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Cold pressed safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) seed oil
Abstract
Safflower seed is an important alternative oil crop because of its high oil content (27%–32%), which is rich in linoleic acid (55%–70%). Cold pressed safflower oil possesses high nutritional and pharmaceutical values due to its noticeable amounts of bioactive compounds and essential fatty acids. The oil is known as a valuable source of α-tocopherol, which shows the highest vitamin E activity, and it therefore has many health benefits such as prevention and treatment of hyperlipemia, arteriosclerosis, and coronary heart disease. Safflower seed is suitable for growing all over the world, with high soil and climate adaptation. The most common volatile compounds found in cold pressed safflower oil are paeonol, α-asarone, β-asarone, 1-methyl-4-(2-propenyl)-benzene, diethenyl-benzene, acetoin, methyl benzene, hexanal, p-xylene, heptanal, and 2-octenal. This chapter reviews the extraction techniques of safflower seed oil, bioactive compounds in cold pressed safflower oil and their health effects, aroma compounds found in cold pressed safflower oil, application areas, adulteration, and some process contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 3-monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD) esters.
... According to an estimate, safflower is grown in twenty countries, covering 1,140,002 ha area and production of 948,516 tonnes (Ali et al., 2020). Major safflower producing countries include; Kazakastan, India, Mexico, Turkey, USA, China and Russia, (Pelin et al., 2020;Emongor and 1 Oagile, 2017). Moreover, America and Asia contributes to 93% of total Safflower production (Pelin et al., 2020). ...
... Major safflower producing countries include; Kazakastan, India, Mexico, Turkey, USA, China and Russia, (Pelin et al., 2020;Emongor and 1 Oagile, 2017). Moreover, America and Asia contributes to 93% of total Safflower production (Pelin et al., 2020). Safflower edible oil is human health friendly due to high levels of monounsaturated (oleic acid 11-87%) and polyunsaturated (linoleic acid 70-87%) fatty acids, that are much higher if compared with groundnut, olive, soybeans, corn and seed cotton (Reza et al., 2013). ...
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is well known oilseed crop, cultivated in major pockets of the world for superior quality vegetable seed oil. Study under discussion was planned to review Safflower germplasm (thirty-six lines) for genetic divergence by using agro-morphological parameters in rainfed environment. The research was organized using complete randomized design having three repeats in the 2022-23 Rabi growing season at Gram Breeding Research Sub-Station, Attock. Findings from variance analysis were significant among genotypes with respect to days in flowers initiation, days for flower completion, days for maturity, plant height(cm), no. of capsules plant-1, no. of branches plant-1, 100 seed weight (g), plot yield, seed yield (kg/ha), oil contents (%), oil yield (kg/ha), biological yield (kg/ha), harvest index% and non-significant for days to maturity. The extent of Phenotypic variance co-efficient (PCV) was higher than Genotypic variance co-efficient (GCV) in almost all parameters. However, both values were same in biological yield and plot yield. Higher heritability together with higher genetic advance in biological yield, seed yield, and plot yield implied that genetic factors in comparison with environmental conditions are more effective and should be amenable to selection by breeders. As higher genetic variation was depicted in safflower germplasm for agro-morphological parameters. Therefore, it may be utilized in germplasm execution and potential safflower breeding objectives.
... Safflower oil is valued for its excellent cooking properties, typically comprising 75% linoleic acid along with tocopherols, recognized for their antioxidant properties and abundant vitamin E content. (Ergonul and Ozbek 2020) [6] . Due to this reason, safflower oil is incorporated into the diets of individuals with cardiovascular conditions as it promotes circulation. ...
... Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is an edible medicinal plant that belongs to the Asteraceae family. Primarily cultivated in semi-arid regions, it serves as a natural dye source [22] and is prized for its high oil content in its seeds, which can reach up to 27-32% [23]. With a wide range of applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and industries, safflower is considered a domesticated crop of great value [24]. ...
Selenium (Se) plays a crucial role in ameliorating the negative impact of abiotic stress. The present study was performed to elucidate the efficacy of soil treatment of Se in reducing salt-induced stress in Carthamus tinctorius L. In this study, three different levels of Na2SeO4 (0, 0.01, and 0.02 g kg− 1) and four levels of NaCl (0, 0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 g kg− 1) were applied. The findings revealed that while NaCl decreased seed germination parameters, growth characteristics, K⁺ content, relative water content (RWC), and photosynthetic pigments, it increased Na⁺ content, soluble carbohydrates, H2O2 content, and malondialdehyde (MDA) level. The application of Se showed a positive effect on seed germination and growth characteristics under salinity conditions, which is linked to alterations in anatomical, biochemical, and physiological factors. Anatomical studies showed that treatment with Se led to increased stem diameter, cortical parenchyma thickness, and pith diameter under salinity stress. However, variations in the thickness of the xylem and phloem did not reach statistical significance. The application of Se (0.02 g kg− 1) raised Na⁺ content (7.65%), K⁺ content (29.24%), RWC (15%), Chl a (17%), Chl b (21.73%), Chl a + b (16.9%), Car (4.22%), and soluble carbohydrates (11%) in plants subjected to NaCl (2.5 g kg− 1) stress. Furthermore, it decreased H2O2 (25.65%) and MDA (11.9%) in the shoots. The findings of the current study advocate the application of the Se-soil treating technique as an approach for salt stress mitigation in crops grown in saline conditions.
