No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Environmental management of two of the world's most endangered marine and terrestrial predators: Vaquita and cheetah
Abstract
Two of the world most endangered marine and terrestrial species are at the brink of extinction. The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is the smallest existing cetacean and the population has declined to barely 22 individuals now remaining in Mexico’s Gulf of California. With the ongoing decline, it is likely to go extinct within few years. The primary threat to this species has been mortality as a result of by-catch from gillnet fishing as well as environmental toxic chemicals and disturbance. This has called for the need to establish a National Park within the Gulf of California to expand essential habitat and provide the critical ecosystem protection for vaquita to thrive and multiply, given that proper conservation enforcement and management of the park are accomplished. In the terrestrial environment, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is reduced to a low number worldwide with the Iran subpopulation currently listed as Critically Endangered and the Indian subpopulation already extinct. There is a need for conservation efforts due to habitat loss, but also an indication of the conspicuous threat of illegal trade and trafficking from Africa and Arab countries in the Middle East. Funds have also been set up to provide refuges for the cheetah by working directly with farmers and landowners, which is a critical movement in adaptive management. These are the potential options for the preservation and possibly the expansion of the overall vaquita and cheetah populations.
... With the development and progress of science and technology, human activities have led to the further degradation of wildlife habitats, resulting in disturbance, population decline and even extinction [1], loss of biodiversity and increased human-wildlife conflict [2,3]. One of the most important strategies for halting the rapid loss of global biodiversity is the conduct an assessment of habitat fragmentation. ...
... data of the reserve, and to evaluate the effectiveness of protection compared with the existing number of giant pandas in the reserve; (3) to evaluate the spatial distribution pa ern of suitable habitat for giant pandas and the habitat selection characteristics of giant pandas in the Meigu Dafengding Nature Reserve, based on the quantitative analysis of the relationship between giant panda tracks and environmental variables of the field survey; and (4) to conduct an assessment of habitat fragmentation. The results of the assessment will not only contribute to a deeper understanding of the relationship between giant pandas and their natural habitats, and provide a scientific basis for the in situ conservation of giant pandas in the reserve, but will also provide a reference for the future inclusion of giant panda populations in this mountainous system under national park management, and facilitate the expansion and improvement of the protection radius of the GPNP. ...
An important tool for conserving species and their habitats and achieving sustainable development is the establishment of national parks. The population ecology of the species to be conserved, including their population size and suitable habitat, needs to be assessed prior to integrating protected areas into national parks. The Liangshan Mountains are currently the southernmost habitat of giant pandas and lie outside the newly established Giant Panda National Park (GPNP). The population is threatened with extinction due to severe isolation and human disturbance. However, there has been a ten-year gap in the census of giant pandas in this critical area. This means that conservation managers are unable to keep up to date with population and habitat dynamics. The Meigu Dafengding National Nature Reserve is the core area of the giant panda population in Liangshan and the link for gene exchange. The focus of this study is to assess the spatial distribution pattern of suitable habitat, habitat fragmentation and the habitat selection characteristics of giant pandas in the Meigu Dafengding Nature Reserve in Liangshan in order to lay the foundation for the future inclusion of Liangshan into the national park. A total of 151 giant panda fecal samples were collected in 2023. Using the distance–bamboo stem fragments method, this indicated that nearly 28 to 29 giant pandas exist within the reserve. Based on MaxEnt and FRAGSTATS, the giant panda population is concentrated in Wahei–Yiziyakou. They tend to choose gentle slopes of 10–30°, at altitudes between 2500 m and 3500 m, with average annual temperatures between 8.5 °C and 10 °C. They also select the areas close to roads and settlements for their frequent activities. Unsuitable habitat is widespread and surrounds low-, medium- and high-suitability habitats with poor habitat connectivity. In situ conservation measures are urgently needed due to the restricted distribution of populations and poor habitat suitability. This lays the foundation for the future inclusion of Liangshan into the national park, providing greater protection for the giant panda and other species in the region, and for other national parks to integrate all habitats into a single management unit. This will address conservation gaps and overlapping management, and promote the conservation of rare or endangered species.
Odontocetes are globally distributed and are foundational to the structure and function of marine food webs, and hence by-catch impacts from gillnet fishing need to be considered in the context of their conservation and population viability. Currently, global gillnet bycatch numbers are unknown yet are estimated to be greatest in Asia, East Africa, and the west coasts of North and South America. Here we provide the first global meta-analyses of small and large-scale gillnet bycatch estimates of odontocetes during 1990-2020, compiling population size, estimated gillnet bycatch, and conservation status in support of geographical and species-specific risk estimates. We estimate that annual gillnet bycatch is ∼50,000 from 1990 to 2020, and combined with overfishing, pollution, and noise, have been shown to be serious threats to these long-lived and slow reproducing species with heavy offspring investment. The global gillnet bycatch of odontocetes is a difficult challenge to address and mitigate and requires improved species and regional based management strategies including collaborations between fishers, fisheries managers, marine mammal experts, and marine spatial planners. This has been worked on for decades, yet more attention is needed for successful management of odontocete gillnet bycatch to ensure their sustainable future in the Anthropocene Ocean, in accordance with local subsistence dynamics, and the relevant UN sustainable development goals.
