Managing Soils for Recovering from the COVID-19 Pandemic

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the global food supply chain and exacerbated the problem of food and nutritional insecurity. Here we outline soil strategies to strengthen local food production systems, enhance their resilience, and create a circular economy focused on soil restoration through carbon sequestration, on-farm cycling of nutrients, minimizing environmental pollution, and contamination of food. Smart web-based geospatial decision support systems (S-DSSs) for land use planning and management is a useful tool for sustainable development. Forensic soil science can also contribute to cold case investigations, both in providing intelligence and evidence in court and in ascertaining the provenance and safety of food products. Soil can be used for the safe disposal of medical waste, but increased understanding is needed on the transfer of virus through pedosphere processes. Strengthening communication between soil scientists and policy makers and improving distance learning techniques are critical for the post-COVID restoration.

Full text

Review
Managing Soils for Recovering from the
COVID-19 Pandemic
Rattan Lal 1, *, Eric C. Brevik 2, Lorna Dawson 3, Damien Field 4, Bruno Glaser 5,
Alfred E. Hartemink 6, Ryusuke Hatano 7, Bruce Lascelles 8, Curtis Monger 9,
Thomas Scholten 10 , Bal Ram Singh 11, Heide Spiegel 12 , Fabio Terribile 13, Angelo Basile 14 ,
Yakun Zhang 6, Rainer Horn 15 , Takashi Kosaki 16 and Laura Bertha Reyes Sánchez 17
1Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, SENR, The Ohio State University, 210 Kottman Hall,
2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
2Departments of Natural Sciences and Agriculture and Technical Studies, Dickinson State University,
Dickinson, ND 58601, USA; Eric.Brevik@dickinsonstate.edu
3Head of Forensic Soil Science, Environmental and Biochemical Sciences Department,
The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, UK; lorna.dawson@hutton.ac.uk
4Sydney Institute of Agriculture & School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science,
The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales 2006, Australia; damien.field@sydney.edu.au
5Soil Biogeochemistry, Institute of Agronomy and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University
Halle-Wittenberg, Von–Seckendorff–Platz 3, D–06120 Halle, Germany; bruno.glaser@landw.uni-halle.de
6
Department of Soil Science, FD Hole Soils Lab, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
hartemink@wisc.edu (A.E.H.); zhang878@wisc.edu (Y.Z.)
7Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Kita 9, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan;
hatano@chem.agr.hokudai.ac.jp
8Environmental Planning, Arcadis Consulting Ltd, Gloucester BS2 0FR, UK; Bruce.Lascelles@arcadis.com
9Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, New Mexico State University, P.O. Box 1018,
Farmington, NM 87499, USA; cmonger@nmsu.edu
10 Department of Geosciences, University of Tübingen, 72070 Tübingen, Germany;
thomas.scholten@uni-tuebingen.de
11 Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life
Sciences, P. O. Box 5003, 1433 Ås, Norway; balram.singh@nmbu.no
12 Department for Soil Health and Plant Nutrition, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety,
Spargelfeldstrasse 191, A-1220 Vienna, Austria; adelheid.spiegel@ages.at
13 Interdepartmental Research Centre on the “Earth Critical Zone” for Supporting the Landscape and
Agroenvironment Management (CRISP), University of Naples Federico II, 8055 Portici (NA), Italy;
terribil@unina.it
14
Institute for Agricultural and Forestry Systems in the Mediterranean (ISAFOM), National Research Council
of Italy (CNR), Piazzale Enrico Fermi 1, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy; angelo.basile@cnr.it
15
Institute for Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Hermann Rodewaldstr. 2,
24118 Kiel, Germany; rhorn@soils.uni-kiel.de
16 Department of Global Liberal Arts, Aichi University, Nagoya 453-8777, Japan; kosakit8@vega.aichi-u.ac.jp
17 Agricultural Engineering Department, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Campus Cuautitlán
Izcalli, México 54750, Mexico; lbrs@unam.mx
*Correspondence: lal.1@osu.edu
Received: 26 June 2020; Accepted: 20 July 2020; Published: 28 July 2020


Abstract:
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the global food supply chain and exacerbated
the problem of food and nutritional insecurity. Here we outline soil strategies to strengthen local
food production systems, enhance their resilience, and create a circular economy focused on soil
restoration through carbon sequestration, on-farm cycling of nutrients, minimizing environmental
pollution, and contamination of food. Smart web-based geospatial decision support systems (S-DSSs)
for land use planning and management is a useful tool for sustainable development. Forensic soil
science can also contribute to cold case investigations, both in providing intelligence and evidence in
Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46; doi:10.3390/soilsystems4030046 www.mdpi.com/journal/soilsystems

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 2 of 15
court and in ascertaining the provenance and safety of food products. Soil can be used for the safe
disposal of medical waste, but increased understanding is needed on the transfer of virus through
pedosphere processes. Strengthening communication between soil scientists and policy makers and
improving distance learning techniques are critical for the post-COVID restoration.