... Among them, safflower seed oil stands out as a supplier of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats necessary for replenishing energy levels. Additionally, safflower seed oil contains essential fatty acids which are not produced by the human body, which only enhances its significance [3,4]. ...
Safflower oil is a very valuable product for the body and human health. It is rich in macro- and microelements, vitamins and minerals, and also has antioxidant properties. The primary purification of safflower oil is an important stage of its production and directly affects the quality of the final product and its storage ability. Purifying safflower oil using a combination of filtration and sedimentation processes in an experimental cone-shaped centrifuge is a new direction in its processing. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of flax fiber as a filter material for safflower oil. The Akmai variety of the safflower was tested. The results showed that the quality indicators of safflower oil before and after filtration through flax fiber are different. The amount of unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic (18.31 ± 0.874%) and cis-linoleic acid (82.52 ± 1.854%) increased, as well as the content of arginine (2.1), tyrosine (0.57), methionine (0.4), cystine (2.5), tryptophan (2.6), and other amino acids (in oil g per 100 g of protein). The increase in the total amount of phenols (322.12 ± 6 mgEAG/kg of oil) was observed, which directly caused the higher antioxidant activity (42.65 ± 8%) of the safflower oil. These results demonstrate that flax fiber can enrich safflower oil. To find the optimal conditions for safflower oil centrifugation in a cone-shaped sedimentary-filtering centrifuge, the thickness of the flax fiber and the distance between the inner and outer perforated filter rotor were tested. It was found that the optimal and effective thickness of the flax fiber is 1.5 × 10⁷ nm, while the thickness of the sediment is 0.5 × 10⁷ nm.
... Any problem will appear in the oil refinement processes because the equipment used for the sunflower oil can also be used for safflower oil (SO) [39]. Safflower is a multipurpose crop that has been grown in different countries for various uses like coloring and flavoring foods, making dyes, medical purposes, animal feed, or birdseed [40]. However, safflower oil is not preferred among edible oils in many countries today [35,41,42]. ...
With the aim to obtain a pure renewable second-generation biofuel, transesterification reaction of safflower oil and sugar-beet molasses originated ethanol, and usage options as a blend component were investigated. Depleting fossil fuels, increasing fossil fuel prices, and fossil fuel-related emissions are significant global problems. The progress in pure biobased and safer fuels gains importance to figure out these problems. Biodiesel is an excellent fuel candidate that can substitute conventional diesel fuel. For its production, fatty acid methyl esters were primarily proposed. However, with their many advantages, ethyl esters have come to the fore because of environmental and technical issues. Thus, using a by-product originated bioethanol as alcohol and safflower oil as a non-edible raw material would further enhance the renewability and sustainability of one of the second-generation biofuels. This paper studied the transesterification reaction of safflower oil with sugar-beet molasses originated bioethanol. The effects of the safflower oil:ethanol (mole:mole) ratio, catalyst amount, and temperature on the ester content were individually investigated. The fuel properties of safflower oil ethyl ester and 2%, 5%, 7% v/v safflower oil ethyl ester blended diesel and rural diesel fuels were determined according to the standards. The main advantages of ethyl ester addition to diesel fuel include the increase in flash point and the decrease in sulfur content. However, some additives should improve some properties (cold filter plugging point and oxidation stability).
... Its hue ranges from light yellow to golden. In some countries, this oil is in use for margarine, salad dressings, baby formula, and food coating production [4]. ...