IUCN Red List Assessment for Asiatic cheetah
The global wildlife trade network is a massive system that has been shown to threaten biodiversity, introduce non-native species and pathogens, and cause chronic animal welfare concerns. Despite its scale and impact, comprehensive characterization of the global wildlife trade is hampered by data that are limited in their temporal or taxonomic scope and detail. To help fill this gap, we present data on 15 years of the importation of wildlife and their derived products into the United States (2000-2014), originally collected by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. We curated and cleaned the data and added taxonomic information to improve data usability. These data include >2 million wildlife or wildlife product shipments, representing >60 biological classes and >3.2 billion live organisms. Further, the majority of species in the dataset are not currently reported on by CITES parties. These data will be broadly useful to both scientists and policymakers seeking to better understand the volume, sources, biological composition, and potential risks of the global wildlife trade.
The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is a small porpoise endemic to Mexico. It is listed by IUCN as Critically Endangered because of unsustainable levels of bycatch in gillnets. The population has been monitored with passive acoustic detectors every summer from 2011 to 2018; here we report results for 2017 and 2018. We combine the acoustic trends with an independent estimate of population size from 2015, and visual observations of at least seven animals in 2017 and six in 2018. Despite adoption of an emergency gillnet ban in May 2015, the estimated rate of decline remains extremely high: 48% decline in 2017 (95% Bayesian credible interval (CRI) 78% decline to 9% increase) and 47% in 2018 (95% CRI 80% decline to 13% increase). Estimated total population decline since 2011 is 98.6%, with greater than 99% probability the decline is greater than 33% yr-1. We estimate fewer than 19 vaquitas remained as of summer 2018 (posterior mean 9, median 8, 95% CRI 6-19). From March 2016 to March 2019, 10 dead vaquitas killed in gillnets were found. The ongoing presence of illegal gillnets despite the emergency ban continues to drive the vaquita towards extinction. Immediate management action is required if the species is to be saved.
Predatory fish introduction can cause cascading changes within recipient freshwater ecosystems. Linkages to avian and terrestrial food webs may occur, but effects are thought to attenuate across ecosystem boundaries. Using data spanning more than four decades (1972–2017), we demonstrate that lake trout invasion of Yellowstone Lake added a novel, piscivorous trophic level resulting in a precipitous decline of prey fish, including Yellowstone cutthroat trout. Plankton assemblages within the lake were altered, and nutrient transport to tributary streams was reduced. Effects across the aquatic-terrestrial ecosystem boundary remained strong (log response ratio ≤ 1.07) as grizzly bears and black bears necessarily sought alternative foods. Nest density and success of ospreys greatly declined. Bald eagles shifted their diet to compensate for the cutthroat trout loss. These interactions across multiple trophic levels both within and outside of the invaded lake highlight the potential substantial influence of an introduced predatory fish on otherwise pristine ecosystems.
The current distribution of Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus in Iran is fragmented in three scattered subpopulations in the central arid plateau. Population size is unknown but tentatively estimated at less than 50 individuals. We review the historic and current status, population trend, and threats to cheetah survival in Iran, and present conservation actions recommended by Iranian experts. Between 2015 and 2017, 26 different individuals have been recorded in protected areas based on camera-trapping and direct observation. The northern subpopulation in Touran Biosphere Reserve BR and Miandasht Wildlife Refuge WR is the only one with evidence of reproduction. No reproduction has been observed in the southern subpopulation since 2012, suggesting that it is decreasing in size and range. No cheetah presence has been recorded in the western subpopulation since 2013. Despite the conservation efforts of the last 16 years the cheetah in Iran remains Critically Endangered. Urgent conservation interventions are needed to protect the last remaining individuals. The combined engagement and contribution of national and international partners will be critical for the success of these interventions.
In 2017 an emergency field effort was undertaken in an attempt to prevent the extinction of the world's most endangered marine mammal, the vaquita Phocoena sinus. The rescue effort involved 90 experts from 9 countries and cost US$ 5 million. Following a long decline due to entanglement in legal gillnet fisheries, the vaquita population had fallen from more than 200 to fewer than 30 individuals from 2008 to 2016, due to entanglement in an illegal gillnet fishery that supplies swim bladders of the endangered totoaba Totoaba macdonaldi to Chinese black markets. An emergency ban of gillnets and increased enforcement failed to slow the decline, triggering an emergency effort to catch vaquitas and place them under protection in captivity. Two animals were targeted and captured using light gill nets; a juvenile was released 4 h later because it appeared stressed, and an adult female died of capture myopathy. The program was suspended because of the risk of additional mortalities to the population. The lack of success in capturing vaquitas for temporary protection emphasizes the need to improve our understanding of the effects of chase, capture, handling and enclosure on cetaceans, and to consider intervention before populations reach critically low levels, when there is sufficient time to use phased, precautionary approaches. Furthermore, conservation approaches focused on single species must be integrated into broader efforts to conserve ecosystems and involve the human communities that depend on them.
