban expansion in the study period. With the development of the southeast New Town Group and the southern New Town Group, this situation may continue.
Untangling Smart Cities: From Utopian Dreams to Innovation Systems for a Technology-Enabled Urban Sustainability helps all key stakeholders understand the complex and often conflicting nature of smart city research, offering valuable insights for designing and implementing strategies to improve the smart city decision-making processes. The book drives the reader to a better theoretical and practical comprehension of smart city development, beginning with a thorough and systematic analysis of the research literature published to date. It addition, it provides an in-depth understanding of the entire smart city knowledge domain, revealing a deeply rooted division in its cognitive-epistemological structure as identified by bibliometric insights. Users will find a book that fills the knowledge gap between theory and practice using case study research and empirical evidence drawn from cities considered leaders in innovative smart city practices. Key features: Provides clarity on smart city concepts and strategies; Presents a systematic literature analysis on the state-of-the-art of smart cities' research using bibliometrics combined with practical applications; Offers a comprehensive and systematic analysis of smart cities research produced during its first three decades; Generates a strong connection between theory and practice by providing the scientific knowledge necessary to approach the complex nature of smart cities; Documents five main development pathways for smart cities development, serving the needs of city managers and policymakers with concrete advice and guidance.
This research assesses the relationships of five dimensions of racial segregation with the likelihood of being subject to frisk, search, police force, and arrest in New York City. Specifically, we attempt to answer the following research questions: (1) Does segregation affect post-stop policing outcomes for blacks and Hispanics? (2) If the answer to the first question is positive, which dimension of segregation matters? (3) Is the relationship between segregation and policing outcomes moderated by neighborhoods' racial/ethnic composition? Using the stop-and-frisk data published by the New York Police Department and census tract level socio-demographic data from various sources, we conducted negative binomial regressions to explore research questions. Results suggest that the association of segregation with policing outcomes is not uniform and it differs by segregation dimension, race of suspects, and the particular outcome studied. Generally, segregation increases the odds of the studied policing outcomes, making blacks and Hispanics more vulnerable during police contacts. Additionally, mixed moderation effects were found. This paper strongly indicates that segregation should be seriously considered in policing studies and each dimension is worthy of being examined individually.
Overcoming the dichotomous nature of smart city research is fundamental to provide cities with a clear understanding of how smart city development should be approached. This paper introduces a research methodology for conducting the multiple-case study analyses neces-sary to meet this challenge. After being presented, the practical feasibility, effectiveness and logistics of such a methodology are tested by examining the activities that Vienna has imple-mented to deliver its smart city development strategy. The results of this pilot study show how the application of the proposed methodology can help smart city researchers codify the knowledge produced from multiple smart city experiences using a common protocol. This in turn allows them to: (1) coordinate efforts when investigating the strategic principles that drive smart city development and test the divergent hypotheses emerging from the scientific litera-ture; (2) share the results of this investigation and hypothesis testing by conducting exten-sive cross-case analyses among multiple studies able to capture the generic qualities of the findings; (3) gain consensus on the way to think about, conceptualize and standardize the analysis of smart city developments; and (4) develop innovative monitoring and evaluation systems for smart city development strategies by reflecting upon the lessons learned from current practices.
This study evaluated geographic accessibility and utilized assessment indices to investigate disparities in elderly community care resource distribution. The data were derived from Taiwanese governmental data in 2017, including 3,148,283 elderly individuals (age 65+), 7681 villages, and 1941 community care centers. To identify disparities in geographic accessibility, we compared the efficacy of six measurements and proposed a composite index to identify levels of resource inequality from the Gini coefficient and “median-mean” skewness. Low village-level correlation (0.038) indicated inconsistencies between the demand populations and community care center distribution. Method M6 (calculated accessibility of nearest distance-decay accounting for population of villages, supplier loading, and elderly walkability) was identified as the most comprehensive disparity measurement. Community care policy assessment requires a comprehensive and weighted calculation process, including the elderly walkability distance-decay factor, demand population, and supplier loading. Three steps were suggested for elderly policy planning and improvement in future.
More than 20 years have now passed since the concept of smart city first appeared in a scholarly publication, marking the beginning of a new era in urban innovation. Since then, the literature discussing this new concept and the ICT-oriented urban-innovation approach it stands for has been growing steadily, along with the number of initiatives that cities all over the world have launched to pursue their ambition of becoming smart. However, current research still falls short of providing a clear understanding of smart cities and the scientific knowledge policy makers and practitioners both need to deal with their progressive development. In response to this shortfall, this paper offers a bibliometric study of the first two decades of smart-city research, whereby citation link-based clustering and text-based analysis are combined to: (1) build and visualize the network of scholarly publications shaping the intellectual structure of the smart city research field; (2) identify the clusters of thematically related publications; and (3) reveal the emerging development paths of smart cities that these clusters support and the strategic principles they embody. This study uncovers five main development paths: the Experimental Path; the Ubiquitous Path; the Corporate Path; the European Path; and the Holistic Path. Overall, this analysis offers a comprehensive and systematic view of how a smart city can be understood theoretically and as a scientific object of knowledge able to inform policy-making processes.
