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Environmental implications of the quality of charcoal briquettes and lump charcoal used for grilling
Abstract
Numerous studies have been conducted to assess air pollution and human health risks arising from exposure to outdoor cooking, but limited standards have been implemented around the world to assure fuel quality. While charcoal briquettes and lumps are a popular fuel choice for grilling, almost no data specifying their properties are available to consumers. Because the properties of fuels affect the flue gases, it is critical to understand how the quality of grilling briquettes and lumps translates not only into the quality of the grilled food, but, even more importantly, how their emissions impact human safety and the environment.
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the impacts of the quality of charcoal briquettes and lumps on potentially harmful emissions during grilling. To analyze their quality, we used reflected light microscopy to identify a range of contaminants, including biomass, mineral matter, coal, coke, metal, rust, plastics, glues, and synthetic resins, in 74 commercially available products made in Poland, the United States of America, Ukraine, Germany, Belarus, the Czech Republic, and the Republic of South Africa. Our data show that majority of the products analyzed do not meet the existing quality standard EN 1860-2:2005 (E) of less than 1% contaminants, some of these products contain up to 26.6% of impurities.
The amount of contaminants correlates with particulate matter, as well as CO and CO2. The contribution of biomass is especially significant because it can be used to predict harmful particulate matter emissions during grilling. The relationship between the composition of charcoal briquettes and lump charcoal and their emissions is particularly strong during the first 15 to 20 min after ignition (when emissions are the highest), therefore, this initial stage is especially unsafe to consumers, and staying away from the grill during this time is recommended.
... The qualitative characteristics of commercial charcoal products are influenced by several variables, primarily the properties of the raw wood materials used, the carbonization process, and the specific conditions under which it occurs [15,[17][18][19][20]. Regional standards often govern the quality of charcoal products [9,21]. In Europe, the EN 1860-2:2023 standard regulates the quality of lump charcoal and charcoal briquettes [22]. ...
... In Europe, the EN 1860-2:2023 standard regulates the quality of lump charcoal and charcoal briquettes [22]. However, despite these regulatory frameworks' presence, several studies have highlighted that commercial lump charcoal and briquettes often do not meet the qualitative standard requirements and may contain a broad spectrum of impurities, exhibiting characteristics that fall below the prescribed standards [9,15,16,23,24]. According to the EN 1860-2:2023 standard, high-quality barbecue charcoal must meet several key criteria, including a fixed carbon content (> 75%), moisture content (< 8%), ash content (< 8%), a reduced quantity of small particles (< 7%), and minimal presence of inadmissible additives (< 1%) by total mass, such as fossil fuel derivatives and artificial mineral products. ...
... Charcoal briquettes generate less intense heat than lump charcoal. As reported by Jelonek et al. [9], lump charcoal burns at higher temperatures than charcoal briquettes, reaching up to 760 °C, while briquettes typically achieve lower temperatures, ranging from approximately 420 to 540 °C. ...
The growing interest in outdoor cooking has significantly increased the popularity of charcoal-based products. However, charcoal quality varies based on wood species and carbonization methods, impacting performance during grilling. Charcoal must provide consistent heat, with factors like burn duration and residue affecting cooking quality and costs. This study evaluated 23 commercial charcoal samples in Italy—15 lump charcoals and 8 briquettes. It analyzed their quality and combustion performance through proximate, physical analyses, and combustion tests on a commercial barbecue measuring weight loss, burning rate, residue, ember, and fume temperatures. Proximate analysis revealed significant heterogeneity, with some samples exhibiting moisture content (up to 11.7%), ash levels (up to 35%), and volatile matter (up to 30%) outside the recommended threshold set by EN 1860–2:2023 standard, which negatively impacted combustion efficiency. Key factors like high fixed carbon (> 75% for 10 lump charcoal samples) and heating values (> 27 MJ/kg for most lump charcoals) promoted more complete combustion with higher weight loss, burning rates, and ember/fume temperatures. Lump charcoals generally showed better combustion performance than briquettes, with higher temperatures (up to 600 °C for embers and 60 °C for fumes) and lower residues. However, briquettes exhibited a more prolonged burn duration and lower fume/ember temperatures (< 500 °C). The granulation and apparent density also influenced combustion, with smaller charcoal fractions improving burning rates. The results emphasize the significant influence of product quality and variability on combustion behavior, underscoring the necessity of rigorous production and distribution standards to ensure optimal grilling performance of charcoal-based fuels.
... The charcoal briquettes exhibit also remarkable versatility, being suitable for direct grilling, and indirect cooking in traditional stoves, kamado-style grills, and smokehouses. Moreover, they are characterised by a lower sulphur content and a higher carbon-to-ash ratio than charcoal lumps, further contributing to their appeal in culinary applications (Akowuah et al., 2012;Borowski, Stępniewski and Wójcik-Oliveira, 2017;Jelonek et al., 2020b;Mencarelli et al., 2023). ...
... %. Although the quantity of unwanted additives at such a low level may appear insignificant, it could have a notable impact on the quality of fuels and pose potential risks to customer health and safety (Jelonek et al., 2020b). As the quality of fuels affects the quality of combustion gases, the presence of these impurities can lead to elevated emissions of harmful gases such as CO, CO 2 , NO x , SO 2 , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds, which negatively impact not only thermally processed food but also human well-being and the environment (Badyda et al., 2020;Jelonek et al., 2020a;Jelonek et al., 2020b;Jelonek et al., 2021;Badyda et al., 2022;Drobniak et al., 2023b;Kuś, Jelonek and Jelonek, 2023). ...
... Although the quantity of unwanted additives at such a low level may appear insignificant, it could have a notable impact on the quality of fuels and pose potential risks to customer health and safety (Jelonek et al., 2020b). As the quality of fuels affects the quality of combustion gases, the presence of these impurities can lead to elevated emissions of harmful gases such as CO, CO 2 , NO x , SO 2 , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds, which negatively impact not only thermally processed food but also human well-being and the environment (Badyda et al., 2020;Jelonek et al., 2020a;Jelonek et al., 2020b;Jelonek et al., 2021;Badyda et al., 2022;Drobniak et al., 2023b;Kuś, Jelonek and Jelonek, 2023). ...
Despite the widespread popularity of charcoal-based grilling fuels, extensive studies have highlighted various pollutants linked to their production and combustion, posing potential risks to human health and the environment. Since the presence of impurities has been identified as a factor contributing to elevated emissions of harmful gases and particulate matter, a comprehensive quality assessment of grilling fuels is imperative to effectively manage and minimise potential risks to customer health and safety. While identifying many impurities in solid biomass fuels is possible through microscopic analysis, identifying fossil coal contaminants in charcoal briquettes can be challenging. The biggest difficulty arises when coal-derived inertinite and man-made charcoal need to be distinguished as both exhibit numerous visual similarities in microscopic images. Therefore, the goal of this study was to examine the optical morphology of inertinite and charcoal with the aim of differentiating them when they co-occur in charcoal briquettes. The results show that employing high differential interference (DIC) and fluorescence filters, coupled with reflected white light in microscopic analysis, can enhance the observations allowing for easier detection of impurities of inertinite in charcoal-based grilling fuels. Among the most notable distinctions are the high degree of cellular structure preservation and the presence of small pores and protrusions in man-made charcoal; these characteristics are typically absent in the inertinite fragments.
... The quality of barbecue charcoal significantly affects combustion performance, harmful gas emissions, and food contamination (Duedahl-Olesen and Ionas 2020; Mencarelli et al. 2023b). Low-quality charcoal can release a wide spectrum of air pollutants, including elevated concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and trace metals (Huang et al. 2016;Vicente et al. 2018;Jelonek et al. 2020). Prolonged exposure of individuals to these air pollutants can adversely affect health, resulting in short-term effects such as eye irritation and headaches, potentially leading to more serious conditions, including carcinogenic health problems (Mencarelli et al. 2023b). ...
... This omission is significant as charcoal can potentially contain various chemical elements such as heavy metals or organic pollutants, posing substantial risks if present (Susaya et al. 2010;Dias Júnior et al. 2017). Although the standard specifies that barbecue charcoal should not be made from chemically treated materials, unsuitable wood sources or the inclusion of non-wood material can increase contaminant concentrations (Pandey et al. 2009;Jelonek et al. 2020). Furthermore, relying solely on the parameters set by the standard may overlook the presence of organic pollutants, such as petroleum products, and inorganic pollutants such as metals and rust (Drobniak et al. 2021). ...
... Furthermore, relying solely on the parameters set by the standard may overlook the presence of organic pollutants, such as petroleum products, and inorganic pollutants such as metals and rust (Drobniak et al. 2021). This oversight can lead to higher risks of food contamination and pollutant inhalation hazards for users (Taner et al. 2013;Sharp and Turner 2013;Jelonek et al. 2020). ...
The use of charcoal as a barbecue fuel is a widespread practice around the world. The quality of charcoal is essential to ensure the efficacy and safety of the grilling process. The European standards EN 1860-2:2023 establish the minimum quality requirements for barbecue charcoal for domestic and professional use. Given the significant variability in charcoal production techniques and raw materials, it is crucial to assess whether the commercial products available on the European market comply with standard regulatory requirements. This study evaluated the quality of barbecue charcoal available on the European market over four years: 2020, 2021, 2023, and 2024. A total of 42 charcoal bags were analyzed. Physical and chemical analyses were performed according to the referenced standards. The values obtained were compared with the limits required by the standards. The results revealed a high variability in the qualitative characteristics of charcoal among samples of different brands, both within the same year and in different years. Almost all of the samples analyzed (39) did not meet the standard limits. The most critical factors were low fixed carbon values and granulometry with high percentages of fine and coarse fractions. These findings suggest the need for improved regulations and stricter quality control to mitigate consumer risks.
... Charcoal briquettes are made of the charcoal fine fraction mixed with water and a binder that is approved to be used (e.g. starch, molasses, gum Arabic; see Jelonek et al., 2020) and being subsequently dried (EN 1860(EN -2, 2005Heinze et al., 2013). Any gases generated during the combustion of the binder, should not pose a health hazard (EN 1860(EN -2, 2005. ...
... Occasionally, processed wood, plastic particles, coal, etc., were identified in charcoals; these admixtures endanger human health (Blesa et al., 2003;Sotannde et al., 2010;Onchieku et al., 2012;Mwampamba et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2018;Jelonek et al., 2020). Using this inferior type of grill fuel can be very harmful due to the impurity content Drobniak et al., 2021) and the resultant toxic emissions produced by barbequing (Venkataraman and Rao, 2001;Bhattacharya et al., 2002b;Jetter and Kariher, 2009;Pandey et al., 2009;Kabir et al., 2010Kabir et al., , 2011Huang et al., 2016;Vicente et al., 2018;Jeoung et al., 2020;Ju et al., 2020). ...
... Using this inferior type of grill fuel can be very harmful due to the impurity content Drobniak et al., 2021) and the resultant toxic emissions produced by barbequing (Venkataraman and Rao, 2001;Bhattacharya et al., 2002b;Jetter and Kariher, 2009;Pandey et al., 2009;Kabir et al., 2010Kabir et al., , 2011Huang et al., 2016;Vicente et al., 2018;Jeoung et al., 2020;Ju et al., 2020). In the last decade the scientific awareness has been raised to assess the quality of barbeque briquettes through either the petrographic analysis (Jelonek, 2020;Jelonek et al., 2020;Drobniak et al., 2021Drobniak et al., , 2022 or proximate and ultimate analyses (Akowuah et al., 2012;Huang et al., 2016;Borowski et al., 2017;Nugroho and Istikowati, 2020;Dias Junior et al., 2021;Mencarelli et al., 2022). In the literature, only Jelonek (2020) and Jelonek et al. (2020) have determined the content of components in charcoal briquettes. ...
... In the last years, charcoal grilling, whether in the form of domestic barbecues or at charcoal restaurants, has gained widespread popularity due to the unique smoky flavor and smell it imparts to food (Allais, 2021;HPBA, 2023;Vicente et al., 2018;Yu et al., 2020). Despite the availability of various alternative grilling fuels such as gas, electricity, wood, and pellets, charcoal-based products continue to dominate as the most widely used option for barbecue activities (Allais, 2021;Jelonek et al., 2020). ...
... Briquettes consist of charcoal dust compacted with binding agents like starch, resulting in a uniform and compressed fuel with a regular shape. Charcoal briquettes are appreciated for grilling food because of their high density, extended burning duration, steady ember temperature, effortless ignition, and more affordable cost in comparison to lump charcoal Jelonek et al., 2020;Ju et al., 2020;Seboka, 2009). ...
... Several factors can contribute to varying levels of contaminant concentrations, including combustion conditions (Ju et al., 2020), charcoal quality (Deng et al., 2019;Jelonek et al., 2020), type of fuel used Kuo et al. 2006), and the characteristics of the food being cooked (Alves et al., 2022;Xu et al. 2023). Understanding and effectively managing these factors is crucial to reduce the negative environmental and health impacts of charcoal emissions. ...
Charcoal-based products are widely spread and appreciated as fuel for grilling food. However, during their use,
they release high emissions that pose significant environmental issues and health risks. Charcoal grilling emissions
contain a wide range of pollutants including CO, CO2, NOx, PM, PAHs, VOCs, and trace metals. The
emission of these pollutants contributes to both indoor and outdoor air pollution. Factors such as charcoal type
and qualitative characteristics, combustion temperature, and the presence of food influence the emission
released. Compared to domestic emissions, charcoal grilling restaurants can be a major source of air pollutants
affecting both indoor and outdoor air quality. The deterioration of air quality determines health repercussions.
This study aimed to review the existing scientific literature on the environmental and health implications of
charcoal-based products used in domestic and restaurant settings. The association between charcoal grilling
emissions, respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and the increased risk of developing carcinogenic
conditions was evaluated. Workers in restaurant settings, exposed to cooking fumes for several hours, are
particularly vulnerable to these health risks, but even short exposure can lead to health problems. Mitigation
strategies involve different approaches, including the use of high-quality charcoal, implementing a certification
system to ensure high-quality tested products, using grilling equipment designed to reduce emissions, ensuring
proper ventilation, using abatement systems, and promoting responsible and sustainable grilling practices.
Implementing these strategies guarantees more eco-friendly and safer grilling conditions while effectively
reducing the adverse impacts of charcoal combustion on the environment and human health.
... Various production standards and quality certification schemes for solid biomass fuels have been implemented worldwide in recent decades. Wood pellets and charcoal-based grilling fuels are evaluated based on various physical and chemical parameters, an established set of quality control restrictions, and assurance measurements to define product grades and quality criteria (Abdoli et al., 2018;PL-US BIO, 2023;DINplus, 2021;Drobniak et al., 2022;EN 1860EN -2:2005EN (E) (2005; EN 14961-2:2012ENplus, 2023;Huo et al., 2020;ISO 17225-1, 2014;ISO 17225-2, 2014;Jelonek et al., 2020aJelonek et al., , 2020bMeyer and Priess, 2014;PFI, 2018aPFI, , 2018bvan Dam et al., 2008;Vissers et al., 2011). However, while various quality-certification schemes or national standards are implemented worldwide (Kalligeros et al., 2009;Seyda, 2018;Zhou et al., 2016), there are very limited publicly available data that demonstrate how many solid biomass fuels are tested and certified. ...