Adaptive conflicts with the modern world
Mammals evolved in terrestrial environments. Those that now live in the marine environment have had to adapt to the particular selective pressures that this environment imposes. Meyer et al. surveyed the genomes of several marine mammal species to identify regions of convergent change. Multiple losses of the Paraoxonase 1 gene are evident in marine mammals, likely resulting from remodeling of lipid metabolism or antioxidant networks. The multiple occurrences of this loss of function across taxa indicate an evolutionary benefit. However, Paraoxonase 1 is the primary mammalian defense against organophosphorus toxicity. Marine mammals may be at a great disadvantage in the Anthropocene if run-off of this agricultural product into the marine environment continues.
Science , this issue p. 591
Millions of migratory birds arrive each autumn at Fereydunkenar International Wetland (FIW) in Iran due to its rich ecosystem. FIW comprises 5427 ha located in the southern Caspian Sea and includes Fereydunkenar, Sorkhrud, and Azbaran lagoons, which are designated as Wetlands of International Importance in the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. However, an estimated 3000 of these birds are currently being killed daily by local hunters in FIW to sell at the local market, facilitated by the recent adoption of more efficient type of net.
This could have catastrophic effects on the species that depend on this ecosystem. For example, the last remaining individual of the western population of the Critically Endangered Siberian crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) winters in the FIW each year, where it is not protected. Of the three Siberian cranes that entered FIW in 2007, two were killed.
Despite the global importance of the FIW to Critically Endangered species, Iran’s Department of the Environment has thus been unable to curb the illegal activities that threaten this ecosystem. Armed locals show a great deal of resistance to wildlife rangers in the FIW when they attempt to enforce existing laws to curtail hunting. To bring poaching under control, the Iranian government should increase police presence and enforcement in the area and introduce new national legislation to control trade in endangered species at local markets. In addition, the international community (particularly the UN Convention on Biological Diversity) should pressure Iran to enforce such laws by imposing fines on the government if migratory birds are killed.
Finally, experience has shown the effectiveness of engaging with local communities to gain support for conservation efforts. Iranian authorities have used this strategy to address poaching of the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus), which only lives in Iran. To raise awareness in local communities, the Department of the Environment developed educational programs, held training workshops, and distributed literature highlighting the value of the Asiatic cheetah. As a result, the rate of cheetah mortality by local people reduced substantially. As in the case of the cheetah, if local communities realize the importance of these migratory birds, they will likely work to conserve them.
The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus ssp. venaticus) is classed as critically endangered on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, with just 43 individuals left in Iran. Conservation efforts were dealt a major blow last month when the United Nations Development Program announced its withdrawal from the Conservation of the Asiatic Cheetah Project (see go.nature.com/2zrgyjx).
Management of the project will now fall mainly to Iran’s Department of the Environment, the head of which has declared the cheetah “doomed to extinction” on the basis of its declining numbers since 2001. We urge Iran’s government not to give up on cheetah conservation.
It should instead look to the example of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in China. The Chinese government and its partners undertook to develop breeding programmes in the 1950s and to protect bamboo-forest habitats in the 1980s. The strategy was so successful that pandas were last year downlisted from endangered to vulnerable (see go.nature.com/2hizc6w).
Bringing the Asiatic cheetah back from the brink of extinction will require close cooperation between governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations and grass-roots stakeholders. The government’s wholehearted support is crucial.
The vaquita is a critically endangered species of porpoise. It produces echolocation clicks, making it a good candidate for passive acoustic monitoring. A systematic grid of sensors has been deployed for 3 months annually since 2011; results from 2016 are reported here. Statistical models (to compensate for non-uniform data loss) show an overall decline in the acoustic detection rate between 2015 and 2016 of 49% (95% credible interval 82% decline to 8% increase), and total decline between 2011 and 2016 of over 90%. Assuming the acoustic detection rate is proportional to population size, approximately 30 vaquita (95% credible interval 8–96) remained in November 2016.
When large-scale accidents cause catastrophic damage to natural or cultural resources, government and industry are faced with the challenge of assessing the extent of damages and the magnitude of restoration that is warranted. Although market transactions for privately owned assets provide information about how valuable they are to the people involved, the public services of natural assets are not exchanged on markets; thus, efforts to learn about people's values involve either untestable assumptions about how other things people do relate to these services or empirical estimates based on responses to stated-preference surveys. Valuation based on such surveys has been criticized because the respondents are not engaged in real transactions. Our research in the aftermath of the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill addresses these criticisms using the first, nationally representative, stated-preference survey that tests whether responses are consistent with rational economic choices that are expected with real transactions. Our results confirm that the survey findings are consistent with economic decisions and would support investing at least $17.2 billion to prevent such injuries in the future to the Gulf of Mexico's natural resources.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that persist in the environment, accumulate in the food web, and pose a risk of adverse effects in humans and wildlife ( 1 ). Rachel Carson first identified the potentially devastating effect of POPs on wildlife in the early 1960s ( 2 ). In the late 1960s, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were detected in high concentrations in wildlife in Sweden ( 3 ). After PCB use and manufacture were banned in 1979 (US), 1981 (UK), and 1987 (EU), levels started to decline slowly in all biota around the world ( 4 – 6 ). In 2004, the Stockholm Convention committed more than 90 signatory countries to phasing out or eliminating large stocks or other sources of POPs, including PCBs ( 1 ). Yet, PCBs continue to threaten the survival of marine predators. Concerted efforts are thus still needed to mitigate PCB pollution.