Oils derived from non-traditional seeds, such as safflower, milk thistle, and black cumin seeds, have recently grown in popularity. Seed oil is in high demand due to consumer interest in illness prevention and health promotion through healthier diets that include a high concentration of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids and antioxidant phenolic components. This study assessed the quality characteristics of cold-pressed seed oil at three unique storage times: at the beginning of the trial (i.e., before storage), after 2 months, and after 4 months. The results of the performed analyses indicate that the acidity of extracted black cumin, safflower, and milk thistle seed oil fluctuates considerably over time. The highest acidity level change was detected for black cumin seed oil, from 10.26% after the extraction to 16.96% after 4 months of storage at 4 °C. Consequently, changes between pre- and post-storage peroxide concentrations were discernible after four months. Peroxide value in milk thistle and safflower seed oils increased by 0.92 meq/kg and 2.00 meq/kg, respectively, during the assessed storage time, while that of black cumin was very high and fluctuated. The storage period substantially affects oxidative changes and the oxidation stability of the oil. Major changes were observed in the polyunsaturated fatty acids in seed oil during storage. The essential changes were detected in the black cumin seed oil odor profile after 4 storage months. Their quality and stability, as well as the nature of the changes that occur during the storage of oil, require extensive investigation.
... To meet the primary goal of the biofuels mentioned above, the use of plants with higher yields and drought resistance, and waste or byproducts, are preferred. Safflower oil is one of the promising alternative feedstocks; hence it is a multipurpose crop that has been grown in different countries for various uses [15]. However, it is not preferred among edible oils in many countries today [16]. ...
This study aims to evaluate the environmental effects of using safflower oil and molasses-based bioethanol by calculating the environmental impacts of safflower oil methyl ester (SOME), safflower oil ethyl ester (SOEE), and molasses-based bioethanol. The results were compared to fossil-based fuels (diesel and gasoline) within the life cycle assessment framework. Characterization results obtained with Eco-indicator 99 method indicate all three biofuels are more advantageous than fossil fuels in all categories (carcinogens, climate change, respiratory effects, acidification/eutrophication, ecotoxicity, fossil fuel use) except mineral and land use. Based on the normalization results, fossil fuel and land use are the most important environmental impact categories. Using the IPCC method, the carbon intensity was calculated at 16.72, 15.24, 22.23, 99.45, and 108.48 g CO2 per MJ for SOME, SOEE, bioethanol, diesel, and gasoline, respectively.
The weighted impacts were calculated at 0.675, 0.876, 0.98, 1.65, and 2.1 for bioethanol, SOEE, SOME, diesel, and gasoline, respectively. The main environmental impact of fossil fuels comes from using fossil resources, while the essential part of the environmental effects of biofuels comes from the agricultural stage, indicating the importance of choosing pesticides, fertilizers, irrigation, and used fuels. This effect was even more critical for safflower-based biofuels; however, the impact of processing steps is lower than for bioethanol. Although the environmental effects of these biofuels vary in different categories, they are sustainable and cleaner alternatives to fossil-based fuels.
... Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is one of the plants used as cooking oil and poultry feed (Chakradhari et al., 2020). The safflower's oil content ranges between 29 and 34% and is considered a quality oil given its bright color, high iodine index, and pleasant taste (Ergönül and Özbek, 2020;Rezig et al., 2019). Also, safflower oil is rich in linoleic and oleic acids, which are ingredients for eicosanoids generation. ...
Seed coat color is probably a determinant factor in the antibiosis mechanism of developing resistance to safflower fly (Acanthiophilus helianthi). The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the phytochemical content of safflower (Carthamus spp.) seed coat extract with the seed coat color and the damage caused by safflower fly. To this end, germplasm consisting of the cultivated species (C111, seed with a white coat), the wild species (Glaucus and lanatus with black seed coat; Azar with brown seed coat), and a breeding line (A82 with black seed coat) was formed. After cultivating the genotypes, the seed loss (%) and its relationship with the polyphenolic compounds and Cyanidin-3- glucoside of the seed coat extract were examined. Agricultural and phytochemical trait data were analyzed through a completely random block design. With a significant difference from other samples, a minimum damage percentage was observed in Lanatus, Glaucus, and A82 genotypes with a black coat (p<0.05). The concentration of phenolic compounds, i.e., chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and p-coumaric acid, except for ferulic acid, was almost equal in all genotypes. However, there was an inverse and direct relationship between the concentration of four polyphenolic compounds (rutin, apigenin, quercetin, and ferulic acid) and Cyd-3-glu content with resistance safflower fly, respectively. In general, flavonoid compounds, i.e., rutin, quercetin, and apigenin, affect the resistance probably, through antibiosis mechanism so that there was a negative relationship between the concentration of these compounds and resistance to safflower fly.