... It is also unknown how many wood pellets are manufactured by small producers, as typically, their production data are not tracked or compiled by reports. In the case of charcoal-based grilling fuels, no data regarding production are available, and minimal testing is implemented to ensure their quality (Drobniak et al., 2022;Jelonek et al., 2020a). ...
... According to standards, additives in wood pellets should not be higher than 2 wt% (ENplus, 2023;PFI, 2018b), and inadmissible additions (like fossil coals, petroleum, coke, pitch, plastic, glass, slag, rust, splinters of metal or stone powder) shall not exceed 1% by volume as determined by microscopic analysis in charcoal-based grilling fuels (EN 1860(EN -2: 2005 (2005)). However, research shows that the amount of undesired components in solid biomass fuels can reach even above 25 vol% (Drobniak et al., 2021a(Drobniak et al., , 2021b(Drobniak et al., , 2022Jelonek et al., 2020aJelonek et al., , 2020bJelonek et al., , 2021. ...
Considering global market trends and concerns about climate change and sustainability, increased biomass use for energy is expected to continue. As more diverse materials are being utilized to manufacture solid biomass fuels, it is critical to implement quality assessment methods to analyze these fuels thoroughly. One such method is reflected light microscopy (RLM), which has the potential to complement and enhance the current standard
testing, leading to improving fuel quality assessment and, ultimately, preventing avoidable air pollution.
An interlaboratory study (ILS) was conducted to test the reproducibility of biomass fuels component identification
using a reflected light microscopy technique. The exercise was conducted on thirty photomicrographs showing biomass and various undesired components (like plastics or mineral matter), which were purposely added (by the ILS organizers) to contaminate wood pellets and charcoal-based grilling fuels.
Forty-six participants had various levels of difficulty identifying the marked components, and as a result, the percentage of correct answers ranged from 52.2 to 94.4%. Among the most difficult components to distinguish were petroleum products and inorganic matter. Various reasons led to the misidentification, including insufficient morphological descriptions of the components provided to participants, ambiguities of the nomenclature, limitations of the analytical and exercise method, and insufficient experience of the participants.
Overall, the results indicate that RLM has the potential to enhance the quality assessment of biomass fuels. However, they also demonstrate that the petrographic classification used in this exercise requires further refinement before it can be standardized. While a new simplified classification of solid biomass fuels components was created as an outcome of this study, future research is necessary to refine the nomenclature, develop a microscopic morphological description of the components, and verify the accuracy of component identification
with a follow-up ILS.
... These compounds are hazardous to human health and can lead to bronchitis, emphysema, or respiratory tract cancer. Contamination of wood pellets with oils, paints, adhesives, and other organic compounds [9][10][11] is also dangerous to humans and the environment. Mineral material contamination may come from the wood harvesting process, while metallic additives and rust can enter the pellets during the production process. ...
... While some solid biomass fuels are rigorously tested, others are tested occasionally or not at all [10,12,13]. For charcoal and charcoal briquettes, the standard has been developed [14], specifying requirements for quality and, more specifically, for a reduction in the amount of solid impurities. ...
... Currently, microscopic analysis is successfully used to identify a wide range of contaminants in various grill fuels and wood pellets [10,12,15,16]. However, the process is laborious and time-consuming. ...
Pellet fuels are nowadays commonly used as a heat source for food preparation. Unfortunately, they may contain intrusions which might be harmful for humans and the environment. The intrusions can be identified precisely using immersed microscopy analysis. The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of autonomous identification of selected classes of intrusions using relatively simple deep learning models. The semantic segmentation was chosen as a method for impurity identification in the microscopic image. Three architectures of deep networks based on UNet architecture were examined. The networks contained the same depth as UNet but with a successively limited number of filters. The input image influence on the segmentation results was also examined. The efficiency of the network was assessed using the intersection over union index. The results showed an easily observable impact of the filter used on segmentation efficiency. The influence of the input image resolution is not so clear, and even the lowest (256 × 256 pixels) resolution used gave satisfactory results. The biggest (but still smaller than originally proposed UNet) network yielded segmentation quality good enough for practical applications. The simpler one was also applicable, although the quality of the segmentation decreased considerably. The simplest network gave poor results and is not suitable in applications. The two proposed networks can be used as a support for domain experts in practical applications.
... Various production standards and quality certification schemes for solid biomass fuels have been implemented worldwide in recent decades. Wood pellets and charcoal-based grilling fuels are evaluated based on various physical and chemical parameters, an established set of quality control restrictions, and assurance measurements to define product grades and quality criteria (Abdoli et al., 2018;PL-US BIO, 2023;DINplus, 2021;Drobniak et al., 2022;EN 1860EN -2:2005EN (E) (2005; EN 14961-2:2012ENplus, 2023;Huo et al., 2020;ISO 17225-1, 2014;ISO 17225-2, 2014;Jelonek et al., 2020aJelonek et al., , 2020bMeyer and Priess, 2014;PFI, 2018aPFI, , 2018bvan Dam et al., 2008;Vissers et al., 2011). However, while various quality-certification schemes or national standards are implemented worldwide (Kalligeros et al., 2009;Seyda, 2018;Zhou et al., 2016), there are very limited publicly available data that demonstrate how many solid biomass fuels are tested and certified. ...
... It is also unknown how many wood pellets are manufactured by small producers, as typically, their production data are not tracked or compiled by reports. In the case of charcoal-based grilling fuels, no data regarding production are available, and minimal testing is implemented to ensure their quality (Drobniak et al., 2022;Jelonek et al., 2020a). ...
... According to standards, additives in wood pellets should not be higher than 2 wt% (ENplus, 2023;PFI, 2018b), and inadmissible additions (like fossil coals, petroleum, coke, pitch, plastic, glass, slag, rust, splinters of metal or stone powder) shall not exceed 1% by volume as determined by microscopic analysis in charcoal-based grilling fuels (EN 1860(EN -2: 2005 (2005)). However, research shows that the amount of undesired components in solid biomass fuels can reach even above 25 vol% (Drobniak et al., 2021a(Drobniak et al., , 2021b(Drobniak et al., , 2022Jelonek et al., 2020aJelonek et al., , 2020bJelonek et al., , 2021. ...
... All samples were tested for moisture, ash, heating value, ash melting temperature, and sulfur, hydrogen, and nitrogen content. Samples were also submitted for a 1000-point count petrographic analysis in reflected light and oil immersion, allowing the identification of components and impurities in solid biomass fuels using methodology and classifications by Drobniak and Jelonek (Drobniak et al., 2022;Drobniak et al., 2021aDrobniak et al., , 2021bJelonek et al., 2021Jelonek et al., , 2020aJelonek et al., , 2020b. ...
... This distinction was made considering that these three components have various properties, and therefore they can generate different types and amounts of emissions and ash residue. For instance, bark, while a type of biomass, is an unwanted contaminant, as it typically contains elevated amounts of mineral matter, leading to the creation of slag during combustion if elevated above 2.5-3% of the sample volume (Drobniak et al., 2022;Jelonek et al., 2021Jelonek et al., , 2020aJelonek et al., , 2020bRadačovská et al., 2017). ...
... Our previous studies on charcoal briquettes, lump charcoal (Jelonek et al., 2020a), and wood pellets and chips (Jelonek et al., 2021) used in grilling suggested that fuel type and quality influence the amount and type of emissions. As a follow-up, one of the main objectives of this study was to investigate to what extent biomass type and characteristics influence emissions from small-scale gasification in a residential setting. ...
With interest rising in biomass use, biomass gasification has the potential to become an imperative mechanism to deliver clean conversion of various types of solid biomass to gas. But as biomass gasification attracts growing interest, it is important to focus not only on the technological feasibility but also fully understand its environmental impact to eliminate avoidable air pollution.
In this study, we investigated relationships between the composition of 14 types of solid biomass fuels and their gasification emissions in a small-scale residential outdoor setting. Our results show that the amount and type of produced emissions are strongly influenced by the gasified feed.
Combining chemical and petrographic analysis proved to be a robust quality assessment method of solid biomass fuels, allowing for quick detection of their contaminants. These impurities can be directly correlated with elevated particulate matter emissions, CO, H2S, HCHO, NH3, SO2, NOx, and respiratory tract irritants. These observations show that quality testing of biomass fuels is critical not only for ensuring their high quality but also for predicting avoidable air pollution during their utilization.
Although our data revealed relationships between the type of biomass fuel and gasification emissions, in general, our experiments show that small-scale gasification in a residential setting is a safe technology, and potential hazards can be eliminated by using certified fuels and ensuring appropriate distance from the source of emissions.
... Mostly, an ancient technique, such as charcoal grilling is a common sate cooking method in Southeast Asian countries [7]. From ancient times until now, wood and charcoal fuels have been used and are one of the oldest human-made fuels for cooking and heating [8,9]. ...
... For centuries, grill charcoal fuel has been one of the oldest human-made fuels. It was an important ingredient for cooking and heating in ancient times and even today charcoal is used in grilling cooking techniques to make sate [8,10]. ...
Sate (satay) dishes have a wealth of ingredients and spices spread throughout Indonesia, which produces a diversity of types and flavors of satay. In sate dishes, the way pieces of meat are served on skewers was affected by Arabic culture, which influence is most visible in the development of Indonesian food culture. On average, sate is made using grilling, which is an ancient type of cooking technique survived into modern times. For centuries, wood and charcoal have been some of the oldest human-made fuels as important ingredients for cooking and heating in ancient times and even today. Apart from being an everyday food, sate is Indonesia’s gastronomic culinary cultural heritage with a wide diversity that needs to be preserved because it functions as a national identity and has excellent potential for developing culinary tourism.
... For example, Alves et al. (2022) detected elevated emissions of various pollutants such as CH 4 , ethylene (C 2 H 4 ), carboxylic acids, TVOC, and PM10 during the flaming phase following charcoal ignition. Similarly, Jelonek et al. (2020) observed that CO, CO 2 , NO x , and PM1-10 emissions from charcoal and briquette combustion were highest in the first 15-20 min, followed by a gradual decrease and stabilization. Huang et al. (2016) investigated the variations in pollutant emissions (CO, CO 2 , HC, NO x , C 2 H 4 O, HCHO, PM2.5, and PM10) during the flaming and smoldering phases. ...
... It is also worth noting that the levels of CO, NOx, and CO 2 are significantly impacted by impurities, with samples containing higher impurity concentrations releasing more of these gases throughout the analysis period. However, the most noticeable difference is observed in the first 15 to 20 min after ignition (Jelonek et al., 2020). Table 4 displays a comparison of the actual gas emissions from charcoal briquettes and the maximum human exposure limit over 8 h. ...
This research focuses on examining the potential impact of charcoal briquettes and lumps on human health due to the emissions they release, and verifying their quality standards. Quality assessment was conducted using a device capable of measuring toxic gases to identify contaminants from various sources such as biomass, synthetic resins, coal, metals, and mineral matter. Toxicity assessments were carried out on five types of briquettes and two varieties of lump charcoal. All charcoal samples were subjected to elemental analysis (SEM/EDAX), including the examination of Ca, Al, Cr, V, Cu, Fe, S, Sr, Si, Ba, Pb, P, Mn, Rb, K, Ti, and Zn. The results showed that burning lump charcoal had toxicity indexes ranging from 2.5 to 5, primarily due to NOx emissions. Briquettes, on the other hand, exhibited higher toxicity indices between 3.5 and 6.0, with CO2 being the main contributor to toxicity. The average 24-h CO content of all charcoal samples exceeded the World Health Organization’s 24-h Air Quality Guideline of 6.34 ppm, with a measurement of 37 ppm. The data indicates that most of the products tested did not meet the prevailing quality standard (EN 1860-2:2005 (E) in Appliances, solid fuels and firelighters for barbecuing—Part 2: Barbecue charcoal and barbecue charcoal briquettes—Requirements and test method, 2005), which specifies a maximum of 1% contaminants, with some products containing as much as 21% impurities. The SEM analysis revealed irregularly shaped grains with an uneven distribution of particles, and the average particle size distribution is quite broad at 5 μm. Malaysia Charcoal had the highest calorific value at 32.80 MJ/Kg, with the value being influenced by the fixed carbon content—higher carbon content resulting in a higher calorific value.
... These include lump charcoal and briquettes. Briquettes are made from compressed charcoal produced from wood by-products with binder and other additives (Jelonek et al., 2020). Some types of briquettes and lump charcoal are mixed with wood chips to add flavour. ...
... Lump charcoals are made by burning wood at low oxygen. Briquettes are made by compressed charcoal, typically made from sawdust and other wood by-products, often with a binder and other additives (Jelonek et al., 2020). To add some extra smoke flavour to the grilled food it is also common to mix some wood chips with the charcoal. ...
VKM has assessed the health risk from grilled food consumption and summarized the knowledge on formation of several carcinogenic process contaminants in grilled food. Based on exposure scenarios for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in grilled food VKM concludes that the risk is low for most consumers. VKM noted a public health concern for those who often consume fat rich meat that is grilled in a way leading to high PAH formation, i.e., when fat burns on the heat source, food is grilled very well-done on charcoal or particularly campfire. Such conditions may also increase formation of other heat-induced contaminants.
... The comparison of some charcoal briquettes derived from different feedstocks are listed in Table 4. Based on Table 4, it can be seen that coconut shell has the prominent characteristics as briquette raw material. Coconut shell has higher HHV and carbon content, lower LHV and moisture content, suggesting the coconut shell is a good choice for briquetting [4,46]. However, almost all briquettes have low mechanical strength in nature, and caused problems in packing and distribution. ...
... However, almost all briquettes have low mechanical strength in nature, and caused problems in packing and distribution. Consequently, the binding agent were added to the briquette to improve its mechanical properties [10,46]. It has been developed interests in the study of briquette synthesis and modifications. ...
... Charcoal production is considered an ancestral activity, with the earliest records dating back more than 30,000 years [6][7][8]. Although there are new alternatives for energy generation, charcoal is, for many people, the main source of cooking [9]; this preference is carbon and calorific value, have been related to processing temperatures of 400 to 1200 • C in Brazilian beehive-type kilns; on the other hand, production yield is an important aspect to evaluate. ...