Organochlorine (OC) pesticides and the more persistent polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have well established dose-dependent toxicities to birds, fish and mammals in experimental studies, but the actual impact of OC pollutants on European marine top predators remains unknown. Here we show that several cetacean species have very high mean blubber PCB concentrations likely to cause population declines and suppress population recovery. In a large pan-European meta-analysis of stranded (n = 929) or biopsied (n = 152) cetaceans, three out of four species:- striped dolphins (SDs), bottlenose dolphins (BNDs) and killer whales (KWs) had mean PCB levels that markedly exceeded all known marine mammal PCB toxicity thresholds. Some locations (e.g. western Mediterranean Sea, south-west Iberian Peninsula) are global PCB “hotspots” for marine mammals. Blubber PCB concentrations initially declined following a mid-1980s EU ban, but have since stabilised in UK harbour porpoises and SDs in the western Mediterranean Sea. Some small or declining populations of BNDs and KWs in the NE Atlantic were associated with low recruitment, consistent with PCB-induced reproductive toxicity. Despite regulations and mitigation measures to reduce PCB pollution, their biomagnification in marine food webs continues to cause severe impacts among cetacean top predators in European seas.
Background
Patterns of genetic and genomic variance are informative in inferring population history for human, model species and endangered populations.
Results
Here the genome sequence of wild-born African cheetahs reveals extreme genomic depletion in SNV incidence, SNV density, SNVs of coding genes, MHC class I and II genes, and mitochondrial DNA SNVs. Cheetah genomes are on average 95 % homozygous compared to the genomes of the outbred domestic cat (24.08 % homozygous), Virunga Mountain Gorilla (78.12 %), inbred Abyssinian cat (62.63 %), Tasmanian devil, domestic dog and other mammalian species. Demographic estimators impute two ancestral population bottlenecks: one >100,000 years ago coincident with cheetah migrations out of the Americas and into Eurasia and Africa, and a second 11,084–12,589 years ago in Africa coincident with late Pleistocene large mammal extinctions. MHC class I gene loss and dramatic reduction in functional diversity of MHC genes would explain why cheetahs ablate skin graft rejection among unrelated individuals. Significant excess of non-synonymous mutations in AKAP4 (p<0.02), a gene mediating spermatozoon development, indicates cheetah fixation of five function-damaging amino acid variants distinct from AKAP4 homologues of other Felidae or mammals; AKAP4 dysfunction may cause the cheetah’s extremely high (>80 %) pleiomorphic sperm.
Conclusions
The study provides an unprecedented genomic perspective for the rare cheetah, with potential relevance to the species’ natural history, physiological adaptations and unique reproductive disposition.
There is a high risk that incidental mortality (bycatch) in gillnets will lead to extinction of the vaquita Phocoena sinus, a small porpoise endemic to Mexico's northern Gulf of California. A zoned Biosphere Reserve established in 1993 proved ineffective at slowing the population's decline, and in 2005, a Vaquita Refuge was declared. The Refuge Program included a ban on gillnetting and trawling in certain areas with relatively high densities of vaquitas. However, it was not until 2008, with the introduction of a Species Conservation Action Plan for Vaquita (PACE-Vaquita), that a comprehensive protection and recovery effort was introduced. Unfortunately, valuable time was lost as officials first needed to bring order to a poorly managed fishery management system. Also, the voluntary nature of fisherman participation and the chronic deficiency of enforcement have limited PACE's effectiveness. Although efforts to implement the plan probably slowed the vaquita's decline, the goal of eliminating gillnets (and thus most vaquita bycatch) by 2012 was not reached. This example shows the difficulty of achieving conservation when the program's rationale centers on the preservation of biodiversity with less emphasis on meeting community aspirations. In fact, not only does the vaquita have no economic value, but the measures taken for its conservation have a negative economic impact and hence are met with hostility, or at best indifference, on the part of fishery authorities and fishing communities. On a more positive note, a light trawl has been field-tested and shown to be efficient at capturing shrimp; such 'vaquita-safe' trawls are suitable for replacing gillnets in the shrimp fishery. Similarly suitable alternative gear needs to be developed urgently for use in the finfish fisheries. Unless entangling nets are removed quickly from the vaquita's habitat, it will soon be too late to save the species, which probably already numbers fewer than 200 animals.