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is a plant that has been used for centuries for various purposes. It is primarily cultivated for its seeds, which are rich in natural bioactive compounds. This book section shall explore the bioactive compounds found in safflower seed, seed oil, and flower and their potential usage, which can maximize resource efficiency, minimize waste, promote sustainable cultivation practices, and create environmentally friendly products. C. tinctorius is a versatile plant known for its valuable bioactive compounds found in its seeds, seed oil, and flowers. The seeds are a rich source of omega-6 fatty acids, antioxidants, proteins, and fibre, offering benefits for skin health, brain function, and immune support. With its high linoleic acid and vitamin E content, Safflower seed oil finds applications in skin care products and culinary uses. The vibrant safflower flowers contain carthamin, a natural red pigment used for dyeing textiles and food colouring, while also potentially providing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Safflower and its derivatives are used in culinary applications, skincare products, natural dyeing, and traditional medicine, although further research is needed to fully explore their therapeutic potential to maximize the benefit by combining the principles of the circular economy with the utilization of biological resources.
İçerdikleri yağ asitleri, fenolik maddeler ve uçucu bileşenler başta olmak üzere birçok özelliklerinden ötürü yemeklik yağlar lezzet ve sağlık açısından oldukça önemlidir. Bunlar arasında doymamış yağ asidi oranı yüksek bitkisel yağlar ön plana çıkmaktadır. Bu çalışmada doymuş yağ oranı düşük, doymamış yağ oranı yüksek, antioksidan özellikteki aspir ve çörek otu tohumları soğuk sıkım yağlarının kalite parametreleri, antioksidan özellikleri, yağ asidi kompozisyonu ve uçucu bileşenleri literatüre uygun yöntemlerle analiz edilerek karşılaştırılmıştır. Yağların peroksit değerleri 7.230.46-6.450.51 meq O2/kg yağ, serbest yağ asidi değerleri %3.750.11-7.110.50 oleik asit aralıklarında tespit edilmiştir. Aspir ve çörek otu tohumu yağlarının toplam fenolik bileşimleri sırasıyla 149.503.47-274.4715.04 mg gallik asit/kg yağ ve toplam antioksidan kapasiteleri sırasıyla 28.570.62-68.350.39 mg troloks/kg yağ olarak tespit edilmiştir. Linoleik asit (70.4580.70-56.3131.13) ve oleik asit (16.9720.17-24.7800.50) yüzdeleri toplamı 80’in üzerinde ölçülmüştür. Aspir tohumu yağında 11 aldehit, 4 terpen, 2 alkol, 1 keton, 5 asit-ester bulunan 27 uçucu bileşen; çörek otu tohumu yağında 6 aldehit, 14 terpen, 3 alkol, 1 keton, 5 asit-ester bulunan 38 uçucu bileşen tespit edilmiştir. Çörek otu tohumu yağının serbest asitlik değeri, karakteri dahilinde olmakla beraber, biraz yüksek bir değerde bulunmuştur. Buna karşılık daha iyi antioksidan özelliğe sahip olduğu görülmüştür. Her iki yağın yapısında, özelliklerini olumlu etkileyecek, kendine özgü uçucu bileşenleri yanında istenmeyecek duyusal etkilere sahip bazı asitler de bulunmaktadır. Elde edilen sonuçlar, her iki yağın da içeriğindeki doymamış yağ asidi kompozisyonu ve antioksidan özellikleri için tüketici tarafından tercih edilebilecek olduğunu göstermiştir. Bunun yanında, tüketiciye ulaşıncaya kadarki aşamaların iyileştirilmesiyle bu özelliklere çok daha olumlu nitelik kazandırılabilir.
The present investigation was carried out to study the oil quality and estimate fatty acid (omega-3 and omega- 6) composition in bottle gourd using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results indicated that the extracted bottle gourd seed oil was estimated to have an oil content (25.2%), polyunsaturated fatty acids viz., omega-3 (6.63%), omega-6 (69.74%) and others (0.17%), which play a major role in, cardiovascular health and has anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and anti-cancer benefits. It also consisted of saturated fatty acids viz., palmitic acid (9.78%), stearic acid (4.45%) and others (0.97%) along with monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (5.99%) without oleic acid (omega-9). Due to increased demand for specialty edible oil in both domestic and industrial use, it becomes necessary to exploit the potential of bottle gourd seeds as a novel source of edible oil. Being a rich source of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids, which lacks omega-9 known for oxidative stability required for storage and cooking, it can be commercialized as cooking oil by blending it with edible oil rich in oleic acid or can also be supplied as an omega-6-rich capsule as a food supplement in future.