... Kilns with a slow ramp (<1 • C min −1 ) produced charcoal of good quality, and the final temperature observed was similar to that recommended by Kan et al. [15], who mentioned that the ideal temperature is from 400 to 550 • C. One of the most widely used standards for categorizing charcoal is EN 1860-2 [49], which is applicable to most European countries (Jelonek et al.) [8]. This stated for export and consumption purposes, and fixed carbon should be ≥75%, ash ≤ 8%, moisture content ≤ 8%, while volatile material is not considered, but if the assumption that the proximate analysis should add up to 100% is applied, it should be ≤16%, as could be seen in the in the correlation analysis of the four types of kilns. ...
Charcoal production is an activity that dates back over the years. The objective of the study was to determine the temperature and heating ramp in industrial carbonization processes using different kiln types and to quantify its impact on yield and quality of charcoal from different firewood species. The selection of sites, kiln types, and species investigated was based on those with highest production in Mexico. Brazilian beehive kilns using Arbutus xalapensis, Quercus durifolia, and Quercus sideroxyla species were analyzed; modified Brazilian beehive kilns with Pithecellobium dulce and Tamarindus indica; Argentine half-orange kilns with Quercus magnoliifolia and Q. sideroxyla, industrial metal kilns with Brosimum alicastrum, Vitex gaumeri, Manilkara zapota, and Pouteria unilocularis. The process time, temperature, heating ramp, production yield, and quality of charcoal produced were determined. Data were analyzed in a completely random statistical design. The industrial type kilns showed the highest production yield (>35%), and the Brazilian beehive kilns obtained the longest carbonization time (>240 h). On the other hand, the modified Brazilian beehive kilns obtained the best energetic characteristics (>75% fixed carbon and <16% volatile material). A carbonization process with a slow heating ramp (<1 °C min⁻¹) and temperatures of 500–600 °C can generate a charcoal with export quality.
... P r e p r i n t n o t p e e r r e v i e w e d 377 378 379 Figure 9. P r e p r i n t n o t p e e r r e v i e w e d 409 Petroleum products in solid biomass fuels are typically associated with the fuel production process. 410 While flammable petroleum-based agents can sometimes be deliberately added to charcoal-based grilling 411 fuels, these contaminants (such as glue, paint, or synthetic resin) usually originate from fuel source 412 materials like reclaimed furniture or construction waste (Jelonek et al., 2020a). Additionally, petroleum 413 products can be introduced, either intentionally or accidentally (oils, plastic, or rubber) during the 414 manufacturing process. ...
... Briquettes are composed of charcoal dust, compacted with binding agents such as starch, generating a uniform and compressed fuel with a consistent shape. Charcoal briquettes are valued for culinary grilling due to their high density, prolonged burning duration, stable ember temperature, easy ignition, and lower cost relative to lump charcoal (Jelonek et al., 2020). Wood briquettes are compressed sawdust and wood residues, which can be a sustainable alternative to charcoal. ...
There are growing environmental and health concerns surrounding using charcoal and wood for grilling because charcoal combustion releases significant pollutants that contribute to global warming, air pollution, and adverse health effects. The study assessed the emissions and performance quality of selected types of charcoal briquettes and wood briquettes available on the market. Sixteen (16) samples were collected for this investigation including 8 charcoal briquette samples and 8 wood briquette samples. The samples were selected to represent the most common barbecue offerings in the Italian market. The samples were subjected to proximate analysis according to the procedures established under the international EN ISO standards. All parameters were determined in triplicate. Proximate analysis was conducted to determine the Ash content (AC), Moisture content (MC), Volatile matter (VM), and Fixed carbon (FC) of the samples. The experimental procedures were conducted in a controlled laboratory setting for 4 to 6 weeks, with each test repeated for accuracy and comparability. Lower Heating Value on a dry basis (LHVdry) and the Higher Heating Value on a dry basis (HHVdry) were determined using a bomb. Combustion tests were also conducted to assess the concentration of Carbon monoxide (CO), Volatile organic compound (VOC) and Total suspended particle (TSP) emitted during charcoal combustion. Results showed that for proximate analysis parameters such as moisture content, wood briquettes exhibited higher values than charcoal briquettes. This indicates that wood briquettes may require more energy for evaporation during combustion, potentially reducing combustion efficiency. For ash content, wood briquettes had significantly lower ash content as compared to charcoal briquettes, suggesting that wood briquettes produced less residue, which could impact post-combustion waste management. Wood briquettes also had higher volatile matter, implying an ease of ignition and rapid energy release during combustion. Charcoal briquettes, however, outperformed wood briquettes in the fixed carbon content and heating values, 54.04% for charcoal briquettes and 14.95% for wood briquettes, indicating that charcoal briquettes can sustain combustion for a longer period, as fixed carbon is responsible for the prolonged heat release during grilling. Charcoal briquettes outperformed wood briquettes, with mean lower heating values of 22.20 MJ/kg and higher heating values of 23.52 MJ/kg, compared to 18.26 MJ/kg (LHVdry) and 19.58 MJ/kg (HHVdry) for wood briquettes. Finally, the CO, VOCs, and TSP emissions were relatively higher from charcoal briquettes than those from wood briquettes. Although charcoal briquettes present better energy characteristics for grilling, they are associated with higher emissions. Perhaps wood briquettes should be preferred over charcoal for grilling. However, more investigations are needed to sustain these results. The work needs to be extended to other types of wood and charcoal briquettes.
... Compared to wood, charcoal is more durable and resistant to degradation from insects or fungi, making it a more reliable fuel option. Historically, charcoal is also considered one of the oldest synthetic materials created by humans [2]. As a renewable energy source made from biomass, charcoal is particularly valuable in tropical regions like Thailand, where biomass is abundant. ...
The study examines the impact of kiln capacity on environmentally friendly biochar yield and characteristics from rubberwood scrap using an MCGB as the heat source. A 600-liter finned-wall kiln was tested at 50 %, 75 %, and 100 % capacity. The MCGB maintained 550 °C for pyrolysis, with an equivalence ratio of 0.3–0.6 (gasification) and 0.7–0.9 (combustion), a peak temperature of 1204 °C. The biochar yield was 26–27 %, while wood vinegar yield ranged from 38.1 to 42.5 %. The kiln reduced pyrolysis time by 55 % compared to conventional klin, with GHG emissions of 0.16–0.21 kg CO2e/kg-biochar. The biochar met cooking and deodorization standards, highlighting the MCGB's efficiency and sustainability.
... Slow charring yields a black carbonaceous substance known as charcoal, which emits comparatively minimal smoke while use [16]. Biomass combustion is linked to inefficient burning and the release of various toxic substances [113], such as carbon monoxide (CO) [114], volatile organic compounds [115], nitrogen oxides (NOx) [116], polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) [117], fine particulate matter (PM) [118], trace metals, and additional minor pollutants [119,110,120]. Further analysis revealed that charcoal is a carbon-dense, porous substance created from the pyrolysis of organic matter, such as wood, under regulated conditions, usually at temperatures ranging from 200 to 400°C [121]. ...
Charcoal is a widely utilised fuel produced from the carbonisation of organic materials, such as wood and other biomass sources. Regrettably, airborne contaminants from traditional charcoal producing techniques can negatively impact human health and the environment. This research explore air pollutant emissions from traditional charcoal producing methods and their impacts on human health and the environment. This study utilised a qualitative synthesis methodology, incorporating case studies, archival research, and discourse analysis, to elucidate the impacts of charcoal production. The results demonstrate that the traditional charcoal production method results in substantial carbon loss from fuelwood and emits by-products of incomplete combustion, exacerbating serious health risks and degrading air quality associated with community health problems. Empirical evidence indicates that the majority of charcoal manufacturing workers lack awareness of the health risks associated with their working circumstances and the respiratory problems they face. Unsustainable environmental practices highlight the social and ecological repercussions of charcoal production. It is advisable to apply air pollution mitigation methods around charcoal kiln facilities to protect environmental and community health. The Environmental Protection Agency must actively implement effective oversight and integrated management to improve air quality and safeguard communities from air hazards. This study recommends testing high-efficiency technologies in communities capable of maintaining and assessing their effects on environmental degradation. Both governmental entities and humanitarian organisations should prioritise educational activities centred on effective land management approaches, as this study's findings suggest.
... The research shows that abundant agricultural waste resources can be utilized as economical and sustainable raw materials for developing solid fuels in China. The results indicate that combustion is the method most widely used and developed among various conversion technologies to convert biomass fuel into energy [22], [23]. Several researches about agricultural waste processes have been carried out, such as turning them into biochar and biomass. ...
Indonesia ranks 75 th of 166 countries receiving an achievement from the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The main factor in the success is the appropriate sustainable waste management, which utilizes alternative energy sources to support a circular economy. One potential use for biomass waste generated from oyster mushroom cultivation is wood powder briquettes. The main ingredient of powder briquettes is the waste oyster mushroom cultivation of wood powder. Omah Jamur Ungaran is a Small Medium Enterprise (SME) that specializes in cultivating white oyster mushrooms. However, the cultivation process generates considerable waste. This study focused on two essential variables: moisture content and ash content. The research employs the Taguchi method as a parameter. The method considers five factors: water volume, baglog charcoal, tapioca, blending time, and drying oven temperature. The results indicate a ranking order of the factors: the first is drying oven temperature (in Celsius); second is water volume (in ml); third is baglog charcoal (in grams); fourth is tapioca (in grams); and fifth is blending time (in minutes). The optimal conditions demonstrated 50 ml of water volume, 66 grams of baglog charcoal, 20 grams of tapioca, a blending time of 3 minutes, and a drying oven temperature of 140 C. Under these conditions, the best ash content results were observed by values ranging from 11.7% to a maximum of 30%.
... Apart from the fact that Cassia trees are classified as low-density wood species with a lower content of lignin and extractives, another factor that could have generally affected the yield of charcoal could be the use of the traditional earth mound for the charcoal production experiments for the study. This is because earth mounds have been identified as one of the least efficient methods of producing charcoal, with the resulting charcoal efficiency between 10%-15% Obiri et al., 2014;Chen et al., 2014;, and release the highest amounts of greenhouse gases (methane-CH4 and carbon dioxide-CO2) (Jelonek et al., 2020;Mekonnen et al., 2018). However, earth mounds were the only method available in the research communities for charcoal production due to their flexibility in usage and low construction cost, although it was labor intensive (Asare et al., 2022). ...
Biochar and charcoal cannot properly be discussed without understanding the diverse technologies available for their production. This is because approximately 70% of wood harvested worldwide is burned for energy and this, in addition to unstainable agricultural activities, has caused a massive increase in deforestation and contributed to climate change. Due to this, current global interventions are focused on promoting sustainable approaches through the expansion of agricultural technologies in countries where the deforestation rate keeps increasing due to overdependency on unsustainable and inefficient conversion technologies. It is therefore obvious that African regions cannot be left out when talking about the impact of global agriculture and charcoal production. Not only is 95% of all household energy used in Africa derived from burning wood in the form of charcoal and firewood, but sub-Saharan Africa regions also contribute 62% to global charcoal production. Since sustainability approaches are of global concern and must be understood from different perspectives and regions, this work analyzed sustainable agriculture and climate mitigation strategies using charcoal and biochar production as indicators. From a sustainability point of view, the study categorized this assessment into three chapters to help understand the preferences of local producers in relation to technologies used and the necessary actions or interventions needed for future improvements.
... The process of making bamboo briquettes involves several steps, similar to the production of charcoal briquettes (Jelonek et al., 2020). Bamboo is harvested from sustainable bamboo plantations. ...
... Vendors of premium charcoal contend that theirs generate higher temperatures and longer burns. At the same time, an analysis of 74 charcoal brands sold in seven countries [36] shows that charcoal composition varies widely. Contaminant content ranges from <1-27%! ...
There are four commercial pathways to make grill charcoal from wood. These have been modelled to calculate a Carbon Intensity (CI) for each. Results are presented along with discussion of the sensitivities: biogenic carbon; quality of the charcoal; classification of products, wastes and residues; and division of burden. Grill charcoal's CI ranges greatly, depending on the pathway by which it is produced. Wood distillation, a commercial process that once was common but now is rare, has a CI 50+% lower than that of the next-lowest commercial process, Kilns. Earth mounds/pits and external-fueled Retorts have CIs considerably higher still. The Carbon Efficiency (CE) of Wood distillation is more than twice that of the next-best, again Kilns. CE is defined as normalized, total carbon emitted. This is not the same as CI, it is not usually considered in studies such as this, yet it is important for climate impact. CE could be a useful measure in assessments (such as this) where biogenic carbon is significant.
... Recent research and climate activists have also cast doubts on the classi cation of wood pellets as a renewable energy source and have called for revisions in carbon accounting methodologies for harvested wood and pellet production (Sterman et al. 2018(Sterman et al. , 2022 One of the important aspects of biomass utilization is fuel quality, which is directly connected to the emissions they generate. Given biomass's growing role as a signi cant source of renewable energy, recent research highlights the need for a more comprehensive assessment of solid fuel quality (Jelonek et al. 2020a(Jelonek et al. , b, 2021Drobniak et al. 2021aDrobniak et al. , b, 2022Drobniak et al. , 2023a and accurate labeling of pellet products by manufacturers. Such labeling should include information regarding pellet properties and biomass sources (Biomasa 2021). ...
This study evaluates the quality of 30 biomass pellets sold for residential use in Poland. It provides data on their physical, chemical, and petrographic properties and compares them to existing standards and the information provided by the fuel producers. The results reveal considerable variations in the quality of the pellets and show that some of the purchased samples are not within the DINplus and/or ENplus certification thresholds. Among all 30 purchased samples, only one passes the quality thresholds set by the US-PL BIO, a newly established quality certification in Poland that combines quality assessment following DINplus with optical microscopy analysis. The primary issues causing a decrease in pellet quality include elevated ash and fines content, compromised mechanical durability, too low ash melting temperature, and additions of undesired additions like bark, inorganic matter, and petroleum products.
Our research highlights the need for improved fuel quality control measures, and transparent and accurate product labeling, as well as the need for a comprehensive and publicly available national database of solid biomass fuel producers and fuels sold. These are essential steps toward increasing customers’ awareness and trust, encouraging them to embrace biomass fuels as reliable and sustainable sources of energy.
... Since the excess amount of Sr atoms occupy both substitutional and interstitial sites (tetrahedral and octahedral) in the host lattice and increases the Sr concentrations; consequently, the interaction probability increases with other atoms of the host lattice and forces them to leave their sites. With the higher temperature treatment given to the samples and increased Sr atoms incorporation, Gibb's free energy stabilizes and produces the secondary phase (Jelonek et al. 2020). The sharp XRD peaks indicate a high crystallinity of the as-synthesized nanocomposites. ...
A fuel-based solution combustion method was used to synthesize Sr-substituted copper ferrites [Cu1−xSrxFe2O4 (x = 0.00, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00)]. X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern demonstrates that CuFe2O4 has a tetragonal structure and SrFe2O4 a cubic structure and the formation of particles of spherical and needle-like structures was observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The magnetic behavior was investigated through a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) at room temperature under an applied magnetic field ranging from − 20 kOe to + 20 kOe. Based on the M–H hysteresis loop, the soft-ferrite nature of the samples was observed. The synthesized samples were investigated for adsorption and photocatalysis in the degradation of textile dyes malachite green, crystal violet, and congo red. Compared to other compositions, SrFe2O4 demonstrated comparatively better adsorption and photocatalytic efficiency.