Keywords:
COVID-19 pandemic; circular economy; food security; soil management; urban agriculture;
soil carbon sequestration; forensic soil science; geographical information systems; soil disposal of
medical waste; connecting soil science with policy makers
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted global food and nutritional security by disrupting the
food supply chain from the farm gate to the household. The lockdown has led to shortages and
increased wheat price by 8% and rice by 25%, compared with those in March 2019 [
1
]. Before COVID-19,
820 million people were undernourished and 2 billion malnourished [
2
]. Many millions more are
living perilously close to the poverty line, lacking the economic and physical means to procure
food in light of enforced social isolation, movement restrictions, supply interruptions, lost income,
and food price spikes. The crisis is also affecting the quality of human diets. People are shifting towards
greater consumption of heavily processed food, with fresh fruits and vegetables less available and/or
more expensive in conventional supply chains. This could create vicious circles: diabetes and other
diet-related non-communicable diseases are risk factors for COVID-19 mortality [
2
]. The pandemic has
affected both staple commodities and high-value commodities [
3
]. The logistics to distribute staple
commodities is affected as transportation across cities, provinces, regions, and countries is hampered.
The high-value commodities are affected by labor shortages. Remote and food insecure areas are
particularly susceptible to transportation challenges, where the majority of food in grocery stores is
flown into the communities [4].
In view of such global developments, soil plays a central role as a production factor in individual
agricultural enterprises, and also as a basic condition for the resilience and productivity of agriculture
in times of crisis. Managing soils for both recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and long-term
sustainability is of great importance not only to sustain yields but also to keep the soil healthy for
many other functions and for future generations.
Recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic can be accelerated by restoring soil quality and
functionality through application of modern innovations that strengthen the resilience of the local
food production system while improving environmental quality. The importance of understanding the
interconnectivity between the COVID-19 pandemic and human wellbeing on the one side and that of
soil health and functionality on the other side can never be over emphasized (Figure 1). Therefore,
in this article, we offer strategies to alleviate human suffering through the innovative management
of soil resources. The specific objective of this article is to deliberate the importance of sustainable
soil management and restoration to recover from the adverse impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic
through improved sustainable food production and distribution to minimize vulnerability to hunger
and malnutrition.

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 3 of 15
Soil Syst. 2020, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
Figure 1. Sustainable management of soil resources for enhancing recovery from the COVID-19
pandemic by strengthening the food supply chain and improving environmental quality.
2. Soil Health
The most immediate impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on soil and vice versa are through
human activities (Figure 2) resulting from a decline in human consumption giving rise to surplus
food that is being disposed of and added to soil. Reduced consumption of meat led to food waste and
the use of U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil maps to locate sites suitable for mass burials
of swine and poultry in the US during March to May 2020 [5]. This has long-term consequences to
land use, groundwater quality, biodiversity, human health, and land value. A potato glut has
occurred due to a decline in the consumption of French fries, resulting from the cancellation of
sporting and cultural events as well as the closure of restaurants. This huge potato surplus impacts
soil when farmers plow under crops and plan to discard surplus potatoes currently in storage by
working them into soil on a scale never seen before [6]. A similar supply-chain-soil situation is faced
by dairy farmers (discarding millions of gallons of milk per day), and also impacting upon beef
producers. This is being followed by a reduction in acreage being planted to adjust to decreased
demand.
Figure 1.
Sustainable management of soil resources for enhancing recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic
by strengthening the food supply chain and improving environmental quality.
2. Soil Health
The most immediate impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on soil and vice versa are through
human activities (Figure 2) resulting from a decline in human consumption giving rise to surplus food
that is being disposed of and added to soil. Reduced consumption of meat led to food waste and the
use of U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil maps to locate sites suitable for mass burials of
swine and poultry in the US during March to May 2020 [
5
]. This has long-term consequences to land
use, groundwater quality, biodiversity, human health, and land value. A potato glut has occurred
due to a decline in the consumption of French fries, resulting from the cancellation of sporting and
cultural events as well as the closure of restaurants. This huge potato surplus impacts soil when farmers
plow under crops and plan to discard surplus potatoes currently in storage by working them into
soil on a scale never seen before [
6
]. A similar supply-chain-soil situation is faced by dairy farmers
(discarding millions of gallons of milk per day), and also impacting upon beef producers. This is being
followed by a reduction in acreage being planted to adjust to decreased demand.