Biodiesel, comprising mono alkyl fatty acid esters or methyl ethyl esters, is an encouraging option to fossil fuels or diesel produced from petroleum; it has comparable characteristics and its use has the potential to diminish carbon dioxide production and greenhouse gas emissions. Manufactured from recyclable and sustainable feedstocks, e.g., oils originating from vegetation, bio-diesel has biodegradable properties and has no toxic impact on ecosystems. The evolution of bio-diesel has been precipitated by the continuing environmental damage created by the deployment of fossil fuels. Biodiesel is predominantly synthesised via transesterification and esterification procedures. These involve a number of key constituents, i.e., the feedstock and catalytic agent, the proportion of methanol to oil, the circumstances of the reaction and the product segregation and purification processes. Elements that influence the yield and standard of the obtained biodiesel encompass the form and quantity of the feedstock and reaction catalyst, the proportion of alcohol to feed-stock, the temperature of the reaction, and its duration. Contemporary research has evaluated the output of biodiesel reactors in terms of energy production and timely biodiesel manufacture. In order to synthesise biodiesel for industrial use efficaciously, it is essential to acknowledge the technological advances that have significant potential in this sector. The current paper therefore offers a review of contemporary progress, feedstock categorisation, and catalytic agents for the manufacture of biodiesel and production reactors, together with modernised processing techniques. The production reactor, form of catalyst, methods of synthesis, and feedstock standards are additionally subjects of discourse so as to detail a comprehensive setting pertaining to the chemical process. Numerous studies are ongoing in order to develop increasingly efficacious techniques for biodiesel manufacture; these acknowledge the use of solid catalytic agents and non-catalytic supercritical events. This review appraises the contemporary situation with respect to biodiesel production in a range of contexts. The spectrum of techniques for the efficacious manufacture of biodiesel encompasses production catalysed by homogeneous or heterogeneous enzymes or promoted by microwave or ultrasonic technologies. A description of the difficulties to be surmounted going forward in the sector is presented. Citation: Abdulkareem-Alsultan, G.; Asikin-Mijan, N.; Ibrahim, Z.; Yunus, R.; Razali, S.Z.; Mansir, N.; Islam, A.; Sivasangar, S.; Taufiq-Yap, Y.H. A Short Review on Catalyst, Feedstock, Modernised Process, Current State and Challenges on Biodiesel Production.
Seeds of seven different genotypes of underutilised oil crop Carthamus tinctorius L. (Asteraceae) from alternative oil species collection of the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops (Novi Sad, Serbia), were analysed for their protein, oil, fatty acids, tocopherols and total phenolics contents, with a view to test their diversity and potential as an alternative source of these valuable compounds. Seeds of the tested safflower genotypes had total protein (determined by Kjeldahl method) content from 11.5 to 16.0%, while total oil content (determined by Soxhlet method) ranged from 16.8 to 24.5% of dry matter, on average. Two main unsaturated fatty acids in safflower seeds, oleic and linoleic acids, represent approximately 90% of the total fatty acid content (determined by gas chromatography). Linoleic acid was the dominant fatty acid in all genotypes (61.2-80.2% of oil), while oleic acid was in a negative correlation with linolenic acid content and ranged from 9.6 to 29.5% of oil. The amount of saturated fatty acids ranged from 5.5 to 6.05% for palmitic, and 2.1 to 3.5% for stearic acid. Safflower seed is a source of a-tocopherol (determined by high performance liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detection) and its amount ranged from 358.8 to 461.8 mg/L of oil. The content of total phenolics (determined spectrophotometrically) ranged from 4.0 to 6.0 mg of gallic acid equivalents/g of dry weight. This comprehensive screening of valuable chemical compounds of safflower seeds shows the importance of this alternative oil seed crop as a good source of important nutrients and bioactive constituents.
The compositions of fatty acids, tocopherols, polyphenols, sterols, and the total phenol contents of cold pressed oils obtained from five varieties of safflower seeds and ten varieties of camelina seeds cultivated in Turkey were determined. Total phenol contents of safflower oils were higher (272.20–525.30 mg GAE/kg) than camelina seed oils (25.90–63.70 mg GAE/kg). Apigenin, luteolin, tyrosol, syringic acid, 3-hydroxytyrosol, p-coumaric acid and sinapic acid were detected in seed oils. Camelina seed oils were rich in tocopherol (144.11–168.69 mg/100 g). γ-Tocopherol was the predominant tocopherol in camelina seed oils consisting of averagely 80% of total tocopherol, while α-tocopherol was the main compound of safflower seed oils, representing 97.85–98.53% of total tocopherols. β-Sitosterol was the major sterol in both type of seed oils. Its concentration ranged between 92.51–121.83 mg/100 g and 80.52–25.54 mg/100 g in safflower seed and camelina oils, respectively. Camelina seed oils contained 22.31–26.57% linolenic acid, 21.25–24.05% linoleic acid and 19.46–21.47% oleic acid, whereas safflower seed oils mainly consisted of linoleic (28.03–76.85%) and oleic (13.01–62.61%) acids.