... In Europe, the quality of charcoal used for cooking food is determined by referring to the EN 1860-2:2023 standard [56]. However, the products on the market do not always meet the required characteristics and may have unacceptable traces of contaminants (e.g., mineral matter, plastic, glass, metals), which can be emitted during grilling, spread to food, and/or inhaled by the users [55,57,58]. Table 1 shows the primary physical-energy parameters required by the standard, along with the corresponding standard procedures and the established limits. ...
The global charcoal trade is steadily growing, with high-income countries importing significant quantities of this material from regions where its production is often associated with severe environmental issues, including forest overexploitation, illegal logging, and environmental pollution. Promoting local charcoal production in high-income countries is crucial to addressing these challenges. In this study, we have chosen to focus on the European context, specifically emphasizing Italy as a case study. Our study aimed to comprehensively compare five distinct charcoal production systems, including both traditional and modern solutions, with a specific focus on evaluating the quality of the resulting charcoal. Additionally, improvements were evaluated to enhance production efficiency. Traditional systems cannot satisfy production requests, resulting in inefficiencies in manpower, costs, times, and yield. Conversely, recent innovations consider mobile and stationary kiln prototypes. Mobile kilns offer flexibility and cost savings but require operator expertise, limit automation, and have long cycles. In contrast, stationary systems operate continuously, increasing productivity and efficiency, despite higher investment costs. Notably, charcoal quality showed minimal differences. These findings highlighted the potential of new technologies to enhance efficiency, reduce cost and environmental impact, and promote sustainable charcoal production.
... Oil, coal, and other impure fuels contain sulfur and various organic compounds that contribute to air pollution (Jelonek et al. 2020). Additionally, air pollution arises from forest fires, soil fires, and vegetation fires, which release relatively small amounts of sulfur (Reddington et al. 2021). ...
The study aims to monitor air pollution in Iranian metropolises using remote sensing, specifically focusing on pollutants such as O3, CH4, NO2, CO2, SO2, CO, and suspended particles (aerosols) in 2001 and 2019. Sentinel 5 satellite images are utilized to prepare maps of each pollutant. The relationship between these pollutants and land surface temperature (LST) is determined using linear regression analysis. Additionally, the study estimates air pollution levels in 2040 using Markov and Cellular Automata (CA)-Markov chains. Furthermore, three neural network models, namely multilayer perceptron (MLP), radial basis function (RBF), and long short-term memory (LSTM), are employed for predicting contamination levels. The results of the research indicate an increase in pollution levels from 2010 to 2019. It is observed that temperature has a strong correlation with contamination levels (R² = 0.87). The neural network models, particularly RBF and LSTM, demonstrate higher accuracy in predicting pollution with an R² value of 0.90. The findings highlight the significance of managing industrial towns to minimize pollution, as these areas exhibit both high pollution levels and temperatures. So, the study emphasizes the importance of monitoring air pollution and its correlation with temperature. Remote sensing techniques and advanced prediction models can provide valuable insights for effective pollution management and decision-making processes.
... Adding certain binders and other additives not only increases the durability and calorific value of the briquettes but also significantly prevents the release of toxic gases into the environment [17]. Briquette can be used for space heating, as well as in residential, commercial, and industrial processes, and also contributes to a reduction in environmental pollution compared to untreated coal and other traditional fuels found in Pakistan, such as wood, dung, and charcoal [18]. Heavy pellets can be easily transported to the market and easily stored and handled at the site of use. ...
In energy scarcity, particularly in Agri-based developing economies, bio-coal briquetting is the most suitable means of meeting sustainable energy needs utilizing agricultural waste. In this study, briquettes were made from an indigenously designed briquetting machine for investigating coal–biomass proportion blend using coal from Dara Adam Khel, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan, and pomegranate/olive waste to analyze their resulting calorific value, strength, and geochemical properties. A central composite design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM) were employed to design the experiments and analyze the data. Regression models were developed for each biomass type, demonstrating their adequacy and reliability for further analysis and prediction. Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) analysis provided insights into the elemental composition of the coal briquettes. Mechanical analysis was performed to assess the strength of the briquettes, with varying compositions showing different levels of strength. Optimization using a composite desirability function yielded an optimal calorific value of 6728 kJ/kg. In summary, this study underscores the viability of bio-coal briquetting as a transformative solution to alleviate energy scarcity. Repurposing agricultural waste curtails resource depletion while mitigating waste disposal challenges. The optimized calorific value aligns with eco-friendly energy initiatives, advancing a greener path toward energy security.
... Briquettes are generally produced by pressing or compacting raw materials into uniform solids with low moisture and high calorific values using a hydraulic press; consequently, they can be facilely used and distributed (Nyakuma et al., 2014;Rousset et al., 2011). Briquette production typically uses additives, such as starch, molasses, clay, and tar, to maintain the shape of briquettes (Jelonek et al., 2020). Biomass briquettes generally burn more gradually than charcoal. ...
... Response surface methodology (RSM) has been widely used for experimental design to optimize extraction conditions for bioactive compounds from solid matrices. For instance, recently, many studies applied RSM for optimization of ultrasound-assisted solvent extraction for bioactive compounds from purple coneflower, 24 ficaria kochii, 25 barbary fig, 26 orange peel, 27 turkey berry fruits 28 and so on. Moreover, RSM has also been applied for optimization of subcritical water extraction conditions for essential oil from kaffir lime leaves. ...
BACKGROUND
Kaffir lime peel is a food waste which contains good aromatic essential oil and phenolic compounds. Extraction of essential oil from kaffir lime peel is conducted to obtain the extract for using as biological ingredients in various products. After essential oil extraction, kaffir lime peel residue has been remained, and it can be considered as another by‐product. Therefore, it is interesting to evaluate the contents of phenolic compounds in the kaffir lime peel residue to understand the possibility of valorization of kaffir lime peel wastes at a practical level. In this study, extraction of essential oil from fresh kaffir lime peel was conducted by hydrodistillation, and phenolic compounds were extracted from the kaffir lime peel residue by process optimization of an ethanolic extraction method.
RESULTS
Through hydrodistillation and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis, essential oil of kaffir lime peel contained terpinene‐4‐ol (19%), β‐pinene (15.8%) and d‐limonene (15.6%) as the major volatile compounds. In extraction of phenolic compounds from kaffir lime peel residue, all investigated parameters had significant linear effects on the yield of phenolic compounds, but no interaction effects among the extraction parameters were observed. Optimal conditions for the extraction were 120 min, 60 °C and 1:20 g mL⁻¹, resulting in phenolic compounds of 8.6 mg GAE g⁻¹ sample. The phenolic compound yield extracted from fresh kaffir lime peel at the optimal conditions was close to that extracted from the kaffir lime peel residue.
CONCLUSIONS
Through hydrodistillation, only essential oil was extracted from kaffir lime peel, while phenolic compounds are still remained in the solid residue of the kaffir lime peel at high concentration as the fresh sample. Results of this study are useful for maximizing extraction yield of phenolic compounds from kaffir lime peel. The results of this study also revealed the possibility of maximizing the utilization of kaffir lime peel wastes at the practical stage through extraction of both essential oils and phenolic compounds. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).
... The constant carbon content of the entire carbonization process used in this study is further related to the carbonization process. Fixed carbon is positively correlated with carbon monoxide, and the excess constant carbon contained in charcoal briquettes resulted in high carbon monoxide levels and long cooking times due to its excessive heat release (35). Using equation 16, the calorie value of charcoal briquettes was calculated to be 27.05 ...
Background: This research aimed to evaluate the use of natural resin as a binder for the production of fuel briquette from solid waste biomass. Methods: Proximate analyses were made for fuel briquette prepared from solid waste biomass using natural resin as a binder in comparison with using starch as a binder. Results: The results for density, percent content of moisture, percent content of volatile matter, percent content of ash, percent content of fixed carbon, and the caloric value of solid waste biomass obtained were 158.23 kg/m3 , 18.25%, 65.99%, 4.78%, 10.98%, and 18.65 MJ/kg, respectively. Besides natural resin binder-used fuel briquette was characterized for its density, percent content of porosity weight index, percent content of shatter resistance, percent content of moisture content, percent content of volatile matter, percent content of ash content, percent content of fixed carbon content, and caloric values as 751.05 kg/m3 , 13%, 40%, 4%, 12%, 1%, 30%, and 27.05 MJ/kg, respectively. In the same way, the starch binder-used fuel briquette was characterized for its density, percent content of porosity, weight index, percent content of shatter resistance, percent content of moisture content, percent content of volatile matter, percent content of ash, percent content of fixed carbon, and caloric values as 760 kg/m3 , 10%, 42%, 4%, 11%, 2%, 31%, and 28.09 MJ/kg, respectively. Conclusion: According to the results of the study, it can be concluded that all characterized properties using natural resin as a binder indicate almost comparative properties in comparison with the use of starch as a binder.
... Meanwhile, real-time PM emission quantification was executed with a Testo 380 probe (Co. Testo, Germany) [50,51]. Afterward, based on the test results, the published emission factors of the species were corrected by the collected average speed data; the obtained correction coefficients under different driving conditions are shown in Table S1. ...
The Chishui River Valley is a microscale ecology-preservation area with industrial clusters. The significance of evaluating vehicular emissions has been gradually highlighted with the rapid development of the local transportation and tourism sectors. This study provides the first estimates based on both bottom-up and top-down approaches. The annual total emissions of CO, NOx, hydrocarbons (HC), PM10, and PM2.5 in 2019 were 347.8, 189.6, 46.3, 6.9, and 6.3 Mg, respectively. Trucks contributed the most (55%) to the NOx emissions, followed by heavy-duty passenger vehicles (26%). In contrast, light-duty passenger vehicles and motorcycles generated 75% of the HC emissions. The superior accuracy of highly spatial and temporal bottom-up estimates versus top-down estimates is validated by the similar variation trends of hourly emission intensities and enhanced concentrations relative to background observations for both NOx and CO, with Pearson correlation coefficients between the intensities and concentrations ranging from 0.79 to 0.85. Historical HC emissions peaked in 2013, followed by a sharp decline in 2014 and a continuous rise since then, whereas NOx emissions have kept increasing since 2010. These indicated the necessity and urgency of effective vehicular emission mitigations. Based on scenario analysis, traffic restrictions combined with upgrading the emission standards of admitted vehicles will possess huge emission reduction potentials. Future recommendations about establishing a low emission zone in the valley and supporting policies were introduced.
... However, challenges are limiting the use of biomass, such as agricultural residues for energy generation. Examples are not limited to low bulk and energy densities, low calorific value, high moisture contents, transportation and handling problems, and ample storage space [3][4][5]. Commonly, farmers dump their residues in an open field or burn them openly, and these have caused several environmental threats to the people. The burning and dumping of agricultural residues in an open field have led to the emission of greenhouse gases, which causes global warming. ...
Energy security and a green environment have called for global concern in recent years. This is due to the increase in global population and unconscious human activities, which has led to the thickening of the infrared radiation layer, emission of greenhouse gases, and global warming. In this study, solid fuel briquette was manufactured from a blend of torrefied corncob and rice husk to mitigate the environmental problem associated with their disposal. Experimental, modeling, and simulation approaches were employed for the investigation. Feedstock samples were prepared and torrefied at 260 °C for 60 min, after which it was pulverized and screened into 1.7, 1, and 0.5 mm. Briquettes were produced at different blending ratios and compaction pressure, and gelatinized starch was used as a binding agent. The mechanical properties (compressive strength and shatter index) of the manufactured briquettes were investigated. Findings show that blending ratio and compaction pressure significantly influence the mechanical properties of the manufactured briquettes. Empirical models developed for 60, 80, and 100 kPa densification pressure were able to predict the trend of the mechanical properties of the manufactured briquettes. The models developed in this study found applications in future biomass briquettes production and product design.KeywordsBiomassBriquetteCorncobEmpirical modelMechanical propertyRice husk
Cooking with charcoal is widely popular worldwide. Several types of lump charcoal and charcoal briquettes are available on the market, presenting distinct characteristics based on raw materials and production methods. Charcoal quality can significantly impact combustion properties and pollutant emissions. This study aims to: (1) assess the qualitative characteristics of commercial lump charcoal and charcoal briquettes, (2) evaluate the emission factors (EFs) associated with their combustion, and (3) investigate how different characteristics of charcoal affect air pollutant emissions. Significant differences in quality were observed among the charcoal samples analyzed. Lump charcoal generally exhibited superior characteristics, including a higher carbon content (> 75% d.b.), fixed carbon (> 75% d.b.), heating value (> 29 MJ/kg), and fuel ratio (> 4.5). In contrast, charcoal briquettes showed higher levels of volatile matter (> 20% d.b.), ash (> 15% d.b.), and moisture content (> 6% w.b.). Furthermore, charcoal briquettes exhibited higher EFs for carbon monoxide (CO) (> 250 g/kg), volatile organic compounds (VOC) (> 1.5 g/kg), and total suspended particulates (TSP) (> 7.5 g/kg) than lump charcoal. Principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated a strong influence of qualitative characteristics on emission factors. Volatile matter, ash yield, moisture, and nitrogen content were positively correlated with higher emissions, while carbon content, fixed carbon, and fuel ratio were negatively correlated. As lump charcoal aligns more closely with the latter parameters, it releases lower emissions than briquettes. Improving charcoal production techniques and reinforcing international standards are crucial to ensure product quality, reduce emissions, and minimize environmental and health risks.
In the context of the European Union’s intensified efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions and meet climate targets, wood pellets have emerged as a pivotal element in the renewable energy strategy. Yet, biomass pellet combustion has been linked to a range of pollutants impacting air quality and public health. As biomass utilization gains popularity as a fuel for residential heating, it is important to determine this impact and enhance sustainable practices throughout the entire biomass energy production cycle.
This study investigates the intricate dynamics of biomass pellet properties on their combustion emissions, with a specific focus on the differences observed between pellets of woody and non-woody origins. The data reveal a variation in pellet characteristics, especially regarding their ash yield and fines contents, mechanical durability, and impurity levels, and significant differences in the type and amount of utilization emissions. The results highlight potential health risks posed by the combustion of biomass fuels, particularly non-woody (agro) pellets, due to elevated concentrations of emitted particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), chlorine (Cl2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and formaldehyde (HCHO), all surpassing recommended limits.
Moreover, the study reveals that emissions from pellet combustion could be partially predicted by analyzing pellet characteristics. Statistical analysis identified several key variables—including bark content, fines content, mechanical durability, bulk density, heating value, net calorific value, sulfur, and nitrogen content—that impact
emissions of CO, NO2, H2S, SO2, HCHO, and respiratory tract irritants. These findings underscore the need for proactive measures, including the implementation of stricter standards for fuel quality and emissions, alongside public education initiatives promoting the cleanest and safest fuels possible.