Sustainable management of soil towards nutrition-enhanced food production through restoration
of soil health is critical to reducing the risks of food and nutritional insecurity. A low content of
soil organic matter (SOM) in the root zone can reduce protein content in wheat [
7
], and decrease
productivity of smallholder agriculture [
8
]. Nutritional quality of organically grown food may be
better than that of fertilizer-based management [
9
,
10
]. The SOM content is also adversely affected
by accelerated soil erosion [
11
], salinization, and other degradation processes that create a negative
soil/ecosystem carbon budget [
12
]. Soil health is closely linked to SOM content and its management [
13
],
and soil degradation is an important factor in inadequate human nutrition [14].
Soil resilience is a key element of overall soil quality or soil health. It is central to sustainable
land management and, therefore, to food and other natural products’ supply and security, as well
as the ability of a soil to recover from degradation [
15
–
17
]. Soil microbial communities are critical
to soil resilience and are influenced by soil physiochemical structures and processes [
18
]. From a
functional perspective, resilient soil addresses basic soil functions such as biomass production, including
agriculture and forestry, and storing, filtering, and transforming nutrients, substances, and water [
19
].
These functions and services enable soils to support the basic supply of food and natural products
required by human population even under high external pressure and has moved the importance of
soil functions higher on the agenda in soil science research [20] as well as in a policy setting.
In addition to the primacy of human health care, the maintenance of all critical infrastructures and,
in particular, the supply of the population with food and natural products from agriculture, forestry,
and fisheries has the highest priority, and it has increasingly been challenged under the COVID-19

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 4 of 15
pandemic [
21
]. Besides nutrition, the social dimension, such as disruptions in food prices, is also
important [
22
]. A decline in soil health and resiliencies is also a constraint to advancing Sustainable
Development Goals of the United Nations [23].
Soil Syst. 2020, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15
Figure 2. Links and feedbacks illustrating how soil is being impacted by COVID-19.
Sustainable management of soil towards nutrition-enhanced food production through
restoration of soil health is critical to reducing the risks of food and nutritional insecurity. A low
content of soil organic matter (SOM) in the root zone can reduce protein content in wheat [7], and
decrease productivity of smallholder agriculture [8]. Nutritional quality of organically grown food
may be better than that of fertilizer-based management [9,10]. The SOM content is also adversely
affected by accelerated soil erosion [11], salinization, and other degradation processes that create a
negative soil/ecosystem carbon budget [12]. Soil health is closely linked to SOM content and its
management [13], and soil degradation is an important factor in inadequate human nutrition [14].
Soil resilience is a key element of overall soil quality or soil health. It is central to sustainable
land management and, therefore, to food and other natural products’ supply and security, as well as
the ability of a soil to recover from degradation [15–17]. Soil microbial communities are critical to soil
resilience and are influenced by soil physiochemical structures and processes [18]. From a functional
perspective, resilient soil addresses basic soil functions such as biomass production, including
agriculture and forestry, and storing, filtering, and transforming nutrients, substances, and water [19].
These functions and services enable soils to support the basic supply of food and natural products
required by human population even under high external pressure and has moved the importance of
soil functions higher on the agenda in soil science research [20] as well as in a policy setting.
In addition to the primacy of human health care, the maintenance of all critical infrastructures
and, in particular, the supply of the population with food and natural products from agriculture,
forestry, and fisheries has the highest priority, and it has increasingly been challenged under the
COVID-19 pandemic [21]. Besides nutrition, the social dimension, such as disruptions in food prices,
is also important [22]. A decline in soil health and resiliencies is also a constraint to advancing
Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations [23].
Figure 2. Links and feedbacks illustrating how soil is being impacted by COVID-19.
In recent years, the increase of extreme weather events, especially pronounced dry spells,
has already had a massive impact on aspects of both agriculture and forestry. Only in areas with
sufficient water storage in the soil can yield losses that remain within acceptable limits [
24
]. However, the
geographical distribution of soils and their quality and health varies spatially on all scales, from climatic
zones to individual fields [
25
]. Therefore, not only the protection of soil and the preservation of its
functions, but also the use of soils under the aspect of resilience to crises such as the COVID-19
pandemic must be approached site-specifically. Diversification of agricultural and forestry production
and products [
26
] represents one essential step to combat global crises such as COVID-19. For example,
the combination of animal husbandry, fodder and food cultivation and production in integrated
farming systems [
27
] could provide a high degree of flexibility on a regional and national scale and
enable rapid adaptation to changing conditions and to respond to site-specific soil conditions.