This research was carried out to determine the rates of protein and oil production and fatty acid composition and their correlation coefficients in four safflower cultivars (Remzibey, Dincer, Balci, and Yenice) sown in the autumn and spring from 2013 to 2015. The experiment was carried out using split plots in a randomized block design and was replicated 3 times. The study found protein production rates between 15.20 and 18.08%, oil production rates between 24.58 and 31.99%, palmitic acid production rates between 5.93 and 7.01%, stearic acid production rates between 2.13 and 2.53%, oleic acid production rates between 12.08 and 31.58%, linoleic acid production rates between 78.61 and 59.08%, and linolenic acid production rates between 0.11 and 0.15%. Higher seed oil content values were obtained from spring sowing compared to autumn sowing (27.42% and 26.10%), and, in terms of both the evaluated sowing times and cultivars, the highest oil production rates were found in the Balci cultivar (32.20% and 31.78%) for both sowing times. It was determined that there is a positive and significant ( r = 0.476 ⁎ ⁎ ) relationship between oil with protein production rates but a negative and significant relationship between oil and linolenic acid production rates ( r = - 0.728 ⁎ ⁎ ). The oleic acid production rate was strongly negatively and significantly correlated with the linoleic acid production rate ( r = - 0.997 ⁎ ⁎ ).
A novel safflower oil emulsion and method of preparation is disclosed. The safflower oil is 100% all natural, non-genetically modified organism (GMO), expeller pressed, solvent free, linoleic fatty acid rich oil wherein the linoleic fatty acid content is in a range from approximately 70% to approximately 80% of the total safflower oil that is mixed with a purified water and a mixture of at least one of an emulsifier, a flavoring, a natural sweetener, a natural coloring agent, and a gum. The mixture is blended to provide a stable emulsion that has the rich taste of a nutritious fruit smoothie that increases metabolism to support a healthy weight management program. The resulting dietary supplement is bioavailable and easily absorbed by the consumer of the emulsified safflower oil dietary supplement.
The present study is a preliminary evaluation of the total oil, fatty acid, tocopherol and sterol composition and oxidative stability of the oil of four potentially most useful varieties of safflowers (Padideh, Zendehrood, KF72 and Bacum92) that can be grown in Iran. The fatty acid composition of the oils indicated that the predominant fatty acid was linoleic acid (74.84-77.86%) followed by oleic (12.57-15.75%), palmitic (6.16-7.07%) and stearic acid (2.39-2.83%) while trace amounts of myristic, palmitoleic, arachidic, behenic and linolenic fatty acids in oil of different varieties were presented. The sterol marker, (3-sitsterol, constituted about 49.16-53.51% of the total sterol content (1248.34-2976.25 mg/kg) followed by A7-stigmasterol (17.65-20.19%), campesterol (6.45-14.17%) and stigmasterol (4.78-6.44%). Significant (p<0.01) differences were found among four samples for phytosterols. Among the total tocopherol, a-tocopherol was the most abundant and comprised approximately about 94-96% of the total tocopherols amounting to 192.05-439.64 mg/Kg oil and was followed by y-tocopherol (5.59-14.68 mg/Kg) and 5-tocopherol (3.06-11.50 mg/Kg). The stability of oil varied from 3.41 h to 3.83h and The results showed that safflower seed oil has unique quality and could be used in pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic products.
We analysed the fatty acid (FA) composition of plant and fish oil supplements available in the Czech Republic. Total lipid FA composition was analysed by gas chromatography. A total of 62 plant and 50 fish oil supplements were analysed. Their FA composition ranged widely. Linoleic acid was a dominant FA in soya lecithin (45-60%), evening primrose (65-75%), amaranth (20-50%), pumpkin seed (45-55%), and borage oil supplements (40%). α-Linolenic acid ranged between 2% and 8% in soya lecithin and from 0.2% to 1% in the majority of the other plant oil supplements. Saw palmetto oil supplements were rich in saturated FA (40-90%). γ-Linolenic acid was found in evening primrose and borage oil supplements (10-20%). Sea buckthorn oil composition varied according to the part of the plant used. The majority of fish oil supplements contained 12-23% of eicosapentaenoic and 7-17% of docosahexaenoic acids. Oil supplements may be beneficial for patients with metabolic disorders because of their FA as well as antioxidant and phytosterol content.
Increased demand for virgin coconut oil motivated the present study, which aims to evaluate the authenticity and the compliance with nutrition labelling of oils from the São Paulo city market, Brazil. Six samples were studied. Fatty acids, Vitamin E, Vitamin A, and stigmasta 3,5-diene contents were evaluated. One sample was adulterated with the addition of soybean oil. For all samples, at least one of the above-mentioned components was not in accordance with the labelling. Two samples that were labelled as extra virgin oil presented high contents of stigmasta 3,5-diene (>4.0 mg.kg-1), suggesting that the oils were submitted to refining process and were not of the quality stated. Considering the observed non-compliant commercial oils, it is essential that continuous monitoring actions be maintained to ensure the supply of safe and reliable products to the consumer.