In the context of the European Union's intensified efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions and meet climate targets, wood pellets have emerged as a pivotal element in the renewable energy strategy. Yet, biomass pellet combustion has been linked to a range of pollutants impacting air quality and public health. As biomass utilization gains popularity as a fuel for residential heating, it is important to determine this impact and enhance sustainable practices throughout the entire biomass energy production cycle. This study investigates the intricate dynamics of biomass pellet properties on their combustion emissions, with a specific focus on the differences observed between pellets of woody and non-woody origins. The data reveal a variation in pellet characteristics, especially regarding their ash and fines contents, mechanical durability, and impurity levels, and significant differences in the type and amount of utilization emissions. The results highlight potential health risks posed by the combustion of biomass fuels, particularly non-woody (agro) pellets, due to elevated concentrations of emitted particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), ammonia (NH 3 ), chlorine (Cl 2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), and formaldehyde (HCHO), all surpassing recommended limits. Moreover, the study reveals that emissions from pellet combustion could be partially predicted by analyzing pellet characteristics. Statistical analysis identified several key variables—including bark content, fines content, mechanical durability, bulk density, heating value, net calorific value, sulfur, and nitrogen content—that impact emissions of CO, NO 2 , H 2 S, SO 2 , HCHO, and respiratory tract irritants. These findings underscore the need for proactive measures, including the implementation of stricter standards for fuel quality and emissions, alongside public education initiatives promoting the cleanest and safest fuels possible.
As nations strive toward achieving sustainability and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, biomass has emerged as an indispensable component of worldwide energy portfolios. Biomass, derived from organic materials such as plants, agricultural residues, forestry byproducts, and organic waste, is a renewable energy source and abundant resource with significant potential across various sectors. Responsible biomass energy production can aid in waste management, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and mitigate environmental pollution by utilizing organic materials that would otherwise be discarded. With the anticipated growth in biomass use for energy, it is essential to establish analytical techniques for assessing the quality of the fuel feedstock materials. This will enable to better comprehend the implications of using biomass fuels on public health and our ecosystem. One such technique is reflected light microscopy, which has the potential to significantly enhance the conventional (physical and chemical) quality assessment of biomass-derived fuels. This technique enables rapid observations of material constituents and identification of impurities, and it can be applied not only to fuels but also to biomass-based pellets used in animal feed and bedding. Given the scarcity of publicly accessible microscopic images of biomass materials, the “Atlas of Microscopic Images of Raw Biomass” fills this gap by offering a comprehensive collection of 553 images. These photomicrographs capture the optical characteristics of a diverse array of biomass feedstock, demonstrating unique morphological and structural features. This visual documentation can serve as a valuable resource for researchers, industry professionals, educators, and enthusiasts interested in investigating the complexities of biomass forms.
The banana value chain produces over 4 tonnes of waste biomass for every tonne of bananas harvested, including leaves, pseudostems, peels, rejected fruits, rhizomes, and empty fruit bunches. With rising fossil fuel costs and environmental concerns, these wastes present opportunities for alternative biofuel production through thermochemical processing and densification. This review examines the properties of various banana plant wastes, their pretreatments, and suitability for processes like pyrolysis, torrefaction, and hydrothermal carbonization, as well as briquetting. Banana plant wastes vary in physico-chemical properties depending on the biomass type. Their high volatile matter content (70.5–89.1%db) makes them better suited for bio-oil and gas production rather than biochar. Pretreatment methods such as water-washing, alkaline treatment, drying, pressing, chopping, grinding, and milling may be needed before thermochemical conversion of the wastes. Among conversion routes, pyrolysis is the most studied, followed by hydrothermal carbonization and dry torrefaction. The hydraulic press is the most commonly used technology for briquetting banana plant wastes. Depending on factors such as binder-to-biomass ratio, dwell time, and compaction pressure, this method can produce briquettes with compressive strength ranging from 1.33 to 38.39 MPa, which exceeds the minimum acceptable level of 0.38 MPa. However, these briquettes can have ash content as high as > 20%db, which can reduce their calorific value, increase the risk of ash slagging and fouling in combustion systems, as well as lead to increased emission of particulate matter during combustion. While thermochemical conversion and briquetting of banana plant wastes may incur significant costs, these could be offset by the low cost of the raw materials, improved fuel properties, and better handling, transportation, and storage. Research efforts should focus on ascertaining the emission potential of thermochemical conversion and briquetting of banana plant wastes, which could encourage wider acceptance of these technologies, especially considering growing awareness about the need for environmental protection.
Graphical abstract
A study was conducted to determine the heat transmission rate and friction properties of a solar air heater's (SAH) absorber by including c-shaped rib, with and without perforations, and the efficiency of this absorber with and without zeolite coating was investigated. This research is carried out by varying Reynolds numbers (Re) ranges between 3000 to 18000, height of the C-shaped rib (e) ranges between 2 mm to 4 mm, and the embedded hole diameter in the c-shaped rib ranges between 1 mm to 3 mm. The impact of rib height, hole diameter, and zeolite coating on thermal efficiency and Nusselt number is compared to a flat channel under the same flow environments. A strong secondary flow is created by the free shear layer reattaching more often at higher rib heights, and a smaller hole can exaggerate heat transfer and enhance the cross-flow effect. The thermal efficiency and Nusselt number of the solar air heater with c-ribs (Rib height = 4mm and hole diameter = 1mm) and zeolite coating on the absorber increased by 29.67% and 62.16% over the flat absorber. Ribs 4mm high can increase duct friction by up to 3.1 times compared to a smooth duct.
Charcoal is the main renewable fuel used in the world, and its production and consumption date back to the beginnings of society. Currently, it is estimated that one-third of the world’s population depends on biomass as a primary energy source, making discussions about the use of charcoal a recurring topic. Decades have passed and the production of this fuel has reached all homes, mainly in developing countries, through varied production processes and with different technological levels. In this context of importance, this chapter has as its main question: “How was charcoal production characterized in the past and how is it today, in technological, social, and environmental aspects?”. Climate change and countries’ energy security are topics that have been discussed for a long time and need to be increasingly expanded, either through scientific publications or through classes and lectures to local and scientific communities. However, some questions are repeated in debates but still do not bring in-depth answers, such as the impacts caused by the use of charcoal in domestic environments and the main challenges of the sector to present technological innovations. Thus, with this chapter, we want to bring a historical retrospective about the production and use of charcoal in the world and show how this sector has behaved in terms of social and environmental aspects. From this, we will be able to provide important contributions for the deepening of debates involving the production and consumption of charcoal in the world, as well as a scientific basis for pointing out the main innovations acquired so far and the bottlenecks that permeate the technological advancement of the sector.KeywordsRenewable energyThermochemical processEnergy securitySustainabilityTechnological innovation
The purpose of this study is to determine the amount of air pollution in Tehran, Isfahan, Semnan, Mashhad, Golestan, and Shiraz during the Corona era and before. For this purpose, Sentinel satellite images were used to investigate the concentration of Methane (CH4), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), aerosol pollutants in In the era before and during Corona. Furthermore, greenhouse effect-prone areas were determined in this study. In the following, the state of air inversion in the studied area was determined by taking the temperature on the surface of the earth and in the upper atmosphere, as well as the wind speed into account. In this research, the prediction of air temperature for the year 2040 was conducted using the Markov and Cellular Automaton (CA)-Markov methods, considering the impact of air pollution on the air temperature of metropolises. Additionally, the Radial Basis Function (RBF) and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) methods have been developed to determine the relationship between pollutants, areas prone to air inversions, and temperature values. According to the results, pollution caused by pollutants has decreased in the Corona era. According to the results, there is more pollution in Tehran and Isfahan metropolises. In addition, the results showed that air inversions in Tehran is the highest. Additionally, the results showed a high correlation between temperature and pollution levels (R2=0.87). Thermal indices in the studied area indicate that Isfahan and Tehran, with high values of Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI) and being in the 6th class of thermal comfort (Urban Thermal Field Variance Index (UTFVI)), are affected by thermal pollution. The results showed that parts of southern Tehran province, southern Semnan and northeastern Isfahan will have higher temperatures in 2040 (class 5 and 6). Finally, the results of the neural network method showed that the MLP method with R2=0.90 is more accurate than the RBF method in predicting pollution amounts. This study significantly contributes by introducing innovative advancements through the application of RBF and MLP methods to assess air pollution levels during the COVID-19 and pre-pandemic periods, while also investigating the intricate relationships among greenhouse gases, air inversion, air temperature, and pollutant indices within the atmosphere. The utilization of these methods notably enhances the accuracy and reliability of pollution predictions, amplifying the originality and significance of this research.
Concerns about climate change, energy security, and the diversification of energy supplies have made renewable resources increasingly more attractive and important sources of energy. As this interest rises, biomass utilization has the potential to become one of the pillars of the future energy portfolio. It is, therefore, critical to assure that solid biomass fuels are of the highest quality and do not contribute to avoidable air pollution. During the last five years, we have conducted quality assessment of more than 1,000 solid biomass fuel samples (char-coal-based grilling fuels and wood pellets) from nine countries using a reflected light microscopy technique. This technique , well known in fossil fuel research, presents a novel application in the analysis of solid biomass fuels. We have documented and described a wide range of impurities in the fuels and, in the process, we have developed a robust optical microscopy method for recognizing and identifying solid biomass components and contaminations. While a certain level of impurities in solid biomass products is acceptable and unavoidable, it is essential to identify and eliminate preventable contaminants. The research has shown that our technique can quickly and reliably provide information on fuel composition and contamination. With the rapid increase in biomass use worldwide, wide implementation of reflected light microscopy in quality testing of solid biomass will help achieve the highest possible product quality, leading to maximizing human safety and preventing unnecessary and hazardous air pollution. Figure 1. Leica microscope used for conducting petrographic analysis. 2 BACKGROUND
Brazil is the world's largest producer of charcoal, used mainly in the industrial and residential sectors. In the industrial sector, it is the only country that uses charcoal on a large scale to produce pig iron and steel. In the residential sector, its use is related to the particularities of each region. Historically, charcoal production has been associated with illegal deforestation of native forests, degrading working, and living conditions of the workers, use of low yield kilns and a low level of technological innovations in the sector. However, in recent years, there is evidence that this scenario has changed, with a preference for raw material of planted origin, kilns with higher yields and better working conditions. However, it is known that a significant part of the production is still made in a traditional way, especially by small producers, who generally do not have access to conditions to improve the production system. These factors contribute to the production of low-quality charcoal, which is generally intended for households use. In this context, the objective of this research was to evaluate the energy and environmental performance of charcoal production dedicated to residential sector. Based on secondary data collection and the application of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, the main impacts of charcoal production were verified in two different routes: Route 1, which produces charcoal from illegally deforested wood, and a hot-tail kiln, and Route 2, which produces charcoal from forest plantations in degraded areas, using a furnace, which allows the previous burning of the gases from the carbonization process. Route 1 is typical of illegal systems and/or expansion of land with pasture for animal breeding, mainly in the Legal Amazon. Route 2 is pointed out by specialists as one of the promising alternatives in the current scenario, because it allows the recovery of degraded areas to produce planted forests. As main results, it was verified that, due to the lack of traceability of the sector, it is not possible to guarantee the forest origin of the firewood used for charcoal production. In addition, it was verified that the use of biofuel is related to the specificities of each Brazilian region, where studies expose that, in general, the fuel has low quality for residential use. Finally, in the LCA study, it was verified that charcoal production on Route 2 (improved) performed better in all impact categories analyzed (climate change, acidification, eutrophication, human toxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, and photochemical oxidation). From these results, it was possible to elucidate that the use of degraded land for forest plantations is an environmentally and economically viable strategy since it provides the supply of firewood demand while decreasing the pressure on native forests. Promoting public policies, guaranteeing inspection, and investing in the productive chain of this sector can collaborate with the Nationally Determined Contributions signed by the Brazilian government under the Paris Agreement.
Graphite supported zwitterionic hydrogen-bonded organic framework (ZHOF) acts as a supercapacitor, and proton relay during water oxidation reactions in alkaline and natural media.
In this study, the corrosion resistance of AZ31B magnesium alloy was evaluated against time. Because of its sensitivity to corrosion, AZ31B magnesium alloy was chosen to be coated with elephoretic coating method. With the electrophoretic coating method, it is possible to coat the alloy surfaces practically with biocompatible materials in one step. The characterization of the alloy surfaces has been changed in order to eliminate the susceptibility of magnesium to corrosion. Surface characterization has been made superhydrophobic and hydrophobic by coating the alloys. Stearic acid and magnesium nitart-containing coating materials are aimed to reduce the surface energy of alloys. It has been shown that the corrosion resistance of the surface coated alloys is higher than the uncoated alloy samples. To discuss the authenticity of the thesis, it was observed for the first time that AZ31B alloys were kept in corrosive liquids for a long time and preserved their hydrophobic properties thanks to the coating. Since AZ31B alloy is used as a bio-implant raw material, corrosion has been evaluated for the first time in an environment simulating body conditions. Coated AZ31B samples have been shown to retain their stabilization in DMEM for approximately one month. It has been shown that K.10AZ31B and K.12AZ31B alloys taken as coating samples have superhydrophobic surface characterization, and K.8AZ31B and K.D.10AZ31B samples are hydrophobic coated. For the first time, AZ31B samples were coated at these concentrations. It has been shown that the coating samples were made successfully and the coatings continued for a long time both in 3.5% NaCl environment and in DMEM containing antibiotics.KeywordsAZ31BCorrosion resistanceElectrophoretic coatingStearic acidBio-implant
In Korea, oil-palm empty fruit bunches (EFBs), which are byproducts of the crude palm-oil milling process, are among the most promising potential energy sources for power plants. However, the slagging and fouling characteristics of EFBs during combustion have not yet been fully studied. Accordingly, in this study, we investigated the fundamental ash behavior of EFBs in comparison to that of wood pellets (WPs) using a thermomechanical analyzer (TMA) and a drop-tube furnace (DTF). Ash melting and the deposition of ash particles were investigated with traditional prediction indices at several biomass blending ratios. The results demonstrated that, as the ratio of WPs to EFBs increases, the melting temperature decreases and the slagging propensity increases because of the increased biomass alkali content. Moreover, the penetration derived using the TMA shows a higher melting peak at which rapid melting occurs, and the melting temperature distribution is decreased with increased biomass blending. Conversely, the DTF results show different phenomena for ash deposition under the same blending conditions. Blend ratios approaching 10% WP and 15% EFB result in gradual decreases in ash deposition tendencies because of the lower ash contents of the co-combusted mass compared to that of the single coal ash. Further biomass addition increases ash deposition, which is attributable to ash agglomeration from the biomass. Thus, this study demonstrates that blending ratios of 10% WP and 15% EFB provide optimal conditions for co-combustion with the selected bituminous coal. In addition, it is shown that the slagging propensity of EFB is higher than that of WP owing to its ash content and simultaneous agglomeration.