Another important future need is to limit or even end soil loss. In many countries, the soil
is stressed from many sides, increasingly built over, sealed, polluted, and eroded. Aiming at land
degradation neutrality is a high priority.
3. Soil Health and Human Health
The idea that soils influence human health extends back to antiquity [28–30]. A major landmark
in bacteriology and medical science was Robert Koch’s 1870 discovery that the cause of anthrax was
Bacillus anthracis, which lives in soil, and in 1880 Luis Pasteur showed that earthworms could transfer

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 5 of 15
anthrax spores to the soil surface where exposure could occur [
31
]. The 20th century saw an increase in
interest concerning links between soils and human health spanning multiple countries and continents.
Links between soil fertility and the quality of food products continued to receive attention, knowledge
concerning soil microorganisms increased, and antibiotics were isolated from soil microorganism [
32
].
Viruses that cause a range of diseases including hepatitis, gastroenteritis, respiratory diseases, polio,
meningitis, and smallpox were all found in soil, usually in association with the disposal of human
and/or animal waste products [
33
,
34
]. By the end of the 20
th
century, connections between soil and
human health were well established, although there was still a need for well-designed scientific studies
to expand knowledge [35].
Presently, there is a strong need to address some of the short- and long-term implications from
the current COVID-19 crisis and the role that soil science can play in mitigating against its immediate
and long-term effects. Hurst et al. [
36
] found that virus survival was significantly affected by the soil
temperature, moisture content, presence of aerobic microorganisms, degree of virus adsorption to the
soil, soil levels of resin-extractable phosphorus, exchangeable aluminum, and soil pH. According to
Abrahams [
37
], viruses in soils and the dust of desert regions may have contributed to increases
in respiratory diseases such as asthma and that the smallpox virus will not remain viable for long
following earth burial whereas in cool, dry conditions the virus may survive. While a lot is known
about viruses in the soil, the potential presence and behavior of COVID-19 in the soil is not known. In a
study conducted by Walter et al. [
38
], soil clay content, particularly the presence of montmorillonite,
enhanced prion transmissibility. The potential survival and transmissivity of the COVID-19 virus in
soils and other environmental media [
39
] and their relationships with soil properties and environmental
conditions should be evaluated. One of the critical needs of the post COVID-19 world is building a
broader awareness of the importance of soils to human health and how to manage soil to enhance the
health of soil, plants, animals, people, and the environment.
4. Food Security
The COVID-19 pandemic has made it more difficult to secure foodstuffs because of movement
restrictions and border closures. This has driven new initiatives to produce regional food. In recent
years, the trend has been towards a decrease in available agricultural land and an increase in the
human population, leading to conflicting interests for land use [
40
,
41
]. Moreover, climate change
impacts soils and biomass production through extreme weather such as severe droughts, tornados and
heavy precipitation events. All these scenarios, beyond COVID-19, strongly suggest the need to further
develop existing initiatives to increase the efficiency of resource use (i.e., fertilizer, energy, and water)
through the adoption of innovations such as sensor and satellite technologies.
One aspect that needs to be considered during the COVID-19 crisis is the impact of mineral
fertilization omissions on soils and the production function. It is important to more closely examine
N and P, which are essential macronutrients; N often limits crop production the most [
42
], but P
fertilization has also contributed to increased crop yields in the last century [
43
]. In general, sustainable
nutrient management consists of fertilization that replaces the amount of nutrients removed by the
crop harvest [44].
Agronomists and soil scientists have shown that “nutrient mining” systems are often connected
with subsistence agriculture in tropical areas and sometimes also with extensive farming in Europe [
44
].
During the COVID-19 pandemic, nutrient mining may well also become a scenario in industrial
countries because fertilizers are often produced outside the country and border restrictions may
prevent or limit fertilizer imports.