This book is a critical analysis of the concept of marine protected areas (MPAs) particularly as a tool for marine resource management. It explains the reasons for the extraordinary rise of MPAs to the top of the political agenda for marine policy, and evaluates the scientific credentials for the unprecedented popularity of this management option. The book reveals the role played by two policy networks – epistemic community and advocacy coalition – in promoting the notion of MPA, showing how advocacy for marine reserves by some scientists based on limited evidence of fisheries benefits has led to a blurring of the boundary between science and politics. Second, the study investigates whether the scientific consensus on MPAs has resulted in a publication bias, whereby pro-MPA articles are given preferential treatment by peer-reviewed academic journals, though it found only limited evidence of such a bias. Third, the project conducts a systematic review of the literature to determine the ecological effects of MPAs, and reaches the conclusion that there is little proof of a positive impact on finfish populations in temperate waters. Fourth, the study uses discourse analysis to trace the effects of a public campaigning policy network on marine conservation zones (MCZs) in England, which demonstrated that there was considerable confusion over the objectives that MCZs were being designated to achieve. The book’s conclusion is that the MPA issue shows the power of ideas in marine governance, but offers a caution that scientists who cross the line between science and politics risk exaggerating the benefits of MPAs by glossing over uncertainties in the data, which may antagonise the fishing industry, delay resolution of the MPA issue, and weaken public faith in marine science if and when the benefits of MCZs are subsequently seen to be limited.
Marine reserves are quickly gaining popularity as a management option for marine conservation, fisheries, and other human uses of the oceans. Despite the popularity of marine reserves as a management tool, few reserves appear to have been created or designed with an understanding of how reserves affect biological factors or how reserves can be designed to meet biological goals more effectively (e.g., attaining sustainable fish populations). This shortcoming occurs in part because the many studies that have examined the impacts of reserves on marine organisms remain isolated examples or anecdotes; the results of these many studies have not yet been synthesized. Here, I review the empirical work and discuss the theoretical literature to assess the impacts of marine reserves on several biological measures (density, biomass, size of organisms, and diversity), paying particular attention to the role reserve size has in determining those impacts. The results of 89 separate studies show that, on average, with the exception of invertebrate biomass and size, values for all four biological measures are significantly higher inside reserves compared to outside (or after reserve establishment vs. before) when evaluated for both the overall communities and by each functional group within these communities (carniv- orous fishes, herbivorous fishes, planktivorous fishes/invertebrate eaters, and invertebrates). Surprisingly, results also show that the relative impacts of reserves, such as the proportional differences in density or biomass, are independent of reserve size, suggesting that the effects of marine reserves increase directly rather than proportionally with the size of a reserve. However, equal relative differences in biological measures between small and large reserves nearly always translate into greater absolute differences for larger reserves, and so larger reserves may be necessary to meet the goals set for marine reserves. The quality of the data in the reviewed studies varied greatly. To improve data quality in the future, whenever possible, studies should take measurements before and after the creation of a reserve, replicate sampling, and include a suite of representative species. Despite the variable quality of the data, the results from this review suggest that nearly any marine habitat can benefit from the implementation of a reserve. Success of a marine reserve, however, will always be judged against the expectations for that reserve, and so we must keep in mind the goals of a reserve in its design, management, and evaluation.
Mexico harbors more than 10% of the planet’s endemic species. However, the integrity and biodiversity of many ecosystems is experiencing rapid transformation under the influence of a wide array of human and natural disturbances. In order to disentangle the effects of human and natural disturbance regimes at different spatial and temporal scales, we selected six terrestrial (temperate montane forests, montane cloud forests, tropical rain forests, tropical semi-deciduous forests, tropical dry forests, and deserts) and four aquatic (coral reefs, mangrove forests, kelp forests and saline lakes) ecosystems. We used semi-quantitative statistical methods to assess (1) the most important agents of disturbance affecting the ecosystems, (2) the vulnerability of each ecosystem to anthropogenic and natural disturbance, and (3) the differences in ecosystem disturbance regimes and their resilience. Our analysis indicates a significant variation in ecological responses, recovery capacity, and resilience among ecosystems. The constant and widespread presence of human impacts on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is reflected either in reduced area coverage for most systems, or reduced productivity and biodiversity, particularly in the case of fragile ecosystems (e.g., rain forests, coral reefs). In all cases, the interaction between historical human impacts and episodic high intensity natural disturbance (e.g., hurricanes, fires) has triggered a reduction in species diversity and induced significant changes in habitat distribution or species dominance. The lack of monitoring programs assessing before/after effects of major disturbances in Mexico is one of the major limitations to quantifying the commonalities and differences of disturbance effects on ecosystem properties.
The vaquita Phocoena sinus is a small porpoise that is endemic to the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. It is the most critically endangered marine small cetacean in the world. The most precise estimate of global abundance based on a 1997 survey is 567 (95% CI 177–1073).
Vaquitas mainly live north of 30°45′N and west of 114°20′W. Their ‘core area’ consists of about 2235 km ² centred around Rocas Consag, 40 km east of San Felipe, Baja California. Genetic analyses and population simulations suggest that the vaquita has always been rare, and that its extreme loss of genomic variability occurred over evolutionary time rather than being caused by human activities.
Gill nets for fish and shrimp cause very high rates of by‐catch (entanglement) of vaquitas. Estimates of bycatch rates are from 1993–94 and refer to one of three main fishing ports: 84 per year (95% CI 14–155) using only data collected by observers and 39 per year (95% CI 14–93) using combined data from observers and interviews with fishermen. Boats from other ports may experience similar rates, and the total is probably well above what would be sustainable.
Other less well‐characterized and longer‐term risk factors include the potential for disturbance by trawling to affect vaquita behaviour, and the uncertain effects of dam construction on the Colorado River and the resultant loss of freshwater input to the upper Gulf. However, entanglement is the clearest and most immediate concern.