Waste agricultural biomass (corn cobs) was carbonized in a metal kiln, 90cm in height and 60cm diameter. Four different briquette charcoal grades were produced using locally sourced tapioca starch as binder at concentrations of 6.0, 10.0, 14.0 and 19.0 % w/w. Characterization test was carried out for the charcoal briquettes. The fixed carbon content of the briquette grades is 72.776, 73.958, 78.794, 81.884% w/w respectively. Similarly, the ash content for the briquette grades is 21.38, 20.70, 14.24 and 11.49 % w/w respectively. The bulk density is 425.6, 425.7, 425.0 and 358.3 kg/m3 respectively and the moisture content is 5.88, 5.34, 6.99 and 6.63 % w/w respectively. The properties of the produced briquette charcoal were compared with that of sugarcane bagasse and wood charcoal. The briquette charcoal was found to be a better fuel when compared to both sugarcane bagasse and wood charcoal, having a highest fixed carbon content and highest bulk density. The corn cobs briquettes have lower moisture content compared to sugarcane bagasse however has higher moisture content than wood charcoal. In addition, the sugarcane bagasse and wood charcoal were found to have lower ash content (4.33 % and 9.80% respectively) compared to all the five charcoal grades produced. The briquette charcoal has a mean calorific value of 32.4 MJ/kg which is significantly higher than that of both bagasse at 23.4 MJ/kg and wood charcoal at 8.27MJ/kg.
The briquettes made of activated charcoal of corncob (Zea mays,L) have been produced and characterized. The charcoal powder was firstly sieved by a 80-mesh strainer for grain homogenization. Then, it was activated at two different temperatures i.e. 550°C for 30 minutes, and 650°C for 20 minutes by using the electric furnace. The activated charcoals powder were mixed with sago powder as an adhesive agent with mass ratio of 9:1 and under stirring condition using the hot water. In other to investigate effect of compaction pressure, then it was transferred into a cylindrical mould with diameter of 4 cm and pressed at different pressure: 70.33 kg/cm², 94.22 kg/cm², and 117.78 kg/cm². After drying process at temperature of 60°C for 48 hours, the characteristic of the briquettes were investigated. The average density are ranging from 0.40 to 0.64 g/cm³, the moisture content 3.75% to 0.53%, and the ash content 5.03% to 6.97%. The volatile matter varies from 10.06% and 17.37%, consequently the fixed carbon changes from 74.81% to 82.21%. The highest caloric energy produced by the briquette is at the level of 6784.82 cal/gr were achieved at processing temperature of 550°C, and pressure of 117.78 kg/cm². This quality is appropriate for industrial standard of processing briquette.
Presented are the results of the examination of the chemical and mineral composition as well as iron compounds in furnace hearth slags coming into existence after the burning of hard coal. The samples of furnace hearth slags from heat and power plant and the hearths of the individual home furnaces fitted out with grate firings were compared. The examination methods like X-ray diffraction (XRD) with powder method, Mössbauer spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and ICP analysis were used. The main components of furnace hearth slags are SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. On the basis of the X-ray diffraction, it was found that the domination components of furnace hearth slags are mullite and quartz. Furnace hearth slags are different as for the content of the concentration of toxic elements (Cd, Cr, Ni, Tl, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Cu) and Fe.
Charcoal briquettes are inexpensive solid fuels made from carbonized biomass. The potential of converting water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) charcoal into briquettes with molasses as binder was investigated in this study. Dried water hyacinth was carbonized at a temperature between 350°C to 500°C in a fabricated fine biomass carbonizer. A solution containing 80% by weight molasses was used in the production of briquettes having different charcoal/molasses ratios of 40:60, 30:70, and 20:80. Each briquette was characterized in terms of bulk density, calorific value, compressive strength, proximate analysis and micro-structure by Scanning Electron Microscopy. Charcoal briquettes were tested for their flammable characteristics through their burning rates and ignition time. Altering the molasses to charcoal ratio affected the quality and characteristics of the briquettes. Volatile combustible matter and fixed carbon increased with increasing amount of binder while ash content decreased. The 30:70 charcoal/molasses ratio produced the highest calorific value (16.6 MJ/kg) and compressive strength (19.1 kg/cm²). The results have shown the potential of converting water hyacinth into an alternative fuel source.
The aim of the conducted research was to obtain information on the main components of ashes from 35 biomass species used in combustion processes to obtain reference data for the development of utility possibilities for these ashes, with particular emphasis on agricultural use. The examined biomass samples were divided into groups depending on origin: woody biomass and energetic woody plants I-WWB, herbaceous and grassy energy plants II-EC, agricultural waste III-AR, forest waste IV-FR and waste from the agri-food industry V-AFIW. The analysis of the studied elements contents was carried out in the designated groups. The chemical composition of ash was dominated by the macroelements Ca, K, P and S, which suggests the possibility of their agricultural use. At the same time, the low content of toxic elements such as As and Pb should not be a limiting feature in their use, with the exception of wood biomass. In addition, ashes obtained from the biomass combustion were enriched with microelements such as Zn, Cu and Mn, which further increases their possibilities of fertilizer use. The potential use of ash from each type of biomass in the aspect of its chemical composition should be considered individually, regardless of the division into groups depending on the origin of biomass.
There is a lack of information regarding the quantitative determination and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled and fried meat products in Shandong Province of China. The aim of this work was firstly to detect the contamination levels of 15 PAHs in 52 grilled and fried meats consumed by the population of Shandong Province, China. In brief, concentrations of the sum of 15 PAHs in individual samples were ranged from 8.23 to 341 μg/kg with a mean contamination level of 63.3 μg/kg. Moreover, the factors for the formation of PAHs in these samples have been identified and analyzed. One grilled meat sample exceeded the maximum limits of 2 and 12 μg/kg set for BaP and PAH4 by the European Union. For a further step, the mean dietary exposures for total PAHs from grilled and fried meat products were estimated to be 120 and 74.8 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. Finally, the health risk estimation was performed using the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) approach. The obtained values of four groups were all lower than 10‐4, indicating a slight potential carcinogenic risk of consumer health. This study was the first attempt to provide baseline information of potential health risk of dietary exposure of PAH‐containing grilled and fried meats, which could be useful for health management of the local consumers.
The paper shows the results of a study on the effect of starch binder on the mechanical, physical and burning properties of charcoal briquettes. Two types of binders were repeatedly used to make briquettes of native wheat starch and modified wheat starch, at 8% of the whole. Briquetting was performed in a roller press unit, and pillow-shaped briquettes were made. The moisture of the mixed material ranged from 28 to 32%. The product, whether the former or the latter, was characterized by very good mechanical properties and satisfactory physical properties. Moreover, the type of starch binder had no effect on toughness, calorific heating value, volatiles, fixed carbon content and ash content. However, the combustion test showed quite different burning properties. As briquettes should have short firing up time and lower smokiness, as well as high maximum temperature and long burning time, we have concluded that briquettes with native wheat starch as a binder are more appropriate for burning in the grill.
Each year China burns as much coal as the rest of the world. The coal use results in many benefits such as electricity, industrial heat, coke for steel manufacturing, and many valuable chemical products. Unfortunately, coal use also results in environmental degradation and widespread and severe health problems. China is especially vulnerable to these problems because of the abundant coal deposits occurring in every Chinese province, the predominantly rural population, and the widespread use of domestic coal burning. The health problems are attributed to exposure to fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5), mobilization of trace elements such as arsenic, fluorine, selenium, and possibly mercury and the release of organic compounds from incomplete combustion of domestic coal fires. Inhalation of minerals such as quartz and pyrite has deleterious health impacts contributing to lung cancer in women and black lung disease in coal miners. The extensive uncontrolled coal fires in China may also be a source of health problems. The overall situation has improved in recent years as uncontrolled fires have been extinguished, improved coal-burning stoves are being introduced, and people are switching to alternative fuel sources. Nevertheless, more needs to be done to minimize the health consequences of coal use in China.
Kenya generates about 1.6 million tones of sugarcane bagasse which has enormouspotential for exploitation in modern commercial applications. Due to rising fossilfuel prices, availability in large quantity and rapidly growing interest in bio-energyas well as technological advances and environmental concerns , bagasse could beutilized for the formulation of charcoal briquettes for household use tosupplement wood charcoal. In this study briquettes were formulated usingcarbonized bagasse, clay as a binder and molasses as a filler. Bagasse was obtainedfrom sugar factories for carbonization. Carbonization was carried out using abrick-built kiln while blending used a manually operated drum mixer. A piston typebriquetting press fitted onto a universal strength testing machine was used for theproduction of briquettes. The most optimum parameters that produced briquetteswhich complied to current charcoal specifications for household use were in theratio of 1:1:40 for molasses, clay and carbonized bagasse respectively at0.50N/mm2 pressure. At this formulation, briquettes were produced whose ashcontent, volatile matter and calorific energy were 36.4%, 27.2% and 4.390 Kca/grespectively. The briquettes produced burnt without sparks and were smokeless,producing no irritating smell. They ignited easily and took relatively long beforethey extinguished. They were recommended for household use in Kenya.
This study examines the effect of binder type and blending ratio on the physical and combustion properties of charcoal briquettes produced from wood residues of neem (azadirachta indica a. juss). wood residues which included slabs. Edgings and cut-offs were carbonized using a carbolite furnace.Model mtf 12/388. the carbonized sample (charcoal powder) was bonded with gum arabic and cassava starch.And briquettes produced in this way were assessed. the briquettes were also analyzed for volatile matter Fixed carbon Ash content and heating value. variation inbinder type and blending ratio significantly influenced compressed density and durability rating of the briquettes. similarly Variations in blending ratio for briquette volatile matter Fixed carbon Ash and heating value were significant (p <0.05). all the properties investigated showed that gum arabic bonded briquettes have better physical and combustion qualities than starch bonded briquettes. for quality specification. The best gum arabic bonded briquette was obtained when the blending ratio was 10:3 while the best starch bonded briquette was obtained at the blending ratio of 5:1.
Due to the easy availability of wood in Ethiopia, wood charcoal has been the main source fuel for cooking. This study has been started on sesame stalk biomass briquetting which can potentially solve the health problems and shortage of energy, which consequently can solve deforestation. The result of the data collection shows that, using 30% conversion efficiency of carbonizer, it was found that more than 150,000 tonnes of charcoal can be produced from the available sesame stalk in Humera, a place in north Ethiopia. The clay binders that are mixed with carbonized sesame stalk were found to have 69 liquid limits; thus, the optimum amount of clay that should be added as a binder is 15%, which results in better burning and heat holding capacity and better heating time. The developed briquetting machine has a capacity of producing 60 Kg/hr but the carbonization kiln can only carbonize 3.1 Kg in 2 : 40 hours; hence, it is a bottle neck for the briquette production. The hydrocarbon laboratory analysis showed that the calorific value of the charcoal produced with 15% clay content is 4647.75 Cal/gm and decreases as clay ratio increases and is found to be sufficient energy content for cooking.
Incinerators are widely used to burn the municipal waste, biowaste, wood, straw, and biomedical waste. Combustion of these types of waste results in generation of chlorides of sodium and potassium which may attack the metallic part of the incinerator. In biofuel-fired boilers, similar type of highly corrosive environment is present. Attempt has been made to review the corrosion problems and their solutions as per the available literature.
Charcoal briquettes are solid fuel made from carbonized biomass, or densified biomass that is subsequently carbonized. In spite of clear advantages of charcoal briquettes that include price, burn time, environmental sustainability and potential for product standardization, their uptake as a substitute for wood charcoal in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) remains very limited. By analyzing the experiences of pioneer charcoal briquette producers in Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania, we identify factors limiting the growth of the industry in the region and make recommendations for how to address these challenges. Our analysis shows that widespread adoption of charcoal briquettes is unlikely to have a significant effect on demand for wood charcoal within SSA, as has been the case in many Asian countries. To date, the availability of charcoal briquettes has displaced only small volumes of charcoal demand and has increased the energy options for limited consumer groups within niche markets. Limiting factors for the industry include prevailing low prices of wood charcoal, punitive legal and fiscal requirements for briquette producers, and supply-driven (versus market-led) approaches to industry development. Policy, technical and marketing interventions are proposed to address these barriers and stimulate more widespread production and use of charcoal briquettes in the region. Our recommendations include marketing studies to better understand consumer preferences in fuel and stove attributes, better enforcement of existing forestry and charcoal regulations, reduced regulatory hurdles for registering new briquette businesses, targeted tax exemptions, and expansion of consumption to new industrial and other consumers.
During the past four years, the European wood pellet market is currently continuing to increase. Total European consumption was about 9.8 Tg and Italian market reaches almost 1 Tg mainly for domestic supply. The present investigation provides an evaluation of pellet quality of Italian market by analysis of 88 wood pellet samples acquired randomly and directly from the sale points. Particular attention has been dedicated to relationship between ash and some elements. Results highlight that only half of samples fulfil the A1 class (best quality) requirements established in the EN 14961-2. Statistical analysis pointed out that ash content is mainly linked to sulphur, potassium and chlorine. The results show that low limit threshold values for ash content ensure low chlorine and sulphur contents.
The combustion and gasification behavior of the most common plastics is studied and compared with conventional fuels such as coal, peat, and wood. The aim is to give background data for finding the optimum conditions for co-combustion or co-gasification of a conventional fuel with a certain amount of plastic-derived fuel. Atmospheric or pressurized fluidized bed co-combustion of conventional fuels and plastics are considered to be promising future options. The plastics investigated were poly(ethylene) (PE), poly(propylene) (PP), poly(styrene) (PS), and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). Some of the samples had a print or color. The reference fuels were Polish bituminous coal, Finnish peat, and Finnish pine wood.PE, PP, and PS were found to burn like oil. The particles shrank to a droplet and burned completely during the pyrolysis stage, leaving no char. Printing and coloring left a small portion of ash. PVC was the only plastic that produced a carbonaceous residue, and its timescales for heating, devolatilization, and char burning were of the same order as those for peat and wood, and much shorter for the other plastics studied. An important result is that char from PVC contains less than 1% chlorine,99% hydrocarbon. The gasification rate of PVC char (at 1 bar and 25 bar) was of the same order as that of char from coal. Peat-char and wood-char were gasified an order of magnitude faster.