Agriculture should always, and even more so during the times of pandemic crises, sustainably
use all available organic fertilizers such as farm manures [
45
,
46
]. Applying quality-controlled organic
residues from industry on agricultural land may contribute to an extensive circular economy. Reducing
mineral P fertilizers may also help decrease the input of harmful trace elements such as cadmium or
uranium [
47
]; the application of secondary raw material fertilizers should be monitored by quality

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 6 of 15
control measures [
48
,
49
]. In the past, intensive farming with excessive N and P fertilization have
caused nutrient losses to surface and subsurface water, generating environmental harm in the form
of nitrate leaching and eutrophication [
50
,
51
]. Moreover, N losses to the atmosphere occur through
ammonia (NH
3
) volatilization and emissions of the primary and secondary greenhouse gases N
2
O
and NO [
52
], and CH
4
emission due to mechanical stresses applied by non-site adjusted agricultural
machines, converting soils from sink to source [53].
Heavy metal accumulation in agricultural soils may also lead to elevated uptake of metals in edible
parts of food crops, affecting food quality and safety and creating potential human health risks [
54
].
Metals can cause several acute as well as chronic poisoning in humans (Table 1). There is growing
support for the reintegration of mixed livestock and cropping farming systems, which are known to
improve on-farm cycling of nutrients and reduce the need for off-farm waste management [27].
The COVID-19 restrictions, with lower fertilizer availability and application, may lead to improved
farm management with consequential reduced emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), including N
2
O,
NH
3
emissions, and NO
3
leaching to waters, along with overall improved nitrogen use efficiency and
less heavy metal accumulation in soils. This would mean reduced environmental impacts, increased
food quality and a food system that rebounds within safe planetary boundaries [55].
Table 1. Clinical aspects of chronic toxicities (modified and adopted from Mahurpawar [56]).
Metal Contributing
to Toxicity Target Organs Clinical Effects
Arsenic Pulmonary Nervous System, Skin Perforation of Nasal Septum, Respiratory
Cancer, Peripheral Neuropathy:
Dermatomes, Skin, Cancer
Cadmium
Kidneys, Skeletal Pulmonary System
Proteinuria, Glucosuria, Osteomalacia,
Aminoaciduria, Emphysema
Lead Nervous System, Hematopoietic
System, Kidneys Encephalopathy, Peripheral Neuropathy,
Central Nervous Disorders, Anemia
Mercury Nervous System, Kidneys Proteinuria
5. Circular Economy and Urban Agriculture
Combined with the ongoing focus on an increasing global population and the local impacts
of COVID-19, the circular economy may maximize the utilization of resources by minimizing
their depreciation [
57
] and reducing leakage to the environment through resource recovery, reuse,
or repurposing [58,59].
Of all human activities, the production of food has by far the largest areal impact on soil’s
ability to provide needed services and, if compromised, can have severe consequences on society
and the environment [
57
]. Two immediate effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in future
concerns about supply shocks due to international trade disruptions: (1) the potential increase in waste
from the public’s panic buying reaction, and (2) realization of the limited resources held by nation
states, e.g., the supply of inorganic fertilizers and fuels to support future food production. This has
raised questions about how the resilience and productivity of local food systems can be improved,
the reliance on external supplies can be reduced, and the potential for increased food wastage and its
management realized.
Urban farming or gardening is often thought of as a way to contribute to local food systems.
In highly centralized urbanized nations, the ability to preserve and plan spaces for soil to provide
green areas, parks, and the ability for local communities to grow food is increasing and becoming part
of the public policy and planning. The preservation of these soil spaces also impacts the ability to store
water and reduces the urban heat island effect [
60
]. Planning for urban gardens can result in a positive
effect on local community well-being through promoting healthy behavior and a sense of security [
61
].
In urban environments, circular economies of food and other biological wastes are viewed
as a resource for nutrient recovery, which can be used locally or in the agricultural sector more

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 7 of 15
broadly. Residues should be diverted into composting programs to close the loop, avoiding the
loss of, and reducing the need to import, nutrients for food production. Such practices will also
simultaneously minimize environmental impacts such as eutrophication of waterways and a loss of
leachates from landfills but will require the necessary infrastructure and policy frameworks to be
created. Building these will lessen the need for solely imported nutrients (e.g., chemical fertilizers) and
expulsion of waste from urban environments, meeting the circular economy’s aspirations of resource
recovery and reducing leakage.
A paradigm shift from industrial agriculture to more diversified agroecological systems is more
urgent than ever. Agroecology’s unique capacity to reconcile the economic, environmental, and social
dimensions of sustainability has been recognized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the U.N. (FAO), landmark reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), and the
World Bank and FAO-led global agriculture assessment. Agroecology builds resilience by combining
different plants and animals, and uses biobased circular economy strategies such as the “Terra Preta”
concept, or permaculture, to regenerate soils, fertilize crops, and fight pests [
62
]. It is thus less
dependent on imported inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, thereby reducing vulnerability to trade
disruptions and price shocks. Territorial markets and short supply chains are often a key component
of agroecological systems, and can enhance access to fresh food, ensure a greater value goes back to
the grower, and reduces vulnerability to disruptions on international markets.