This paper analyses the ‘big picture’ of the smart city research field by means of a bibliometric analysis of the literature on smart cities produced between 1992 and 2012. The findings show that this new field of scientific inquiry has started to grow significantly only in recent years, mainly thanks to European universities and US companies. Its intellectual structure is complex and lacks cohesion due to the infinite possible combinations among the building blocks and components characterizing the smart city concept. However, despite this complexity, the bibliometric analysis made it possible to identify three structural axes that traverse the literature, capture the main research perspectives, and reveal some key aspects of this new city planning and development paradigm
Purpose – Previous research has extensively examined “food deserts,” where access to healthy food is
limited. However, little is known of the buying behavior at the individual household level in terms of buying
habits and consumption in these areas. The purpose of this paper is to determine to what extent other factors
than access can account for the purchase of healthy food products, namely, fruits and vegetables.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper proposes to partially fill this gap through a qualitative
(n ¼ 55) and quantitative (n ¼ 512) study of those people who are in charge of their household purchases in
two food deserts in the city of Montreal.
Findings – Results show that geographical access to supermarkets is not the main factor fostering the
purchase of healthy foods (fruits and vegetables). Indeed, food education (e.g. information, simple recipes,
cooking classes), associated with a changing mediation process through product diversification
(e.g. availability of local products in bulk) and supply (e.g. farmers) seems to be more significant.
Research limitations/implications – Future studies could compare the results obtained through this
study in different socio-demographic contexts. Longitudinal analyses could also increase the understanding
of the social and commercial challenges.
Originality/value – In contrast to previous studies, the results show that geographical access to
supermarkets is not the main factor fostering the purchase of fruits and vegetables. Indeed, food education
(e.g. information, simple recipes, cooking classes), associated with a changing mediation process through
product diversification (e.g. products in bulk) and supply (e.g. farmers) seem to be more significant.
Significance
Most nations worldwide have recently committed to solving their most severe challenges of sustainability by 2030, including eradicating extreme poverty and providing universal access to basic services. But how? Rapid urbanization is creating the conditions for widespread economic growth and human development, but its consequences are very uneven. We show how measures of sustainable development—identified by residents of poor neighborhoods—can be combined into a simple and intuitive index. Its analysis reveals that challenges of development are typically first addressed in large cities but that severe inequalities often result as patterns of spatially segregated rich and poor neighborhoods. A new systematic understanding of these processes is critical for devising policies that produce faster and more equitable universal sustainable development.
This paper reports on the first two decades of research on smart cities by conducting a bibliometric analysis of the literature published between 1992 and 2012. The analysis shows that smart-city research is fragmented and lacks cohesion, and its growth follows two main development paths. The first one is based on the peer-reviewed publications produced by European universities, which support a holistic perspective on smart cities. The second path, instead, stands on the gray literature produced by the American business community and relates to a techno-centric understanding of the subject. Divided along such paths, the future development of this new and promising field of research risks being undermined. For while the bibliometric analysis indicates that smart cities are emerging as a fast-growing topic of scientific enquiry, much of the knowledge that is generated about them is singularly technological in nature. In that sense, lacking the social intelligence, cultural artifacts, and environmental attributes, which are needed for the ICT-related urban innovation that such research champions.
Introduction
Inaccessibility due to terrain and lack of transport leaves mothers travelling for long hours before reaching a facility to deliver a child. In the present article we analyzed the issue of spatial inaccessibility and inequity of maternal health services in the Indian Sundarbans where complex topography and repeated climatic adversities make access to health services very difficult.
Methods
We based the article on the health-GIS study conducted in the Patharpratima Block of the Sundarbans in the year 2012. The region has 87 villages that are inhabited, of which 54 villages are in the deltaic (river locked) region and 33 villages are located in the non-deltaic region of the block. We mapped all public and private maternal health facilities and road and water transport network. For measuring inaccessibility, we use the enhanced two-step floating catchment area method (E2SFCA). For assessing inequity in spatial access, we developed an area-based socioeconomic score and constructed a concentration curve to depict inequity. We used ARC GIS 10.3.1 and Stata 11 software for our analysis.
Results
The maternal health facilities are primarily located in the non-deltaic region of the block. On an average it takes 33.81 min to reach the closest maternal health facility. Fifty-two villages out of eighty seven villages have access scores less than the score calculated using Indian Primary Health Standards. Ten villages cannot access any maternal health facility; twenty-six villages have access scores of less than one doctor for 1000 pregnant women; fifty-six villages have access scores less than the block average of 3.54. The access scores are lower among villages in the deltaic region compared to the non-deltaic region. The concentration curve is below the line of equality showing that access scores were lower among villages that were socio-economically disadvantaged.
Conclusions
Maternal health facilities are not equitably accessible to the populations that are disadvantaged and living in the remote pockets of the study region. Provision of a referral transport system along with a resilient infrastructure of roads is critical to improve access in these islands.
Policy directives in several nations are focusing on the development of smart cities, linking innovations in the data sciences with the goal of advancing human well-being and sustainability on a highly urbanized planet. To achieve this goal, smart initiatives must move beyond city-level data to a higher-order understanding of cities as transboundary, multisectoral, multiscalar, social-ecological-infrastructural systems with diverse actors, priorities, and solutions. We identify five key dimensions of cities and present eight principles to focus attention on the systems-level decisions that society faces to transition toward a smart, sustainable, and healthy urban future.