There is a growing interest internationally to use more biomass for power generation, given the potential for significant environmental benefits and long-term fuel sustainability. However, the use of biomass alone for power generation is subject to serious challenges, such as feedstock supply reliability, quality, and stability, as well as comparative cost, except in situations in which biomass is locally sourced. In most coun- tries, only a limited biomass supply infrastructure exists. Alternatively, co-firing biomass along with coal offers several advantages; these include reducing challenges related to biomass quality, buffering the system against insufficient feedstock quantity, and mitigating the costs of adapting existing coal power plants to feed biomass exclusively. There are some technical constraints, such as low heating values, low bulk density, and grindability or size-reduction challenges, as well as higher moisture, volatiles, and ash content, which limit the co-firing ratios in direct and indirect co-firing. To achieve successful co-firing of biomass with coal, biomass feedstock specifications must be established to direct pretreat- ment options in order to modify biomass materials into a format that is more compatible with coal co-firing. The impacts on particle transport systems, flame stability, pollutant formation, and boiler-tube fouling/ corrosion must also be minimized by setting feedstock specifications, which may include developing new feedstock composition by for- mulation or blending. Some of the issues, like feeding, co-milling, and fouling, can be overcome by pretreatment methods including washing/ leaching, steam explosion, hydrothermal carbonization, and torrefaction, and densification methods such as pelletizing and briquetting. In- tegrating formulation, pretreatment, and densification will help to overcome issues related to physical and chemical composition, storage, and logistics to successfully co-fire higher percentages of biomass ( > 40%) with coal.
Charcoal preserved in lake sediments, peat, and soils provides a record of past fire occurrence. An understanding of fire history is important in evaluating interactions between vegetation, climate and human disturbances through at least the last several millennia. In this paper we review information concerning the production, dispersal, sedimentation and preservation of charcoal. We present examples of studies that have used charcoal analysis in palaeoecological reconstructions, with special emphasis on analytical techniques and problems of interpretation.
As the interest in the renewable resources has been increasing worldwide, the wood pellet sector has the potential to become a mainstream fuel of the future in the heat market. This development is especially noted in the European Union countries which consumed 50 % of global wood pellets in 2018. While only about 2 % of the United States energy consumption was derived from wood and wood waste in 2018, the U.S. pellet production continues to grow exponentially due to high demand from overseas markets. The U.S. pellet production was 8.2 million tons in 2018, making the United States the second largest producer of pellets in the world, surpassed only by China.
In this growing market, a question has emerged: How can pellet quality be reliably assured? Current standards test the quality of pellets based on a variety of physical and chemical properties. However, some impurities in pellets (glass, plastic, metal, ceramics, coal, and coke) cannot be identified this way. Those impurities can have negative impacts on the environment, human health, and the durability of stoves.
A quick and simple way to identify and quantify impurities in pellet fuels such as wood pellets and grilling briquettes is by using petrographic methods. In this study we used reflected light microscopy to identify a range of contaminants including bark, glass, plastic, coal, coke, slag, mineral matter, and metals in 514 commercially available wood pellets made in Poland, Ukraine, Germany, and the United States. Our results demonstrate that optical microscopy could become an effective tool for assessing the purity of wood pellets, and as such, it might be a valuable addition to physical and chemical tests used in the current standards.
The study highlights the investigation of the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in traditionally smoked meat products and charcoal grilled meat. Specifically, the levels of benzo(a)anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), benzo(b)fluoranthene (BbF) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) were determined for 262 samples of smoked sausage, bacon, pork (lountza) and ham (chiromeri), grilled pork and poultry produced in Cyprus. The method is based on a saponification and liquid extraction step, followed by solid phase extraction (SPE) cleanup of the extract and finally, the determination of PAHs using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector. Most of the samples analysed (96%) were contaminated with at least one PAH. In these contaminated samples, 12% of the smoked products and 15% of the grilled meat samples exceeded the maximum levels of the EU legislation. The highest PAH concentrations were found in samples with higher fat content and longer smoking or cooking time.
Charcoal for domestic use presents great variation in quality because in most furnaces the carbonization process is difficult to and often inadequate raw material is used, generating a heterogeneous product. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is a fast and reliable method to classify bio-based materials. Thus, the aim of this study was to apply NIR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate statistics in order to classify commercial vegetable charcoal for domestic use into categories and estimate its quality. Seventy-six charcoal specimens from nine producers were selected for NIR spectra acquisition on the transverse (TV) and rolling surface (RS) using the integrating sphere and fiber optic probe on raw (untreated) and sanded charcoal. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the spectra was performed to verify possible clusters among producers or quality classes (in terms of FCC levels). Discriminant Analyses based on Partial Least Squares (PLS-DA) were performed to classify the charcoals according to their producers and to predict their quality class. The PCA of spectra was not able to distinguish groups indicating high heterogeneity between treatments. However, PLS-DA models correctly classified up to 95% of the charcoal specimens both by producers and quality classes using spectra obtained by the integrating sphere or fiber optic probe. NIR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analyses presented potential to be an efficient and rapid technique to classify charcoal. PLS-DA models can be applied in unknown charcoal specimens for reliable classification.
Chemical profiles from burning of raw biomass materials (i.e., maize straw, wheat straw and wood branch) and their processed products (i.e., briquette and charcoal) were determined with a customized cleaning stove in a combustion chamber. Inorganic species such as water-soluble ions and elements, and carbonaceous fractions including saccharide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were quantified. Organic carbon (OC) was the highest fraction with a mass contribution to PM2.5 ranging from 17.65 ± 0.15% to 40.17 ± 3.83%. Potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl−) were the two most abundant water- soluble ions (4.31 ± 1.57% and 3.05 ± 1.29%, respectively). Most elements (e.g., heavy metals) had relatively low fractions (< 0.01%) or below detection limit. For organics, levoglucosan averagely accounted for over 60% in total quantified saccharides, while 4-ring PAHs was the most dominant fraction. The proportions of OC, sum of quantified PAHs (∑PAHs) and levoglucosan, as well as diagnostic ratios such as OC/element carbon (EC), K+/ EC, and sum of quantified saccharides (∑saccharides)/PM2.5 showed a characteristic descending order of raw fuels > briquette > charcoal. In comparison, charcoal burning had lower fractions of the organics since most volatile matters and moisture had been removed during carbonization. In addition, the similarities of chemical profiles from different bio-fuels burning were assessed by calculating the coefficient of divergence (CD) and their correlations. Relatively low CD (0.21–0.36) and high correlation (R > 0.97) suggest that the chemical profiles from straw and their briquettes were similar. However, the profiles from charcoal burning showed significant differences between their corresponding raw fuels (CDs = 0.26–0.47, R = 0.69–0.99) and also large variations.
The use of charcoal for cooking and heating can be a major source of air pollution and lead to a wide range of health outcomes. The aim of this study was to experimentally quantify and characterise the gaseous and particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions from charcoal combustion in a typical brick barbecue grill. The gaseous emission factors were 219 ± 44.8 g kg−1 for carbon monoxide (CO), 3.01 ± 0.698 g kg−1 for nitrogen oxides (NOx expressed as NO2), and 4.33 ± 1.53 gC kg−1 for total organic carbon (TOC). Particle emissions (7.38 ± 0.353 g kg−1 of dry charcoal burned) were of the same order of magnitude as those from traditional residential wood burning appliances. About 50% of the PM2.5 emitted had a carbonaceous nature while water soluble ions accounted, on average, for 17% of the particulate mass. Alkanes (C11–C16 and C23), hopanes, steranes and alkyl-PAHs accounted for small mass fractions of PM2.5. Phenolic compounds and saccharides represented the major particle-bond organic constituents. The high proportion of either resin acids or syringyl and vanillyl compounds is consistent with emissions from charred coniferous wood. The ratios between anhydrosugars for charcoal are much lower than the values reported for lignite combustion, but overlap those from other biomass burning sources.
Residential biomass burning has been pointed out as one of the largest sources of fine particles in the global troposphere with serious impacts on air quality, climate and human health. Quantitative estimations of the contribution of this source to the atmospheric particulate matter levels are hard to obtain, because emission factors vary greatly with wood type, combustion equipment and operating conditions. Updated information should improve not only regional and global biomass burning emission inventories, but also the input for atmospheric models. In this work, an extensive tabulation of particulate matter emission factors obtained worldwide is presented and critically evaluated. Existing quantifications and the suitability of specific organic markers to assign the input of residential biomass combustion to the ambient carbonaceous aerosol are also discussed. Based on these organic markers or other tracers, estimates of the contribution of this sector to observed particulate levels by receptor models for different regions around the world are compiled. Key areas requiring future research are highlighted and briefly discussed.
We can only guess at the beginnings of metal smelting in Neolithic societies. Were the minerals containing metals with low melting points accidentally present in or near fire pits used for heat of for searing meat, and did their melting attract the attention of people tending the fires? Did curiosity lead people to throw colored minerals into fires to see what will happen? Or did the discoveries of naturally occurring nuggets, crystals, or lumps of native metals (copper, gold, silver, lead, tin) lead to deliberate experimentation with minerals (metallic ores) that contained small particles of those elements? And once melting of some materials was discovered, were not attempts at their deliberate smelting almost inevitable? Craddock (1995) thinks that was almost certainly the case.
Providing water for 7.4. billion people is a staggering challenge, not to mention the overwhelming demand for water that is safe to drink. Today more than 1.1. billion people living in emerging countries need safe drinking water. Additionally those countries with compromised drinking water systems and the 200. million people affected by natural disasters each year suggest the problem is catastrophic. Ironically, bad water is as much a product of overpopulation and climate change as it is from technology. Anthropogenic chemicals, engineered antibiotics, excessive hormone use, and vast areas of natural arsenic pollution coupled with microbial contamination require special media for purification. The enormity of household filters available can be difficult to sort out. This chapter is divided into three parts: (1) historical accounts of water technology; (2) the science behind elemental purification materials (bone char, charcoal, clay, copper, and silver); and (3) an evaluation of the common household purification technologies.
Biomass feedstocks need to be milled or chopped into particles before briquetting, and the particle size has great effects on the energy consumption and product quality. In this study, the effects of the particle size on the rice straw briquetting process were investigated. The raw materials were milled or chopped into four different sized test materials. Experiments were carried out with an electronic universal testing machine and a self-designed single pellet unit on the basis of a simplex-centroid design. Several parameters, including briquetting time, energy consumption, maximum extrusion force, product compressive strength, and product density, were tested and recorded. The experimental data were processed by the methods of regression analysis and variance analysis. Finally, effects of raw material particle size on the briquetting process, energy consumption, maximum extrusion force, product compressive strength, and product density were obtained. Results showed that, compared with simple sized materials, mixed materials achieved lower energy consumption, higher product compressive strength, and higher product density.
Large scale bioenergy facilities require vast amounts of biomass materials and take advantage of a variety of woody materials in various forms including logs, hog fuel, bark, forest harvest residue, short-rotation hardwoods and whole tree chips. Development of the supply chain logistics necessary to deliver and utilize these material in a cost effective manner is well underway but is strongly dependent on forest type, regional and local harvesting practices as well as location, size and design of storage facilities available. Storage of woody biomass is necessary at various points along the supply chain but the effect of storage on woody biomass is complex and not fully understood.
The key mechanisms responsible for major changes to woody biomass on storage are (i) living cell respiration, (ii) biological degradation, and (iii) thermo-chemical oxidative reaction. All three mechanisms involve mass to energy conversion and contribute to self-heating of piles and dry matter losses. Living cell respiration is a short term effect that lasts only several weeks while starch and sugar are readily available and adequate temperature and oxygen levels are present. Biological degradation is caused by a large variety of organisms from bacteria to wood degrading fungi and function best under specific moisture, temperature and oxygen conditions. Finally, thermo-chemical oxidative reactions can contribute to excessive dry matter loss once elevated temperatures have been attained in the pile as a consequence of the first two mechanisms. This review paper discusses the science behind the mechanisms of change to biomass on storage, and draws examples from experimental research to support the explanations.
Agriculture generates large amount of by-products that could be used to produce energy and reduce the amount of fuelwood required to meet the daily cooking needs, especially in developing countries. Rice is a major crop grown in West Africa and rice husk is a by-product of the milling process. The goal of this study was to develop a low cost system to produce biomass briquettes from rice husks in the context of a rural village. A manual press generating a pressure of 4.2 MPa was developed and used. The influence of the briquette formulation (type of binder, binder content, water addition, and bran content) was studied. The binders investigated were cassava wastewater, rice dust, and okra stem gum. The physical properties (density, moisture content, calorific value, durability, and compressive strength) were tested to identify the briquettes with the highest quality, i.e. greatest physical integrity. The briquettes made with rice dust had the highest durability (91.9%) and compressive strength (2.54 kN), while the briquettes made with cassava starch wastewater had the greatest density (441.18 kg m-3). Water added to the rice husk before densification positively influenced the briquette quality while bran seemed to mostly increase the density, but not necessarily the briquette quality. The briquette formulation did not significantly influence the calorific value. With a higher heating value of 16.08 MJ kg-1 dry basis, rice husk briquettes represent an interesting alternative to fuelwood.
Ten types of commercial charcoal commonly used in Taiwan were investigated to study the potential health effects of air pollutants generated during charcoal combustion in barbecue restaurants. The charcoal samples were combusted in a tubular high-temperature furnace to simulate the high-temperature charcoal combustion in barbecue restaurants. The results indicated that traditional charcoal has higher heating value than green synthetic charcoal. The amount of PM10 and PM2.5 emitted during the smoldering stage increased when the burning temperature was raised. The EF for CO and CO2 fell within the range of 68-300 and 644-1225g/kg, respectively. Among the charcoals, the lowest EF for PM2.5 and PM10 were found in Binchōtan (B1). Sawdust briquette charcoal (I1S) emitted the smallest amount of carbonyl compounds. Charcoal briquettes (C2S) emitted the largest amount of air pollutants during burning, with the EF for HC, PM2.5, PM10, formaldehyde, and acetaldehyde being the highest among the charcoals studied. The emission of PM2.5, PM10, formaldehyde, and acetaldehyde were 5-10 times those of the second highest charcoal. The results suggest that the adverse effects of the large amounts of air pollutants generated during indoor charcoal combustion on health and indoor air quality must not be ignored.
Biomass densification processes increase fuel energy density for more efficient transport. This study presents new data to show that blending different types of biomass improves the properties of densified biomass briquettes. The specific objectives were to investigate the effects of sample batch (biomass source), material ratio (rice husks to corn cobs), addition of binder (starch and water mixture) and compaction pressure, on briquette properties, using a factorial experiment.
Briquettes had a unit density of up to 1.9 times the loose biomass bulk density, and were stronger than briquettes from the individual materials. Considering average values from two biomass sources, an unconfined compressive strength of 176 kPa was achieved at a compaction pressure of 31 MPa for a 3:7 blend of rice husks to corn cobs with 10% binder. These briquettes were durable, with only 4% mass loss during abrasion and 10% mass loss during shattering tests. They absorbed 36% less water than loose corn cobs. Statistical analysis of the results showed that starch and water addition was required for adequate briquette strength, but significantly reduced green and relaxed densities. The source of the biomass had a significant effect on densification, which emphasises the need to understand factors underlying biomass variability.