Soil, generated through material cycling [
63
], contains humic substances and clay minerals,
which retain nutrients and interfere with acids because of electrically charged surfaces (Figure 3).
Regular input of compost can create a positive SOM budget in cropland [
64
]. Prospects for a long-term
global economic downturn due to the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to reduce prices for a fertilizer.
However, the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers can decrease soil pH over time. However,
N
2
O emissions are significantly lower with compost than with chemical fertilizers [
65
], and use of
compost pellets can potentially further reduce N
2
O emissions [
66
]. Thus, technological development
for promoting organic agriculture based on material cycling must be an important consideration.
Soil Syst. 2020, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15
support food production. There has been a long running concern about the looming global shortage
of phosphate [67] and, in the event of trading limitations in the future, the ability for nations to
produce enough inorganic nitrogen. This tyranny of distance makes the use of waste as a resource to
offset some of the need for inorganic sources of fertilizer a challenge that needs immediate attention
towards the export of surplus organic waste from urban environments to broadacre agricultural
lands.
Figure 3. Cycles of energy, water, and materials cross through soil.
6. Soil Management beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic
Soil science has addressed grand environmental challenges such as climate change, global food
production, biodiversity loss, water quality and quantity, and biodiversity [68–70]. The global
COVID-19 crisis forces the soil science discipline to address short-term issues such as changes in the
food supply chain and its possible relation to soil management as well as human health implications.
Some environmental quality indicators, air quality in particular (e.g., PM2.5 and NO2 emission), have
shown an improvement due to the reduction of economic activities during the COVID-19 pandemic
[71,72]. Some studies have suggested that air quality (e.g., NO2 emission) and meteorological
conditions (e.g., wind speed and direction) affected the transmission of and death rates attributed to
COVID-19 [73], and soil management can influence air quality.
The impacts of organic waste in developing countries on the quality of air and water has been
highlighted by the reprieve waterways, which have been experienced during the COVID-19
closedown [74]. In regions with small-holder farming systems the promotion of diverse farming
systems have improved and supported soil fertility and reduced the impact of pests and diseases on
production systems [75]. A significant long-term impact of developing these integrated cropping
systems will enable sufficient intensification to avoid encroachment into natural systems that
increases risks to pandemics such as by COVID-19 [76], but also supports the soil’s ability in natural
systems to provide a range of ecosystem services. It will also reduce the dependence on mineral
resources. This needs to be complemented by financial instruments that are attractive to the private
sector. In the USA and EU direct payments are made to soil managers to support ongoing ecosystem
services and allocation of productive land to provide natural capital. The recognition of “green”
Figure 3. Cycles of energy, water, and materials cross through soil.

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 8 of 15
The experience of COVID-19 has highlighted that the movement of perishable food is problematic,
but it has also refocused concerns about the ability to supply and store resources that support food
production. There has been a long running concern about the looming global shortage of phosphate [
67
]
and, in the event of trading limitations in the future, the ability for nations to produce enough inorganic
nitrogen. This tyranny of distance makes the use of waste as a resource to offset some of the need for
inorganic sources of fertilizer a challenge that needs immediate attention towards the export of surplus
organic waste from urban environments to broadacre agricultural lands.
6. Soil Management Beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic
Soil science has addressed grand environmental challenges such as climate change, global food
production, biodiversity loss, water quality and quantity, and biodiversity [
68
–
70
]. The global COVID-19
crisis forces the soil science discipline to address short-term issues such as changes in the food
supply chain and its possible relation to soil management as well as human health implications.
Some environmental quality indicators, air quality in particular (e.g., PM
2.5
and NO
2
emission),
have shown an improvement due to the reduction of economic activities during the COVID-19
pandemic [
71
,
72
]. Some studies have suggested that air quality (e.g., NO
2
emission) and meteorological
conditions (e.g., wind speed and direction) affected the transmission of and death rates attributed to
COVID-19 [73], and soil management can influence air quality.
The impacts of organic waste in developing countries on the quality of air and water has
been highlighted by the reprieve waterways, which have been experienced during the COVID-19
closedown [
74
]. In regions with small-holder farming systems the promotion of diverse farming
systems have improved and supported soil fertility and reduced the impact of pests and diseases
on production systems [
75
]. A significant long-term impact of developing these integrated cropping
systems will enable sufficient intensification to avoid encroachment into natural systems that increases
risks to pandemics such as by COVID-19 [
76
], but also supports the soil’s ability in natural systems
to provide a range of ecosystem services. It will also reduce the dependence on mineral resources.