Abstract Triglyceride composition and fatty acid profiles of pomegranate seed oil were evaluated by newly developed methods in reverse-phase-high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC), respectively. Different compositions of the mobile phase (acetone and acetonitrile) and flow rates for the HPLC system were used to obtain better separation for accurate quantitative analysis. Triglycerides with conjugated fatty acids (CLnAs) were eluted in order of the polarity of their geometrical isomers (c, t, c < t, t, c < t, t, t). The dominant triglyceride was found to be PuPuPu (32.99 %) in pomegranate seed oil, followed by PuPuCa and PuCaCa containing punicic acid and catalpic acid with total triglyceridelevels of 27.72 and 10.11 %, respectively. For fatty acid composition analysis, triglyceride fractions were derivatized into their respective methylesters which were injected into gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify and gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) to quantify the conjugated fatty acids of each fraction of triglycerides. Punicic acid was found to be dominant (76.57 %) followed by catalpic acid (6.47 %) and β-eleotearic acid (1.45 %). Pomegranate seed contained greater amounts of conjugated linolenic acids. These results showed that the present study provides more information about the composition of the triglyceride and fatty acid profiles of pomegranate seed oil compared to the reported studies. Therefore, the developed methods in this study can be used for the identification of the triglyceride and fatty acid composition for pomegranate seed oils and some such specials edible oils including CLnA isomers.
The quality of the oil of four safflower varieties, originating from Spain (Rancho), India (Sharda) and Morocco (Cartamar and Cartafri), which were cultivated at the experimental station in Oujda (a semi-arid region of eastern Morocco) was evaluated through analysis of their phenolic and carotenoid contents. The composition of the phenolic compounds of safflower oil has not yet been documented. Therefore, in this preliminary study, Thirty different phenolic compounds were identified, and significant differences between the oil varieties were observed (P < 0.05). In the seed oil from the Rancho and Sharda safflower varieties, the main phenolic compound was trans-chalcone, representing 13.45% and 11.8%, respectively, of the total phenolics, whereas in Cartamar and Cartafri oils, naringin accounted for 26.82% and 16.5%, respectively, of the total phenolics. The total carotenoid contents ranged from 1.13 mg kg−1 (Rancho) to 1.34 mg kg−1 (Cartamar and Cartafri). We observed that β-cryptoxanthin (0.31–0.37 mg kg−1) and β-carotene (0.3–0.35 mg kg−1) were the predominant carotenoids in all of the safflower oils that were studied.
In this study, seeds from the safflower variety called “Dinçer” were roasted and microwaved before oil extraction by cold pressing. Some physico-chemical analyses (moisture, ash, oil content and color) were performed in safflower meals. Physico-chemical properties (refractive index, viscosity, turbidity, specific gravity, color, free acidity, peroxide value, iodine number), nutritional components (total phenolics, antioxidant capacity, tocopherol content), sterol composition and fatty acid composition of produced oils were also determined. Volatile components of the oils were detected by solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography–mass spectrometry technique. Quantitative descriptive analysis was accomplished with trained panelists by 11 definition terms. Cold pressing yielded less oil than solvent extraction, but oil quality was superior and a refining process was not required. There was no significant difference between samples for fatty acid composition and some physico-chemical parameters. Whereas, microwave treatment caused a decrease in oil turbidity, free acidity, α-tocopherol and some sterol contents and an enhancement in total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity and peroxide value. Moreover, microwave treatment led to an increased nutty aroma in the oil. In contrast, isot pepper aroma was decreased by microwave treatment. This study provides very important information about the safflower oils for the first time in the literature.
A method using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) was developed for the simultaneous determination of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soybean oils. The sample preparation includes liquid-liquid extraction with dimethylformamide-water (9:1, v/v) followed by a clean-up and concentration step with C-18 SPE cartridges. The method showed good recoveries for most of the PAHs studied with values between 71 and 115%. The calibration curves were linear over the range tested (R2 > 0.999). Detection and quantification limits varied between 0.02-0.76 µg kg-1 and 0.03-0.96 µg kg-1, respectively. The analytical procedure was successfully applied to evaluate the contamination of most consumed brands of soybean oils commercially available in the Brazilian market. The presence of PAHs was confirmed in all samples analyzed with mean values ranging from 0.20 to 5.93 µg kg-1.