In the absence of the widespread distribution of modern cooking fuels in developing countries, efforts are being made to utilise biomass residues which abound in most of these countries. This is intended to replace portions of firewood and charcoal and thereby reduce the cutting down of forests for fuel purposes. Briquettes from agro-residues have therefore been promoted as a better replacement to firewood and charcoals for heating, cooking and other industrial applications in both urban and rural communities. This study sought to assess the physico-chemical properties of charcoal briquettes produced in Ghana and also establish demand for and willingness of potential users to substitute charcoal and firewood with a charcoal briquette. A laboratory experiment was conducted to determine the physico-chemical characteristics of the briquettes. This was done prior to the distribution of the briquette to potential users to collaborate their views or otherwise on the handling and burning characteristics of the charcoal briquette. A survey was undertaken a week later using questionnaires to access the willingness of the potential users to use the briquettes. Sixty respondents were purposively selected from households and the hospitality industry for the survey. Results of the physico-chemical assessment of the briquettes were as follows: length (75 to 120 mm), moisture content (5.7% dry basis), density (1.1 g/cm3), ash content (2.6%), fixed carbon (20.7%), volatile matter (71%) and calorific value (4,820 kcal/kg). Responses from the survey indicated that the briquette is easy to ignite, has a long burning time and has good heat output. Respondents also observed that the briquettes did not give off sparks and had less smoke and ash content as compared to the regular charcoal they often used. Finally, 93% of the respondents indicated their willingness to use the briquettes if the price was comparable to charcoal.
Aiming at investigating the influence of minerals in co-firing applications in existing and developing systems, as well as their environmental impact upon recycling to soils, we used a combination of techniques such as X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy, inductive coupled plasma spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry, differential thermal analysis and fusibility analysis to characterize various biomass and coal ashes and their blends, with biomass proportions up to 20%. Slagging and fouling propensities were predicted.The results showed that biomass ashes were richer in calcium, silicon and alkali minerals and micronutrients such as Zn, Cu and Mn, in comparison to coal ashes. Some could be useful for soil amendment or the cement industry. Slagging/fouling problems should be expected in boilers operating above 1000 °C, especially those firing cotton residue, vine shoots and bituminous coal without pre-treatment. However, the environmental impact of either biomass or coal ashes upon their disposal is expected to be very low, as leaching tests have shown. For coal/biomass blends, the composition and the fusibility of the ashes varied between those of the individual components. Thus co-firing processes using the alternative fuels studied up to 20% would not entail significant limitations in the system operation or the management strategies of ashes.
This paper introduces two kinds of carbonization industrial process, the batch process and continuous process. The principle, carbonization process, demand of the raw material, carbonization time and advantages and disadvantages of ever y carbonization process are described. It can't get the conclusion that which carbonization process is better, because ever y process has itself appl ying condition. In the future, many large charcoal producing plants will be built to saving time and heat energ y. have been used in wood carbonization. Some of these methods are crude with low yield and very limited control of the quality of the charcoal produced, while others are highly automated. The yield of the different reaction products varies with biomass species and heating conditions. Higher charcoal conversion efficiency and quality can be achieved through proper control of the carbonization process.
Undoubtedly, grilling is popular. Britons fire up their barbeques some 60 million times a year, consuming many thousands of tonnes of fuel. In milder climates consumption is even higher, and in the developing world, charcoal continues to be an essential cooking fuel. So it is worth comparing the carbon footprints of the two major grill types, charcoal and LPG, and that was the purpose of the study this paper documents. Charcoal and LPG grill systems were defined, and their carbon footprints were calculated for a base case and for some plausible variations to that base case. In the base case, the charcoal grilling footprint of 998 kg CO2e is almost three times as large as that for LPG grilling, 349 kg CO2e. The relationship is robust under all plausible sensitivities. The overwhelming factors are that as a fuel, LPG is dramatically more efficient than charcoal in its production and considerably more efficient in cooking. Secondary factors are: use of firelighters, which LPG does not need; LPG's use of a heavier, more complicated grill; and LPG's use of cylinders that charcoal does not need.
Ash related problems have more than occasionally been observed in pellet burners during the last years. These problems lead to reduced accessibility of the appliances and also bad publicity for the pellet market. The objectives of the present work were therefore to: (i) determine the critical levels of the problematic ash components in stemwood pellets regarding slagging, (ii) document the variations of these problematic elements in the outgoing pellets from two pellet-mills during one operational season, (iii) determine how frequently these elements exceed the critical levels, (iv) determine how different sub-processes in the pelletising process (especially the dryer) effect the slagging properties of the pellet, and if possible (v) suggest some measures for prevention. A significant number of wood pellets reported to be problematic and problem-free, regarding slagging in ordinary residential pellet burners, were collected from the Swedish market. The ash compositions of these fuels were analysed and the results compiled in a database. Partial Least-Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) and F-tests were used to statistically identify both the critical ash components and the critical levels of these components that separated the two reported classes. In addition, chemical equilibrium model calculations were used to interpret the findings. The variations of these elements in the in-going raw material and in the produced pellets were determined during one season in two pellet mills equipped with exhaust gas dryers. The results showed that the problematic wood-pellets had a significantly higher amount of Si, but also Al and Fe, in the fuel ash. The critical level of Si (given as SiO2) was about 20–25wt% of the fuel ash, i.e. pellets with levels in or over this range resulted in slagging problems in residential burners. This critical Si content was exceeded once and twice for the analysed samples in the two studied pellet mills. In one of the studied mills, this was because of contamination by sand of the raw material during storage and handling, and in the other mill the reason was found to be contamination of the raw material by elutriated particles from the dryer fuel. The major conclusion of the work is that both raw materials and drying fuels/processes should be carefully treated to avoid mineral contamination, and an additional cyclone separator could potentially also be used to improve the pellet quality.
Smokeless fuel briquettes have been prepared with low-rank coal and biomass. These raw materials have been mixed in different ratios and have been pyrolysed at 600°C with the aim to reduce both the volatile matter and the sulphur content, and to increase the high calorific value (HCV). The co-pyrolysis of coal and biomass has shown a synergetic effect. The biomass favours the release of hydrogen sulphide during the thermal treatment. This fact can be explained in terms of the hydrogen-donor character of the biomass. Moreover, the optimisation of the amount of binder and the influence of different types of biomass in the blend have been studied with respect to the mechanical properties of the briquettes (impact resistance, compression strength and abrasion). Briquettes prepared with sawdust (S) present better mechanical properties than those with olive stones (O) because of its fibrous texture.
The report gives results of an evaluation of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from charcoal lighter fluid, a consumer product consisting entirely of volatile constituents. An estimated 46,250 tons (42,000 Mg) of charcoal lighter fluid is used in the U.S. each year. VOCs contribute to the formation of ozone; therefore, the ozone nonattainment issue has focused attention on VOCs emitted from many sources. VOCs are emitted when charcoal lighter fluid is used, but these emissions are difficult to quantify. Evaporative VOC losses occur from the lighter fluid prior to ignition, and combustion VOC losses occur from burning lighter-fluid-soaked charcoal briquettes. This study evaluates tests conducted to date on charcoal lighter fluid emissions. The information is most complete for evaporative VOC losses. The estimates vary greatly, however, based on the length of time between application of the lighter fluid and ignition. The limited tests conducted to date have not distinguished lighter fluid from charcoal-briquette combustion emissions.
Grilling muscle foods involves high temperatures that lead to production of cooking toxicants, such as heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To obtain realistic exposure levels of these two groups of mutagens analyses of the same samples using similar separation/detection techniques were performed. HAs and PAHs were quantified in well-done meat and fish samples grilled with wood and coconut shell charcoal at 200°C. Quantitative HAs and PAHs profiles were different for beef and salmon using the same type of charcoal. Higher levels of HAs and PAHs were found in salmon samples. No significant differences were observed for HAs and PAHs in beef samples grilled with both charcoal types, whereas salmon grilled with coconut shell charcoal presented significantly lower amounts of HAs and PAHs than salmon grilled with usual wood charcoal. Continuous barbecuing with the same charcoal shown that combustion of fat that dropped along the grilling period contributed to higher formation of HAs and PAHs. Special attention must be given to the intake of barbecued foods since high amounts of HAs and PAHs can be taken in a single meal.
The material described as “mineral matter” in coal encompasses dissolved salts in the pore water and inorganic elements associated with the organic compounds, as well as discrete crystalline and non-crystalline mineral particles. A range of technologies, including but not restricted to low-temperature oxygen-plasma ashing, may be used to evaluate the total proportions of minerals and other inorganic constituents in a coal sample. The relative proportions of the individual minerals in the coal may be further determined by several different techniques, including Rietveld-based X-ray powder diffractometry, computer-controlled scanning electron microscopy (CCSEM), and normative interpretation of chemical analysis data. The mode of occurrence of particular minerals may be evaluated by optical or electron microscopy techniques.
The emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was quantitated in the smoke from the grilling of meat using hardwood charcoal as fuel in a table grill set. Smoke samples were collected with an ice-cooled condenser and subsequently cleaned up employing both open column- and high performance-liquid chromatography techniques. Using a PAH standard mixture, 23 PAH were identified in the smoke using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Emission levels of PAH ranged from several tens of μg kg−1 meat for some 3- and 4-ringed PAH, to sub μg kg−1 meat levels for the 5- and 6-ringed PAH (sum of PAH approximately 0.1 mg kg−1 meat), originating from a 10 min grilling of 0.33 kg minced lean pork. The major source of PAH emitted to the local air environment from charcoal grilling is from the combustion of the charcoal itself. The amount of PAH emitted from charcoal grilling in Sweden, time period June to August, is estimated to approximately 2 kg which is a minor source to the total emissions of PAH to the environment. However, relatively large peak exposures of PAH can be expected in a more local environment, e.g. during household grilling.
Indoor air particulate samples were collected in 34 homes and their adjacent outdoor environments in Hong Kong during the fall and winter seasons. It was found that the mean indoor PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were 45.0 and 63.3 μg m−3, respectively. The corresponding mean outdoor levels were 47.0 and 69.5 μg m−3, respectively. The indoor particulate levels were found to be about 2–4 times higher than those in the homes in western countries where most are located in suburb areas with a much better ambient air quality. Pearson paired t-tests were conducted on the data and it was found that poor correlation was seen in the indoor and the outdoor particulate concentrations. This was probably due to the fact that windows were closed more often in the fall and winter seasons keeping the ventilation rate low, plus the factor that window type air conditioners were used commonly in Hong Kong, which again, constituted to a low air change rate. Both the indoor and the outdoor elemental compositions of the particulate samples collected in these 34 homes were identified by proton-induced X-ray emission analysis. Seventeen elements were identified. The mean inorganic elemental compositions in the indoor PM2.5 and PM10 samples were 6.4 and 10.2 μg m−3, respectively while those in the outdoor samples were 7.9 and 14.1 μg m−3, respectively. Enrichment factor analysis was performed and it was noted that those species existing in fine mode were highly enriched (bromine, lead, nickel, potassium, sulfur, vanadium and zinc) while those species existing in the coarse mode had their enrichment factors close to 1 (aluminum, calcium, iron, magnesium, silicon, sodium and titanium).
A number of offensive odorants including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), reduced sulfur compounds (RSCs), carbonyls, and ammonia were measured along with several reference pollutants (like benzene (B), CS(2), SO(2), CO, and total hydrocarbon (THC)) from combusted fumes of barbecue charcoals produced from five different countries (Korea, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the US). Although the emission concentrations of most odorants were generally below the reference guideline set by the malodor prevention law in Korea, the mean concentration of some aldehydes (acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde) and ammonia exceeded those guidelines. As such, aldehydes were the most dominant odorant released from charcoal combustion followed by VOC and ammonia. If odorant levels of charcoal products are compared, there are great distinctions between the products of different countries. If comparison is made using the concept of the sum of odor intensity (SOI), the magnitude of SOI for the charcoal products from the five different countries varied in the order of 4.30 (Korea), 3.10 (Indonesia), 2.97 (China), 2.76 (Malaysia), and 2.76 (the US).
In this review, we summarize the knowledge of the production and properties of charcoal that has been accumulated over the past 38 millenia. The manipulation of pressure, moisture content, and gas flow enables biomass carbonization with fixed-carbon yields that approach-or attain the theoretical limit after reaction times of a few tens of minutes. Much of the heat needed to carbonize the feed is released by vigorous, exothermic secondary reactions that reduce the formation of unwanted tars by augmenting the charcoal yield in a well-designed carbonizer. As a renewable fuel, charcoal has many attractive features: it contains virtually no sulfur or mercury and is low in nitrogen and ash; it is highly reactive yet easy to store and handle. Carbonized charcoal can be a good adsorbent with a large surface area and a semimetal with an electrical resistivity comparable to that of graphite. Recent advances in knowledge about the production and properties of charcoal presage its expanded use as a renewable fuel, reductant, adsorbent, and soil amendment.
In this study, the concentrations of trace elements contained in solid barbeque (BBQ) charcoal products have been investigated. Eleven brands of charcoal products were analyzed, consisting of both Korean (3 types) and imported products (eight types from three countries) commonly available in the Korean market places. The concentrations of trace metals in solid charcoal varied widely across metal types and between samples with the overall range of 5 μg kg(-1) (As) to 118 mg kg(-1) (Zn). The patterns of metal distribution between different products appeared to be affected by the properties of raw materials and/or the processes involved in their production. Although concentrations of certain trace metals were significantly high in certain charcoal samples, their emission concentrations were below legislative guidelines (e.g., the permissible exposure limit (PEL) set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)). In light of the potential harm of grilling activities, proper regulation should be considered to control the use of BBQ charcoal from a toxicological viewpoint to help reduce the potential health risks associated with its use.
To provide information about charcoal combustion as an important source of atmospheric trace metal pollution, 11 charcoal products were combusted and PM(10) filter samples were collected. The PM-bound metal elements were extracted by microwave acid digestion and analyzed by ICP-AES. The concentrations of trace metal elements ranged from a few to 10(5)ng m(-3) in the following order of magnitude: Zn>Pb>Mg>Ba>Cu>V>Cr>Co>Cd>Ni>Mn>Se>As. Emissions of most elements from charcoal combustion were high compared to other sources. In case of Cd, Co, and Ni, their concentrations exceeded the inhalation minimum risk levels (MRLs) of the United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US-ATSDR) for chronic duration exposure by a factor of 30, 3.9, and 2.2, respectively. Likewise, Cd levels exceeded the US-ATSDR MRLs for acute-duration exposure by a factor of 10, while those of Pb and Cd exceeded air quality guideline (AQG) of the World Health Organization (WHO) by a factor of 29 and 59, respectively. Mn levels also exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Reference Air Concentrations (RfCs) by a factor of 2.7. This study shows that barbecue charcoal combustion can be an important source of trace metal emissions to the atmosphere with potential health risks.