Public transport plays a critical role in the sustainability of urban settings. The mass mobility and quality of urban lives can be improved by establishing public transport networks that are accessible to pedestrians within a reasonable walking distance. Accessibility to public transport is characterized by the ease with which inhabitants can reach means of transportation such as buses or metros. By measuring the degree of accessibility to public transport networks using a common data format, a comparative study can be conducted between different cities or metropolitan areas with different public transit systems. The General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) by Google Developers allows this by offering a common format based on text files and sharing the data set voluntarily produced and contributed by the public transit agencies of many participating cities around the world. This paper suggests a method to assess and compare public transit accessibility in different urban areas using the GTFS feed and demographic data. To demonstrate the value of the new method, six examples of metropolitan areas and their public transit accessibility are presented and compared.
Demographic ageing is a key societal challenge in Europe as well as in many other western and non-western societies. A crucial dimension concerns elderly daily mobility patterns. While still partaking fewer and shorter trips than younger generations, today’s elderly have been found increasingly (auto)mobile. Although the elderly benefit from the independence, freedom of movement, and social inclusion, concerns may rise regarding the environmental and accessibility impacts of this induced mobility. The present study adds to the expanding literature on elderly mobility, an integrated analysis of the effects of socio-demographic, health, trip, spatial and weather attributes on elderly mobility. Utilizing travel diary data for Greater Rotterdam, The Netherlands, trip frequencies and transport mode choices of the elderly are analysed by means of zero-inflated negative binomial models as well as multinomial logit regression models, and contrasted to the non-elderly subpopulation to explore (dis)similarities. While the results show common determinants, the models also highlight important differences in the magnitude of the estimated coefficients and factors only influencing transport patterns for the elderly. Embedded in the context of an aging population, the empirical findings assist policy-makers and planners in several respects: For transportation plans and programs it is critical to recognize mobility needs of the elderly. As the seniors are becoming increasingly automobile, the results call for strategies to encourage older people to use more physically active and environmentally friendly transport modes such as public transport, walking and cycling.
Urban green spaces provide an array of benefits, or ecosystem services, that support our physical, psychological, and social health. In many cases, however, these benefits are not equitably distributed across diverse urban populations. In this paper, we explore relationships between cultural ecosystem services provided by urban green space and the social determinants of health outlined in the United States Healthy People 2020 initiative. Specifically, we: (1) explore connections between cultural ecosystem services and social determinants of health; (2) examine cultural ecosystem services as nature-based health amenities to promote social equity; and (3) recommend areas for future research examining links between urban green space and public health within the context of environmental justice.
Urban parks are community assets, providing people places to play and rest. Access to parks in urban environments promotes social equity and improves quality of life for surrounding neighborhoods. In this context, social equity is related to accessibility, i.e. the possibility of walking or biking from home to a public park, giving people who do not have access to a variety of entertainment an option that is a public good. This paper examines the spatial distribution of urban parks in the city of Curitiba, Brazil, and how it relates to the socio-economic conditions of surrounding neighborhoods. Curitiba is known for its urban parks; however, no systematic study has been conducted to verify which neighborhoods enjoy park access within walking distance and what the socio-economic differences are between the better and worse served neighborhoods. In addition, we investigate if access to green open space has improved between the last two decennial census, a period marked by unprecedented socio-economic affluence in Brazil. Research questions, to be addressed using spatial analysis, focus on equitable distribution, and spatial evolution of parks and social equity. Variables include measurable walking distances from census tracts to parks, income data from the 2000 and 2010 Brazilian decennial censuses, and qualitative data of urban parks in Curitiba. Findings offer recommendations for future implementation of additional parks in Curitiba so that all areas of the city have adequate green open space and all citizens have equal access to recreation and leisure opportunities.
Background
The residential care system is rapidly developing and plays an increasingly important role in care for the elderly in Beijing. A noticeable disparity in the accessibility to existing residential care facilities, however, is demonstrated in existing studies. The spatial optimization of residential care facility (RCF) locations is urgently needed to promote equal access to residential care resources among the elderly population.
Methods
A two-step floating catchment area method with an additional distance-decay function is adopted to measure accessibility to residential care facilities. The spatial optimization model is developed to maximize equity in accessibility by minimizing the total square difference between the accessibility score of each demand location and the weighted average accessibility score. The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) method is implemented for the solution.
Results
The optimized RCF layouts improve equal spatial access to residential care resources with very low accessibility standard variation (0.0066). A relatively large number of beds (51% of the total beds) to be located in the suburban districts between the central and periphery districts of Beijing are optimized. A smaller number of beds to be located in the central and periphery districts (33% and 16% respectively) are optimized. The gaps between the existing and optimized layouts suggest that more RCF beds (5961 beds) are needed in suburban districts, while the RCF beds in some subdistricts located in the central and periphery districts are oversupplied (5253 and 1584 surplus beds respectively).
Conclusions
The optimized results correspond to the municipal special plan proposed by the Beijing government. The optimization objective of this study is different from traditional facility location optimization models, and the method is efficient in maximizing equal access to residential care facilities. This method can support knowledge-based policy-making and planning of residential care facilities.
It is widely acknowledged that austerity measures in the wake of the global financial crisis are starting to undermine population health results. Yet, few research studies have focused on the ways in which the financial crisis and the ensuing 'Great Recession' have affected health equity, especially through their impact on social determinants of health; neither has much attention been given to the health consequences of the fiscal austerity regime that quickly followed a brief period of counter-cyclical government spending for bank bailouts and economic stimulus. Canada has not remained insulated from these developments, despite its relative success in maneuvering the global financial crisis.
The study draws on three sources of evidence: A series of semi-structured interviews in Ottawa and Toronto, with key informants selected on the basis of their expertise (n = 12); an analysis of recent (2012) Canadian and Ontario budgetary impacts on social determinants of health; and documentation of trend data on key social health determinants pre- and post the financial crisis.