Progress towards reducing entanglement has been slow in spite of efforts to phase out gill nets in the vaquita’s core range, and the development of schemes involving compensation for fishermen. The Biosphere Reserve in the northern Gulf has fallen far short of its potential for vaquita conservation. On 29 December 2005, the Mexican Ministry of Environment declared a Vaquita Refuge that contains within its borders the positions of approximately 80% of verified vaquita sightings. In the same decree, the state governments of Sonora and Baja California were offered $1 million to compensate affected fishermen. The effectiveness of this major initiative remains to be seen.
The vaquita’s survival does not depend on more or better science but on improved management. As a funding priority, implementation of conservation measures and evaluation of their effectiveness should come ahead of more surveys or improved estimation of by‐catch.
The Loreto Bay National Park (LBNP) is a large, multi-use marine protected area in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where several types of small-scale commercial and recreational fishing are allowed, but where less than 1% of the park is totally protected from fishing. The LBNP was created in 1996; its management plan was completed in 2000, but it was not effectively implemented and enforced until 2003. Between 1998 and 2010, we monitored reef fish populations annually at several reefs inside and outside the LBNP to measure the effects of the park on fish assemblages. We also evaluated reported fisheries landings within the LBNP for the same time series. Our results show that reef fish biomass increased significantly after protection at a small no-take site at LBNP relative to the rest of the park. However, the multi-use part of LBNP where fishing is allowed (99% of its surface) has had no measurable effect on reef fish biomass relative to open access sites outside the park boundaries. Reported fisheries landings have decreased within the park while increasing in nearby unprotected areas. Although the current partial protection management regime has not allowed for reef fish populations to recover despite 15 years as a "protected area," we conclude that LBNP's regulations and management have maintained the conditions of the ecosystem that existed when the park was established. These results suggest that community livelihoods have been sustained, but a re-evaluation of the multi-use management strategy, particularly the creation of larger no-take zones and better enforcement, is needed to improve the reef fish populations in the park in order to ensure sustainable fisheries far into the future. These recommendations can be applied to all multi-use MPAs in Mexico where ecosystem recovery is not occurring despite maintenance of fish stocks.
The world's most endangered marine cetacean, the vaquita ( Phocoena sinus ), continues to be caught in small‐mesh gillnet fisheries throughout much of its range. We monitored fishing effort and incidental vaquita mortality in the upper Gulf of California, Mexico, from January 1993 to January 1995 to study the magnitude and causes of the incidental take. Of those factors studied, including net mesh size, soaktime, and geographic area, none contributed significantly to the incidental mortality rate of the vaquita, implying that the principal cause of mortality is fishing with gillnets per se . The total estimated incidental mortality caused by the fleet of El Golfo de Santa Clara was 39 vaquitas per year (95% CI = 14, 93), over 17% of the most recent estimate of population size. El Golfo de Santa Clara is one of three main ports that support gillnet fisheries throughout the range of the vaquita. Preliminary results indicate that fishing effort for San Felipe, Baja California, is comparable to that of El Golfo de Santa Clara, suggesting that this estimate of incidental mortality of vaquitas represents a minimum. We strongly recommend a complete and permanent ban on gillnets in the area. Alternative or supplemental mitigation strategies include (1) a maximum annual allowable mortality limit of vaquitas; (2) mandatory observer coverage of all boats fishing within the Upper Gulf of California and Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve; (3) extension of the Upper Gulf of California and Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve to encompass all known vaquita habitat; (4) rigorous enforcement of new and existing regulations; and (5) development of alternative sources of income for gillnet fishers.
The Gulf of California is unique because of its geographical location and conformation. It hosts diverse ecosystems and important fisheries that support industry and provide livelihood to coastal settlements. It is also the site of interests and problems, and an intense interaction among managers, producers, and conservationists. In this report, we scrutinize the abiotic (hydrography, climate, ocean circulation, and chemistry) and biotic (phyto- and zooplankton, fish, invertebrates, marine mammals, birds, and turtles) components of the marine ecosystem, and some particular aspects of climate variability, endemisms, harmful algal blooms, oxygen minimum layer, and pollution. We also review the current conditions and conflicts around the main fisheries (shrimp, small and large pelagic fishes, squid, artisanal and sportfishing), the most important human activity in the Gulf of California. We cover some aspects of management and conservation of fisheries, especially the claimed overexploitation of fish resources and the ecosystems, and review proposals for creating networks of marine protected areas. We conclude by identifying main needs for information and research, particularly the integration of data bases, the implementation of models and paleoreconstructions, establishment of monitoring programs, and the evaluation of fishing impacts and management actions.