This needs to be complemented by financial instruments that are attractive to the private sector. In the
USA and EU direct payments are made to soil managers to support ongoing ecosystem services and
allocation of productive land to provide natural capital. The recognition of “green” credentials or
good land management associated with producing a product will also contribute to sustaining the
soil resource.
Humanity is facing the complex task of attempting to challenge the combined global crises
of COVID-19, climate change, and the environmental crisis. These crises are exacerbated by the
current fragmentation over landscape issues: (i) multiscale fragmentation of land policies, (ii) separate
management of land for environmental and agricultural issues, and (iii) incomplete and fragmented
geospatial knowledge about land and soil processes and properties. Smart web-based geospatial
decision support systems (S-DSSs) for land planning and management—having the soil as a pulsing
heart—promise to overcome some of the above problems (e.g., www.landsupport.eu) giving new
hope to a more sustainable development. These systems, developed from the open-source geospatial
cyber-infrastructure platform [
77
,
78
], combines land and soil databases (including digital-soil-mapping,
Earth-observation), a suitable modeling engine, high performance computing (HPC), and datacube
technologies. The magnitude of the effect of COVID due to a proper graphical user interface can produce
a freely available web-based system addressing the sustainable use of land and soils by combining
large spatial extent (e.g., country/continent scale) and high spatial detail (e.g., 20 m Sentinel resolution).
Several case studies of such soil-based S-DSSs are currently available at the local scale for planning
and management of viticulture [
79
], olive growth [
80
], and forest resources [
81
], and soil sealing and
urban planning, for specific areas [
82
] or even an entire country [
83
] for a multi-stakeholder community
including spatial planners.

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 9 of 15
7. Soil Science Beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic
The effect of COVID-19 on food production [
4
,
84
], economics [
85
,
86
], society [
87
,
88
], and public
health issues such as weight gain [
89
,
90
] must be assessed. Currently, the virus is spreading in other
parts of the world, particularly in rural regions where subsistence farming and smallholders are
dominant. Those systems are highly sensitive to disturbances and food inequality and shortages may
therefore be expected or even exacerbated in the economically less developed regions of the world [
91
].
While a lot is known about viruses in the soil, the potential presence and behavior of COVID-19 in
the soil is not known. Soil properties that affect the transmission and survival of viruses in the natural
environment need to be further understood. Soil materials (and pollen and plant fragments) have been
used as forensic trace evidence for many years, even from Roman times, and are often highly distinctive
from one region to another [
92
]. Such traces are extremely useful in a forensic and in a virologic context,
because of their environmental specificity; their high levels of transferability; their ability to persist
on items such as clothing, footwear, tools, and vehicles; and their high levels of preservation after
long periods of time. Never has the importance of working in a global framework been brought into
focus more than with the COVID-19 pandemic. There is a strong appeal for scientists modeling the
COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences for health and society to rapidly and openly publish their
code, along with specifying the type of data required, model parametrizations and any available
documentation, so that it is accessible to all scientists around the world [
93
]. Significant advances
have been made in soil science over the past decade, in the development of analytical approaches,
miniaturization, digital spatial tools such as geographical information systems (GISs), and also in
understanding the behavior, transfer, persistence, and preservation of sediments, soils, and plant
material, which has widened their applicability [
94
]. All that research has enabled a stronger evidence
base for government policies to be developed in the COVID-19 situation. Soil samples can be analyzed
using a broad range of complementary methods that address their physical, chemical, and biological
components with greater precision, speed, and accuracy than ever before [
92
,
95
]. For example, this now
permits samples of less than 10 milligrams to be accurately characterized and permits forensic soil
science to also contribute to cold case investigations, both in providing intelligence and evidence in
court and in ascertaining the provenance and safety of food products for example.
The communication of soil science to the general public is of vital importance, in particular within
the adversarial systems of justice, where the juries in court are the triers of fact [
96
]. There has never
been a more important time for effective communication.
A great amount of medical waste has been produced during the COVID-19 outbreak, including
used personal protective equipment, tissue papers, plastic bags, and empty bottles of sanitizers and
hand soaps [
97
,
98
]. Effective management of the medical waste through burning or decontamination
processes should be carefully conducted before any exposure to the environment occurs (e.g., soil,
water, and ocean). The daily consumption of face masks and gloves by millions of people may create
high risks to the community and environment [
97
]. Soil pollution related to the increased medical and
other organic and inorganic wastes should be closely monitored.