The findings suggest that health equity is primarily impacted through two main pathways related to the global financial crisis: austerity budgets and associated program cutbacks in areas crucial to addressing the inequitable distribution of social determinants of health, including social assistance, housing, and education; and the qualitative transformation of labor markets, with precarious forms of employment expanding rapidly in the aftermath of the global financial crisis. Preliminary evidence suggests that these tendencies will lead to a further deepening of existing health inequities, unless counter-acted through a change in policy direction.
This article documents some of the effects of financial crisis and severe economic decline on health equity in Canada. However, more research is necessary to study policy choices that could mitigate this effect. Since the policy response to a similar set of economic shocks has globally varied and led to differential health and health equity outcomes, comparative studies are now possible to assess the successes and failures of specific policy responses. This raises the question of what types of public policy can mitigate against the negative health equity effects of severe economic recessions.
BACKGROUND
Multiple and varied benefits have been suggested for increased neighborhood walkability. However, spatial inequalities in neighborhood walkability likely exist and may be attributable, in part, to residential segregation.
OBJECTIVE
Utilizing a spatial demographic perspective, we evaluated potential spatial inequalities in walkable neighborhood amenities across census tracts in Boston, MA (US).
METHODS
The independent variables included minority racial/ethnic population percentages and percent of families in poverty. Walkable neighborhood amenities were assessed with a composite measure. Spatial autocorrelation in key study variables were first calculated with the Global Moran’s I statistic. Then, Spearman correlations between neighborhood socio-demographic characteristics and walkable neighborhood amenities were calculated as well as Spearman correlations accounting for spatial autocorrelation. We fit ordinary least squares (OLS) regression and spatial autoregressive models, when appropriate, as a final step.
RESULTS
Significant positive spatial autocorrelation was found in neighborhood socio-demographic characteristics (e.g. census tract percent Black), but not walkable neighborhood amenities or in the OLS regression residuals. Spearman correlations between neighborhood socio-demographic characteristics and walkable neighborhood amenities were not statistically significant, nor were neighborhood socio-demographic characteristics significantly associated with walkable neighborhood amenities in OLS regression models.
CONCLUSIONS
Our results suggest that there is residential segregation in Boston and that spatial inequalities do not necessarily show up using a composite measure.
COMMENTS
Future research in other geographic areas (including international contexts) and using different definitions of neighborhoods (including small-area definitions) should evaluate if spatial inequalities are found using composite measures but also should use measures of specific neighborhood amenities.
Two key components of civic environmentalism are the devolution of policy control of environmental policy from the federal government to states and localities and the increase of local citizen participation in policy decision making. Using a combination of case studies and interviews, the authors suggest that devolution of policy making and policy implementation may not increase the role of citizens. Rather, due to both the participatory mechanisms used and the larger trends in political participation in democratic societies, citizen involvement may be limited in significant ways. Although evidence is found that citizens can and do influence policy under certain circumstances, there is also cautionary evidence to suggest that this influence is not widespread and does not include representative samples of local communities. The authors conclude that for civic environmentalism to be truly civic, barriers to participation must be acknowledged and overcome.
This paper compares the spatial structure of car accessibility to towns and to railway stations during peak and off-peak hours in Belgium for the country’s 2616 municipalities. A clustering method is applied. It is shown that in a highly urbanised country, the situation is far from being spatially equitable in terms of accessibility, and some areas are more favoured than others. Congestion increases spatial inequalities, differently according to absolute or relative measures of change. By means of examples, this paper shows that even simple accessibility indicators could be useful to support decisions taken by planners and politicians (e.g. as regards the development of residential, industrial and business park areas). Maps indicate the spatial inequalities in terms of accessibility to urban centres and transport nodes, and the impact of congestion on these inequalities. The absolute and relative time losses due to congestion affect different areas in different ways. The location of new developments further increases the congestion problem and the spatial disparities. This paper also insists on the caution that should be adopted when measuring and interpreting “accessibility”, its measurements, its inputs, its temporal changes in absolute and relative terms as well as the need for spatially disaggregated data.
Geographic information systems (GIS) can provide leisure service age ncies with nume rous opportunities to enhance the planning and management of their facilities. This pape r demonstrates one such application, to the measurement of levels of accessibility and distributional equity offered by a system of public parks. The methods proposed are relatively simple; nevertheless, they do offer substantial improvements upon those previously utilized by leisure service providers. They facilitate identification of poorly served areas and populations, and sugge st where new facilities might best be sited so as to maximize access and equity. The se methods are illustrated by a case study of the park system in Bryan, Texas. Many othe r applications of GIS to leisure service provision are available, several of which are briefly discussed. Toge ther, they could enable age ncies to function more effectively and, ultimately, to provide better levels of service to the public.
In this paper, we examine regional inequalities in Turkey not only at the inter-provincial level but for three different regional definitions as well. The motivation draws on the findings of Gezici and Hewings(2001) that raised questions about inequalities not only between regions (inter-regional) but inequalities within each region. Hence, one contribution of this paper is to test the effects of aggregation and scale on the identification of regional inequalities. Spatial data analysis is employed to examine the spatial dimension of inequality in Turkey and the relationship between spatial dependence and the dynamics of growth. The results indicate that overall inequalities are decreasing, however spatial dependence is becoming more dominant. The Theil index indicates that interregional inequalities are increasing while intra-regional inequalities are declining for all spatial partitions from 1980 to 1997. Most developed provinces are enhancing overall inequalities, although there is some evidence of a spread effect on their neighbors.