The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) has been described as a species with low levels of genetic variation. This has been suggested to be the consequence of a demographic bottleneck 10 000-12 000 years ago (ya) and also led to the assumption that only small genetic differences exist between the described subspecies. However, analysing mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites in cheetah samples from most of the historic range of the species we found relatively deep phylogeographic breaks between some of the investigated populations, and most of the methods assessed divergence time estimates predating the postulated bottleneck. Mitochondrial DNA monophyly and overall levels of genetic differentiation support the distinctiveness of Northern-East African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus soemmeringii). Moreover, combining archaeozoological and contemporary samples, we show that Asiatic cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) are unambiguously separated from African subspecies. Divergence time estimates from mitochondrial and nuclear data place the split between Asiatic and Southern African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) at 32 000-67 000 ya using an average mammalian microsatellite mutation rate and at 4700-44 000 ya employing human microsatellite mutation rates. Cheetahs are vulnerable to extinction globally and critically endangered in their Asiatic range, where the last 70-110 individuals survive only in Iran. We demonstrate that these extant Iranian cheetahs are an autochthonous monophyletic population and the last representatives of the Asiatic subspecies A. j. venaticus. We advocate that conservation strategies should consider the uncovered independent evolutionary histories of Asiatic and African cheetahs, as well as among some African subspecies. This would facilitate the dual conservation priorities of maintaining locally adapted ecotypes and genetic diversity.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including the organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), α, β and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers, and the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners (IUPAC Nos. 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, and 180), were determined in hair samples collected from 41 Iranian wild cats belonging to 8 different species. This is the first report on the presence of selected POPs in feline hair from museum collections and it is an indication of the concentrations of OCPs and PCBs in Iran from 2000 to 2010. Median concentrations of HCHs, DDTs, PCBs, and HCB were 108, 99, 70 and 38 ng/g hair, respectively. p,p'-DDE and β-HCH were the most abundant OCPs (detected in 91% and 74%, respectively, of the analyzed samples), while CB 180 and CB 138 were the predominant PCB congeners, found respectively in 49% and 61% of the samples. Significant differences (p < 0.05) in the median concentrations of DDTs were found among species grouped according to both their feeding habits and territory range. Levels of DDTs and PCBs were generally higher in the omnivorous species compared with the carnivorous ones, likely due to both their dietary habits and habitat in the proximity of human settlements.
Emissions of metals and metalloids (Hg; Cd; Cr; Cu; Pb; Ni; Zn; Fe; Mn; As; Se) generated by natural (e.g.,geothermal activity) or anthropic causes (eg., industry or mining) represent a worldwide contamination problem, especially in developing countries. Exposure to high concentrations of these elements is harmful to living beings, including humans. Information on this type of contamination is scarce and fragmented, limiting research which could benefit from these data. To know the state of the research, we reviewed the studies of environmental pollution by metals and metalloids carried out on animal species in Latin America. The use of animals as biomonitors of contamination by metals and metalloids is a continuously expanding practice that allows for early detection of problems. With this work, we were able to identify the most studied areas in Latin America(Amazon, Gulf of California, coastal area between Rio de Janeiro and Florianopolis and River Plate Estuary). Moreover, we provide information on the most studied metals (Hg, Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) and wild species, which evidence the use of endangered species. The data reviewed should help researchers to direct their efforts towards sparsely researched areas and facilitate bibliographic consultation of scientific information on exposure to metals and metalloids in Latin America.
Livestock production can pose challenges for populations of large wild mammals. Conservation failure isn’t a foregone conclusion, however, if integrated management for ranching and for wildlife benefits both.
PCB—still a problem
Until they were recognized as highly toxic and carcinogenic, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were once used widely. Their production was banned in the United States in 1978, though they are still produced globally and persist in the environment. Persistent organic compounds, like PCBs, magnify across trophic levels, and thus apex predators are particularly susceptible to their ill effects. Desforges et al. looked at the continuing impact of PCBs on one of the largest marine predators, the killer whale. Using globally available data, the authors found high concentrations of PCBs within killer whale tissues. These are likely to precipitate declines across killer whale populations, particularly those that feed at high trophic levels and are the closest to industrialized areas.
Science , this issue p. 1373
In their Report “Ancient convergent losses of Paraoxonase 1 yield potential risks for modern marine mammals” (10 August, p.591), W. K. Meyer et al. show that marine mammals are particularly vulnerable to adverse health effects from organophosphorus pesticide pollution. Unfortunately, this finding is just one example of an evolutionary deficiency that puts marine mammals at increased risk for modern-day pollution.
Cheetahs rely heavily upon unprotected land for their habitat requirements, so frequently come into conflict with humans because of their potential to predate upon livestock and farmed game. However, the costs imposed by cheetahs vary, and these costs do not always have a clear-cut relationship with the intensity of conflict caused. Here, we describe the direct and indirect costs of human-cheetah conflict on farmers and cheetahs. We conclude that conflict with cheetahs is influenced by many factors, including environmental (such as climate and seasonality) and social/cultural (such as power, vulnerability, and group norms). Ultimately, whether cheetahs are tolerated by humans largely depends on the perceived costs and benefits of their presence. We therefore provide an overview of popular approaches used to mitigate the costs of cheetah presence and suggest future strategies that could help improve benefits and encourage long-term human-cheetah coexistence.