Most of the university educational programs have moved to online-teaching to facilitate
personal-distancing [
87
]. This will work for the general principles and practices of teaching soil
science, but it will not replace laboratory or field experiences. Employers require graduates who have
‘hands-on’ experience in sampling, analysis, and evaluation of site conditions and case contexts. If this
crisis were to continue over a prolonged period, it is important to develop teaching methods that
mimic the ‘hands-on’ experience.
8. Connecting Soil Science with Policy Makers and Stakeholders
The COVID-19 pandemic necessitates translation of scientific knowledge about soil and its
management into action through identification and implementation of policies that restore soil, halts its
loss, promotes nutrition-sensitive agriculture, and reconciles the need to meet the demands of humanity
for basic necessities with the urgency to restore the environment and mitigate global warming. It is

Soil Syst. 2020,4, 46 10 of 15
thus important to support global initiatives such as “4 per 1000” launched at the COP21 in Paris
during 2015. Soil scientists must also seize the moment and be actively involved in initiatives launched
at COP22 in Marrakech regarding “Adapting African Agriculture” [
99
] and Platform for Climate
Action in Agriculture (PLACA) launched at COP25 in Madrid/Chile. Sustainable management of
soil and agriculture must be integral to addressing the emerging but overlapping and interconnected
issues of the 21
st
century such as the COVID-19 pandemic, global warming, hunger and malnutrition,
water scarcity and renewability, and dwindling biodiversity. Judicious management of soil is critical to
advancing the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations. The issue of food and nutritional
security must be addressed through strengthening of local food production systems based on home
gardening and urban agriculture. These topics must be high on the agenda when the postponed COP26
UN climate conference, now planned for the 1–12 November 2021 in Glasgow, is held.
The effects of the pandemic on soil quality may occur through several routes: interrupted food
chain, irregular food production, disturbance to agricultural commodities, and opportunistic soil
management behavior [
100
]. This is an opportunity to rethink the US food chain that has become
highly dependent on large corporations and less on the output from family-farms. A similar trend
is developing in parts of Europe. In other parts of the world there is a risk of food shortages and
inequalities when COVID-19 spreads to rural areas and smallholder farmers.
Soil science must also be connected with the general public—as the food consumer and beneficiary
of other ecosystem services provisioned through soil and its management. Farmers and land managers
must be rewarded and incentivized through payments for ecosystem services such as carbon
sequestration, water quality and renewability, soil biodiversity, etc. The COVID-19 tragedy necessitates
a paradigm shift towards increasing awareness about the importance of soil in addressing existing and
emerging global issues. The virus outbreak, and responses to it, have focused attention worldwide on
the interaction between science, experts, society, policy making, and politics, and have highlighted the
vital importance of international scientific collaboration and open, accessible, and reliable sources of
information such as through organizations such as International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS).
Author Contributions:
R.L. wrote the abstract, introduction, and conclusion, and synthesized and edited the
entire manuscript. E.C.B. wrote on the theme of the historical links between soils and human health and edited the
manuscript. L.D. wrote on the theme of soil science in delivering global security in the context of post COVID-19
recovery and edited the manuscript. D.F. wrote on the theme of reflections post COVID-19 on soil in the circular
economy and edited the manuscript. B.G. and C.M. wrote on the theme of the role of the COVID-19 pandemic
health crisis on supply chains and on regional and urban agriculture, supplied Figure 1, and edited the manuscript.
A.E.H. and Y.Z. wrote on the theme of the role of soil science in a global crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic
and edited the manuscript. R.H. (Ryusuke Hatano) wrote on the theme of the importance of organic matter
management based on material cycling through soil, supplied Figure 2, and edited the manuscript. B.L. edited the
manuscript. T.S. wrote on the theme of resilient soils as a key element to secure the basic supply of our population
with food and natural products and edited the manuscript. B.R.S. wrote on the theme of human health risks of
heavy metals in recycled biowastes under COVID-19 food demands, supplied Table 1, and edited the manuscript.
H.S. wrote on the theme of soils, food security and COVID-19 and edited the manuscript. F.T. and A.B. wrote
on the theme of geospatial decision support Systems to reinforce land planning and management in the global
COVID-19 crisis and edited the manuscript. R.H. (Rainer Horn), T.K., and L.B.R.S. reviewed the manuscript
and provided various fact and reference checks. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This paper is a contribution of the International Union of Soil Sciences Research Forum.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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