This article synthesizes two GIS-based accessibility measures into one framework, and applies the methods to examining spatial accessibility to primary health care in the Chicago ten-county region. The floating catchment area (FCA) method defines the service area of physicians by a threshold travel time while accounting for the availability of physicians by their surrounded demands. The gravity-based method considers a nearby physician more accessible than a remote one and discounts a physician's availability by a gravity-based potential. The former is a special case of the latter. Based on the 2000 Census and primary care physician data, this research assesses the variation of spatial accessibility to primary care in the Chicago region, and analyzes the sensitivity of results by experimenting with ranges of threshold travel times in the FCA method and travel friction coefficients in the gravity model. The methods may be used to help the US Department of Health and Human Services and state health departments improve designation of Health Professional Shortage Areas.
Urban poverty represents one of the greatest and most urgent challenges that modern society is facing. The criticality of this global issue is represented by a rapidly growing body of academic literature which aims to explain the dynamics of urban poverty and promote effective and enduring solutions. However, despite many years of research, no studies have been conducted yet which reveal and analyze the overall intellectual structure of the urban poverty research field. In light of this gap, a bibliometric study was undertaken of 52 years of scientific literature on urban poverty (1965-2017). The bibliometric study combines author citation analysis and text-mining techniques to map the main research communities and core knowledge producers which are shaping the urban poverty research field and to identify the thematic areas that these communities are focusing attention on. The results of this investigation reveal a significant growth in the volume of academic literature produced post-1990, which is mainly driven by the collaborative efforts of five research communities, each of whom are seen to focus attention on a specific thematic area: (A) Policy-oriented research; (B) Urban poverty concentration; (C) The rise of poverty in Chinese cities; (D) Youth-behavioral and mental-health aspects of urban poverty; and (E) Urban poverty and health in the Sub-Saharan and Asian slum areas. The practical relevance and scientific contribution of this study is evidenced in its capacity to assist those actors working to alleviate urban poverty, in particular research communities, governmental and inter-governmental institutions, and funding bodies. In addition to help them grasp the overall intellectual structure of the urban poverty research field, the insight offered by this study is instrumental in supporting the articulation of a global, action-oriented agenda for future interdisciplinary research on urban poverty.
This editorial introduction to this special issue provides an overview and a conceptual framework of governance and economics of smart cities. We begin with a discussion of the background to smart cities and then it focuses on the key challenges for consideration in smart city economics. Here it is argued that there are four dimensions to smart city economics: the first is regarding the scale of global market for smart cities; the second issue concerns data to be used for smart city projects; the third concerns market competition and structure and the fourth concerns the impact on local economy. Likewise, smart city governance framework has to be considered a layered and multi-level concept focusing on issues of transparency and accountability to the citizens.
Bibliometrics is a powerful tool for analyzing knowledge domains and revealing their cognitive-epistemological structure. Different mathematical models and statistical techniques have been proposed and tested to carry out bibliometric analyses and demonstrate their effectiveness in uncovering how fields of research are intellectually structured. These include two hybrid techniques that allow clusters of related documents obtained from a co-citation analysis to be labeled using textual data. This paper reports on the findings of a bibliometric study in which these hybrid techniques are combined to: (1) build and visualize the network of publications shaping the intellectual structure of the smart city research field by considering the first two decades of literature dealing with this subject; (2) map the clusters of thematically-related publications; and (3) reveal the emerging development paths of smart cities that each thematic cluster represents and the strategic principles they embody. The five development paths which the analysis uncovers and the strategic principles each stands on are then compared by reviewing the most recent literature on smart cities. Overall, this bibliometric study offers a systematic review of the research on smart cities produced since 1992 and helps bridge the division affecting this research area, demonstrating that it is caused by the dichotomous nature of the development paths of smart cities that each thematic cluster relates to and the strategic principles they in turn support
Recent studies reveal a deep-rooted division in research on smart cities, which surfaces as a set of dichotomies that question whether smart city development should be based on a: (1) technology-led or holistic strategy; (2) double or quadruple-helix model of collaboration; (3) top-down or bottom-up approach; (4) mono-dimensional or integrated intervention logic. These dichotomies generate a critical knowledge gap because they suggest divergent hypotheses on what principles need to be considered when implementing strategies for enabling smart city development. This paper starts filling such a gap by reporting on the findings of a multiple case study analysis which is conducted into European best practices. In meeting this aim, four European cities considered to be leaders in the field of smart city development are analyzed to test the validity of the hypotheses emerging from each dichotomy. These cities are Amsterdam, Barcelona, Helsinki and Vienna. The results of this best practice analysis offer a series of critical insights into what strategic principles drive smart city development in Europe and generate scientific knowledge which helps to overcome the dichotomous nature of smart city research