Recorded knowledge of marine mammals of the Gulf began with commercial whaling of sperm whales, short-finned pilot whales, and Risso’s dolphins in the 1700s and 1800s, progressed to natural history observations and one of the first volunteer stranding organizations, the Texas Marine Mammal Stranding Network, in the 1970s. The vegetarian sirenian, the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), occurs mainly in Florida. All others are cetaceans, members of the whale and dolphin clades. There are no porpoises, sea lions, fur seals, or true seals in the Gulf. The most common cetacean in the Gulf numerically is the pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata), and the one with most biomass is the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), common in mid-depth waters off Louisiana and the shelf break off Texas. Major anthropogenic threats exist for all marine mammals but do not appear to be as intensive in the Gulf as in several other oceanic basins. Threats to marine mammals in the Gulf include prey depletion, incidental mortality, injury due to fisheries, intentional and direct takes, vessel strikes, disturbance, acoustic (noise) pollution, chemical contamination, ingestion of solid debris, oil spills, and aspects of ecosystem change.
Significance
Here, we compile and present the most comprehensive data available on cheetah distribution and status. Our analysis shows dramatic declines of cheetah across its distributional range. Most cheetah occur outside protected areas, where they are exposed to multiple threats, but there is little information on population status. Simulation modeling shows that, where cheetah population growth rates are suppressed outside protected areas, extinction risk increases markedly. This result can be generalized to other “protection-reliant” species, and a decision tree is provided to improve their extinction risk estimation. Ultimately, the persistence of protection-reliant species depends on their survival outside and inside protected areas and requires a holistic approach to conservation that engages rather than alienates local communities.
The vaquita, a child-sized porpoise that lives in the northern reaches of Mexico's Gulf of California, is the world's most endangered marine mammal, its population declining precipitously as it is snared in illegal fishing nets. Just 60 remain, and researchers are pondering a controversial strategy for saving it: capturing a handful of vaquitas and breeding them in captivity. The idea is fraught with practical and political difficulties. No one has ever tried to capture, transport, or care for the animals. And some conservationists fear a captive breeding program will undermine efforts to save the species in the wild. But if further study supports the idea, the first vaquita capture could occur in 2017.
Summary from introduction: This paper provides a broad overview of the development of international commitments with regards to marine biodiversity conservation, giving a particular focus on MPA related targets. The work falls into four main sections. It begins with a summary of the international policy and legal frameworks which have encouraged the protection and management of living marine resources. Part 2 then provides a review of global MPAs, considering political and biogeographic patterns in coverage. Part 3 takes a detailed look at the Aichi Targets for protected areas coverage and considers how current coverage contributes to that target. Finally, Part 4 draws together these observations to consider future trends and needs for marine protection and the achievement of international targets.
MPA coverage has shown dramatic increases in recent years. While this gives the impression that area based conservation targets might be attainable, we point out that protected area targets extend well beyond simple metrics of cover, calling for effectiveness, for representative coverage, for ecosystem services benefits and for the consideration of protected areas within wider ecosystem settings. We suggest that recent trends in MPA coverage may not be contributing as greatly to progress as the headline numbers suggest. We highlight the urgent need for a wider debate on definitions and metrics in order not only to measure progress but to support countries in their approaches to improving conservation and management of ocean space and resources. In particular we recommend that: greater attention be given to the role of economic and social factors in MPA selection and designation in order to secure greater benefits to people; MPAs be embedded in a wider context of comprehensive marine and coastal management; and they be placed where they can truly address the primary threats and gaps, not simply where they can be established with minimal conflict.
State-of-the-art collar reveals animal’s quick reflexes and phenomenal acceleration.
Cheetah Smuggling Out of Ethiopia 'fuelled by Exotic Pets Demand
- Bbc
Bbc, 2015. Cheetah Smuggling Out of Ethiopia 'fuelled by Exotic Pets Demand. https://
www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51124487.
The looming extinction of the vaquita puts Gulf of California on World Heritage danger list
- Iucn
IUCN, 2019. The looming extinction of the vaquita puts Gulf of California on World
Heritage danger list. https://www.iucn.org/news/iucn-43whc/201907/loomin
g-extinction-vaquita-puts-gulf-california-world-heritage-danger-list.
Review of the Regional Conservation Strategy for the Cheetah and African Wild Dog in Southern Africa
- S S C Iucn
Iucn, S.S.C., 2015. Review of the Regional Conservation Strategy for the Cheetah and
African Wild Dog in Southern Africa. IUCN Species Survival Commission, Gland,
Switzerland.
After Decades-Long Battle, Cheetahs Can Be Reintroduced in India
- B Katz
Katz, B., 2020. After Decades-Long Battle, Cheetahs Can Be Reintroduced in India. https
://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/cheetahs-can-be-reintroduced-indian-ha
bitats-supreme-court-rules-180974075/.
Cheetah Researchers Accused of Spying Sentenced in Iran
- K E Long
Long, K.E., 2019. Cheetah Researchers Accused of Spying Sentenced in Iran. National
Geographic News. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/jai
led-cheetah-researchers-sentenced-iran/.
Asiatic Cheetahs on the Brink of Extinction with Only 50 Left Alive
- R Mckie
McKie, R., 2017. Asiatic Cheetahs on the Brink of Extinction with Only 50 Left Alive. htt
ps://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/16/asiatic-cheetah-brink-exti
nction-iran-un-funding.