Due to the close links between quality of life standards and level of regional development, it is important to gain an improved understanding of the factors that contribute to unequal spatial accessibility of medical and health services in China. This study analyzed 2859 counties using the average shortest distance traveled from settlements to medical facilities to calculate spatial accessibility. The Theil index at three levels (three partitions, eight economic zones and provinces) was used to assess the inequality between regions. Then, a method of spatial autocorrelation was used to assess the spatial agglomeration characteristics of spatial accessibility. To explore the underlying reasons for the imbalance in spatial accessibility, a total of eight indicators in three aspects (nature, society, and economy) were collected and geographically weighted regression (GWR) was employed to investigate spatial heterogeneity. We observed marked disparities in spatial accessibility to medical facilities at the national level. In particular, there appears to be improved spatial accessibility and lesser regional inequality in eastern and central regions as opposed to western Chinese regions; in coastal regions instead of inland regions; and in municipalities such as Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai, but not in other provinces and autonomous regions. Besides, significant global autocorrelation and obvious clusters were revealed in a spatial pattern analysis. A wide range of hot-spot areas (clusters of poor spatial accessibility) mainly concentrated in Tibet and other areas with complex terrain and lagging social and economic development. A number of cold-spot areas (clusters of good spatial accessibility) mostly scattered in built-up areas especially municipalities and well-developed urban agglomeration such as the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta, and the Wuhan 1 + 8 city circle. Furthermore, the relationships between influencing factors and spatial accessibility were also investigated. The influence of altitude on spatial accessibility gradually decreased from the West to the East, while the influence of slope decreased from the South to the North with prominent provinces of Qinghai and Gansu. Population density exerted a higher impact on the distance in the southwest region whereas the urbanization rate influenced the northeast and southeast coastal region more intensively. In contrast, the pattern of educational level was relatively discrete. The influencing pattern of economic factors in both per area GDP and tertiary industry output share of accessibility showed apparent regional characteristics in the southeast coastal areas, as well as in the northwestern and northeastern parts. Outcomes from this study can be used to provide important information to aid policy making, while also facilitating future research aimed at improving the understanding of equality and sustainable development of medical facilities.
Scotland is faced with pernicious health inequalities, which stem from inequalities in living conditions and the societal structures that create them. While action is needed to address the wider structural causes of health inequalities, the role of general practitioners (GPs) merits attention due to health care’s potential to mitigate or exacerbate health inequalities. Minimal research, however, has explored how GPs understand the fundamental causes of health inequalities nor how they conceptualise their role in mitigating these. This paper aims to fill this gap using in-depth qualitative interviews with 24 GPs working in some of Scotland’s most socio-economically disadvantaged, urban areas. Using Raphael’s SDH discourse framework, this paper found clear linkages between GPs’ perceptions of their patients, how they defined the ‘problem’ of health inequalities, and what they thought could be done to tackle them in disadvantaged areas. In general, there was convergence on how interviewees viewed their role in mitigating health inequalities through their work with individual patients. However, greater variation was found when describing the boundaries of their role and how far these extended beyond individual encounters. Specifically, only those GPs fluent in discussing structural causes of health inequalities discussed obligations to change local systems via strengthening community linkages and to influence higher level policies related to the SDH. This suggests that while there is a degree of what Metzl and Hansen deem ‘structural competency’ amongst some GPs working in disadvantaged areas, the scope remains to deepen this competency more broadly.
This book presents an exploratory account of the origins and dynamics of cities. The author recounts how the essential foundations of the urbanization process reside in two interrelated forces. These are the tendency for many different kinds of human activity to gather together to form functional complexes on the landscape, and the multifaceted intra-urban space-sorting crosscurrents set in motion by this primary urge. From these basic points of departure, the city in all its fullness emerges as a reflexive moment in social and economic development. The argument of the book is pursued both in theoretical and in empirical terms, devoting attention to the changing character of urbanization in the capitalist era. A point of particular emphasis concerns the peculiar patterns of resurgent urbanization that are making their historical and geographical appearance in the currently emerging phase of cognitive-cultural capitalism and that are now rapidly diffusing across the globe.
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Rising inequality and spatial concentration in China have drawn considerable scholarly interest and social concern. However, sources of spatial inequality in China remain under-studied. This article analyzes spatial patterns and dynamics of urban land expansion in China to better understand the role of institutions and urbanization in spatial inequality. We find that urban land expansion in China is highly uneven at both intra-provincial and intra-prefectural levels, and inequalities are much higher in the Western region than the Eastern region. We also find that provincial-level development policies tend to increase urban land expansion and economic development gaps across prefectures, while urban land expansion tends to converge within prefectures. Such core-periphery growth patterns have intensified economic gaps across prefectures and provinces in China.
The environmental fragility of cities under advanced urbanization has motivated extensive efforts to promote the sustainability of urban ecosystems and physical infrastructures. Less attention has been devoted to neighborhood inequalities and fissures in the civic infrastructure that potentially challenge social sustainability and the capacity of cities to collectively address environmental challenges. This article draws on a program of research in three American cities-Boston, Chicago, and Los Angeles-to develop hypotheses and methodological strategies for assessing how the multidimensional and multilevel inequalities that characterize contemporary cities bear on sustainability. In addition to standard concerns with relative inequality in income, the article reviews evidence on compounded deprivation, racial cleavages, civic engagement, institutional cynicism, and segregated patterns of urban mobility and organizational ties that differentially connect neighborhood resources. Harnessing "ecometric" measurement tools and emerging sources of urban data with a theoretically guided framework on neighborhood inequality can enhance the pursuit of sustainable cities, both in the United States and globally.
This research was aimed at exploring levels of equity in accessibility to employment and education in the city-region of Bogotá, Colombia's capital city. Building on consolidated methodologies for the assessment of potential accessibility, we estimate accessibility indicators at the zone level, evaluate how potential accessibility varies among income groups, and present evidence related to transport mode, in order to analyze social and spatial inequalities produced by the distribution of accessibility to employment and education activities. The research incorporates a method to evaluate how accessibility varies among zones according to average income and mode of transport in order to produce evidence-based arguments that can inform transport policy in the city-region of Bogotá, and other similar contexts in the Global South. Our results show strong distributional effects of the socio-spatial and economic structure of the city-region, its transport infrastructure and services, and the effect of current transport and land-use policies for citizens of different income groups. The tools and empirical evidence in this research seek to contribute to informed policy development in Latin America and other developing contexts, and feeding current debates on the role of accessibility in addressing social and spatial inequalities stemming from urban mobility.
Opportunities exist to further enhance the effectiveness of policy and programs that target the nexus of hunger and health equity. These entail intersectional action, crossing levels of government, and societal sectors. Federal nutrition assistance programs in US are an economic and moral policy lever currently used for feeding a socially acceptable subset of the full population of people living in poverty at a given time. The most fundamental approach to reducing diet-related disease disparities—and other health problems—is to reduce wealth inequality and poverty. Against this mark, it becomes clear that much of what is done to reduce food insecurity in the US, and its contribution to health inequities, falls short of addressing the root causes of modern malnutrition. As experiences of this system indicate, its reliance on free markets, restrictions on food choice, and the conditional terms of program participation, promote the hierarchical distribution of wealth and food that nutrition assistance programs should remedy. This chapter looks at these problems using New York as a case study. The chapter will address the following issues: (1) The advantages and disadvantages of nutrition assistance programs that provide electronically transferred funds for use with eligible food products, vis-à-vis general income support policies. (2) The extent to which nutrition assistance programs exclude foods with low nutritional value, and/or offer financial incentives for purchasing fruits and vegetables. (3) The role of public institutions in alleviating modern malnutrition in New York City.
Drawing on the literature of post-politics and post-democracy, the literature of neoliberalism as mode of governance and the study of the city of Valencia’s long-standing emphasis on the development of prestige mega-projects of iconic architecture as a means to achieve economic regeneration and urban revitalisation, this paper evaluates the social and economic effects of urban mega-projects and analyses them as conduits of neoliberal globalisation and de-politicisation of the public sphere.
On the one hand, an urban policy based on the use of mega-projects represents a turn from welfarism to entrepreneurialism which, beyond the evident urban transformation and re-imaging, results in an increase in social inequality, the creation of precarious jobs, and an underinvestment in social services.
On the other hand, the mechanisms used to implement mega-projects – including both exceptionality measures and privatisation of management through the creation of semi-public delivery bodies – result in a lack of transparency and democratic control, which in turn lead to more authoritative and privatised forms of decision-making. Moreover, mega-projects – through their focus on expertise and technocracy and a populist politics and discourse constructed around them – play a crucial role in the erosion of democracy and the establishment of a consensual politics where ideological struggle does not exist.
Notions of equity, fairness and justice frequently appear in geographical writing. It may be argued that eight distinct concepts underlie this usage, all of which are relevant to the study of geographical distributions. Such applications introduce complications in terms of measurement (due to problems of geographical data-collection units and ecological correlations). The common geographical operationalization of spatial equality, territorial justice and minimum standards can be related to the underlying concepts. Differences in the use of the concepts may also be an element in regional description and comparison.
Access to green spaces is important to physical activities and public health, yet one concern remains as to whether the disparities in green space access exist. This study aimed to (1) introduce an approach to quantify potential spatial accessibility to green spaces in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) environment; and (2) evaluate the racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in green space access. Urban green spaces (n=890) in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia were collected from the Atlanta Regional Commission. A Gaussian-based two-step floating catchment area method was adapted to assess the spatial accessibility to green spaces at the census tract level. The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model and the spatial lag model were used to evaluate the racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities. Results suggest that the spatial accessibility to green spaces in Atlanta was not evenly distributed. Both models show that neighborhoods with a higher concentration of African Americans had significantly poorer access to green spaces (P
Using the most recent statistical data, two U.S.-based geographers document the changes and level of regional inequality in China for the period 1978-2006, in order to shed light on whether recent government efforts toward inequality reduction have had observable effects. The paper reveals the spatial dynamics that underlie regional inequality by decompos- ing interprovincial inequality into its interregional and intraregional components, and investi- gating the growth trajectories of regions and provinces. The authors demonstrate that interprovincial inequality declined during the 1980s, increased in the 1990s, was relatively stable from the late 1990s to 2004, and has declined thereafter. Through closer analysis, they show how the trend in interprovincial inequality up to 2004 has been shaped by countervail- ing patterns in (declining) intraregional inequality and (increasing) interregional inequality. Since 2004, however, the study reveals that both interregional and intraregional inequalities have declined, reflecting convergence in growth rates among provinces and among regions. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: I31, O18, R12. 9 figures, 1 table, 77 references, 1 appendix. Key words: China, interprovincial inequality, regional inequality, spa- tial inequity, five-year plans, per capita GDP, Theil index, Gini coefficient, coefficient of vari- ation, convergence, divergence.
This article presents a methodology that combines the use of urban indicators and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) as a valid diagnostic and prescriptive tool to generate policy relevant information on the complex and multidimensional aspects of spatial inequalities. This methodology allows the systematic monitoring of the most relevant aspects of intra-urban inequalities through an indicator matrix and an approach to incorporate a geographical component into the participatory budget allocation. GIS-based indicators are constructed combining different data sources such as census and administrative data. This methodology is applied in a case study in Rosario (Argentina) and demonstrates how urban indicators and GIS combined are a valuable tool to describe and monitor inequality aspects such as quality-of-life conditions and access to services in order to better target resources.
This paper studies the hypothesis of an inverted-U-shaped relationship between spatial inequality and economic development. The theory of Kuznets (1955) and Williamson (1965) suggests that (spatial) inequality first increases in the process of development, then peaks, and then decreases. To test this hypothesis I have used a unique panel data set of spatial inequalities in 55 countries at different stages of economic development, covering the period 1980-2009. Parametric and semiparametric regressions are carried out using cross-section and (unbalanced) panel data. The results provide strong support for the existence of an inverted U, but importantly I also find spatial inequalities to increase again at very high levels of economic development. Although many factors may be contributing to this rise, one explanation rests on the process of tertiarization, i.e., the structural shift from industrial production towards a service base in the highest-developed economies.
The evolution in Europe towards more competence-based curricula in the last ten years or so is the result of several exogenous factors and a determined European policy. The Reference Framework of Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, a Recommendation approved by the European Parliament and the Council in 2006, and the work carried out within the Open Method of Coordination as well as by European research bodies have had a significant impact on Member States' curriculum reforms. This article shows that some terminology issues, both conceptual and practical, may explain, together with other causes, the diverse formulations of key competences and the way in which they are being integrated into the compulsory education curricula by the Member States or at intra-national levels. The focus of the article is on cross-curricular competences because these are the key competences which require the most significant innovations in teaching and learning practices, on assessment tools and procedures, and school organisation. The analysis illustrates the main differences and convergences in policy formulation and implementation strategies among the EU Member States. It also identifies key obstacles that must be overcome for an effective implementation before suggesting some policy recommendations.
Spatial wage disparities can result from spatial differences in the skill composition of the workforce, in non-human endowments, and in local interactions. To distinguish between these explanations, we estimate a model of wage determination across local labour markets using a very large panel of French workers. We control for worker characteristics, worker fixed effects, industry fixed effects, and the characteristics of the local labour market. Our findings suggest that individual skills account for a large fraction of existing spatial wage disparities with strong evidence of spatial sorting by skills. Interaction effects are mostly driven by the local density of employment. Not controlling for worker heterogeneity leads to very biased estimates of interaction effects. Endowments only appear to play a small role.
This paper evaluates the accessibility impact of the future Madrid–Barcelona–French border high-speed line. Accessibility impact of the new infrastructure is measured by means of three indicators: weighted average travel times, economic potential and daily accessibility. These indicators respond to different conceptualizations and offer complementary information about the issue accessibility. The results are quite different: very concentrated effects in the daily accessibility indicator, less concentrated in the economic potential one and more dispersal in the location indicator. The sign (polarizing/balancing) of these effects depend on the geographic scale: polarizing effects at the national level and balancing effects at both corridor and European levels are identified. A geographic information system (GIS) was used to carry out this study.
The achievement of equity in the distribution of urban public facilities is a goal of paramount importance to urban planners, who must analyze whether and to what degree their distribution is equitable. Recent efforts have probed into the equity of one type of facility, leaving an overall examination unconsidered. In this paper, integrated equity indices with which planners can analyze the relative equity status of facility distributions are presented, integrating GIS and spatial analysis models. Ren-de, Taiwan is the test site for this prototype method, and results show it allows users to understand the characteristics of spatial equity both for disaggregated and aggregated levels, and it demonstrates significant differences between urban public facilities.
This paper advances the multi-scale and multi-mechanism framework of regional inequality in China by using the most recent statistical data. We analyze the multi-scalar patterns of China's regional inequality with GIS and statistical techniques, and demonstrate the significance of the municipality effect. The authors also apply multilevel modeling to identify the spatial structure and time dimension of the underlying forces driving regional development. This study illustrates that China's regional inequality is sensitive to the spatial-temporal hierarchy of multi-mechanisms, and reveals the relative influence of globalization, marketization, and decentralization.
The Standard American Diet (SAD) has long been implicated in contributing to the health challenges experienced in the United States. Significant changes to the SAD have occurred since the 1950s, including a greater abundance and accessibility to calorie-dense and nutrient-poor food and beverage choices. The disparity of present consumption patterns to diet and nutrition recommendations from the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are addressed.
Geographical and political research on urban service delivery -- who benefits and why -- has proliferated during the past two decades. Overall, this literature is not characterized by a particular attention to the importance of method in drawing conclusions about spatial equity based on empirical studies. Specifically, there has been scant interest in the effect of geographic methodology on assessing the relationship between access and socioeconomic characteristics that are spatially defined. In this paper we take a spatial analytical perspective to evaluate the importance of methodology in assessing whether or not, or to what degree the distribution of urban public services is equitable. We approach this issue by means of an empirical case study of the spatial distribution of playgrounds in Tulsa, Oklahoma, relative to that of the targeted constituencies (children) and other socioeconomic indicators. In addition to the 'traditional' measure (count of facilities in an areal unit), we consider a potential measure (based on the gravity model), average travel distance, and distance to the nearest playground as indicators of accessibility. We find significant differences between the spatial patterns in these measures that are suggested by local indicators of spatial association and other techniques of exploratory spatial data analysis. The choice of access measure not only implies a particular treatment of spatial externalities but also affects conclusions about the existence of spatial mismatch and inequity.