Encapsulated specialty oils commercialized in São Paulo state, Brazil, were evaluated for their identity (fatty acids profile) and compliance with nutrition labeling (fatty acids and Vitamin E (alpha tocopherol) contents). Twenty one samples [flaxseed oil (6), evening primrose (5), safflower (8), borage (1), and black currant (1)] purchased from local markets or collected by the health surveillance agency were analyzed. The fatty acids and vitamin E contents were analyzed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector and liquid chromatography with UV detector, respectively. Nine samples were adulterated (5 samples of safflower oil, 3 of flaxseed oil, and one of evening primrose). Among them, 3 flaxseed and 2 safflower oil samples were probably adulterated by the addition of soybean oil. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) was found in two safflower oils samples although the sale of oils with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is not permitted by the National Health Surveillance Agency in Brazil (ANVISA). Only two samples presented all values in compliance with nutrition labeling (one safflower oil sample and one borage oil sample). The results show that a continuous monitoring of encapsulated specialty oils commercialized in Brazil is necessary including a greater number of samples and sanitary surveillance.
In this study the quality characteristics and content of healthy minor components of four crude canola oils as an effect of different oil extraction method (solvent extraction, hot pressing and cold pressing) were studied. Cold-pressed canola oils had lower concentrations of FFA, PV, p-AV and chlorophylls than solvent-extracted and hot-pressed canola oils. Oils obtained via the different extraction methods had different fatty acid profiles as well as dissimilar amounts of tocopherols, phytosterols, and polyphenols. The amount of total tocopherols in solvent-extracted canola oil was 493 mg/kg compared to 388 mg/kg for hot-pressed canola oil. The tocopherol content for two other cold-pressed and one other RBD canola oil was 366, 354 and 327 mg/kg, respectively. Solvent extracted canola oil exhibited the highest free phytosterol content (178 mg/Kg), while RBD canola oil only had 129 mg/kg of free phytosterols. While cold-pressed canola oil had the lowest amount of polyphenols, traditional refining resulted in almost complete removal of polyphenols from canola oil.
This study was to evaluate the phenolic content and composition of Carthamus tinctorius L. seed extract (CSE) and to further assess its antioxidant and anti-adipogenic activities using various radical scavenging systems and 3T3-L1 cells. Our results show that the total phenolic and flavonoid contents of CSE were 126.0 ± 2.4 mg GAE/g and 62.2 ± 1.9 mg QE/g, respectively. The major phenolic compounds in CSE was (-)-epigallocatechin (109.62 mg/g), with a 4-hydroxy benzhydrazide derivative and gallocatechin present at 18.28 mg/g and 17.02 mg/g, respectively. CSE exhibited remarkable radical scavenging activities, FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) and reducing power in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) value of CSE (0.1 mg/mL) was 62.9 ± 4.7 μM TE (trolox equivalent)/g. During adipogenesis, CSE significantly inhibited fat accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells compared with control cells. Overall, these results indicate that CSE might be a valuable source of bioactive compounds that impart functional food and natural antioxidant properties.
The levels of 4 compounds from the group of light PAHs listed by the US EPA and 15 PAHs listed by the EU Scientific Committee on Food were determined in selected unconventional oils. PAHs determination was performed by high-pressure liquid chromatography with fluorescent and diode array detectors (HPLC-FLD/DAD). Similar quality profiles of PAHs, with light PAHs being predominant, were stated. Total content of 19 PAHs varied from 23.41 (poppy seed oil) to 234.30 μg/kg (pumpkin seed oil). In most analyzed products, from the group of 15 PAHs benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[k]fluoranthene were detected. Benzo[a]pyrene was detected in amaranth, pumpkin, sesame, blackseed and borage oil, whereas in pumpkin seed oil its concentration was about 8 times higher than the maximum tolerable limit (2 μg/kg) stated in Commission Regulation (EU) No. 835/2011. The sum of benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and chrysene, for which the maximum tolerable limit has been set in Commission Regulation (EU) No. 835/2011 at the level of 10 μg/kg, were found in the range from 0.00 (linseed oil) to 35.03 μg/kg (pumpkin seed oil).
Oil content and fatty acid composition were examined for Yenice (spineless), Dinçer (spineless) and Remzibey-05 (spiny) saf- flower varieties planted winter and spring seasons in 2004-2005. Oil content was affected by sowing time and variety. Oil content in three varieties ranged from 24.53 % to 28.47 % in winter sowing and from 21.23 % to 25.76 % in spring sowing. A significant sowing time x variety interaction for oil content was not observed. The sowing time x variety interaction was not significant for all fatty acids examined. Only the stearic acid among major fatty acids (palmitic, stearic oleic, and linoleic acids) and the linolenic acid were influenced (P
Biochar is carbon-rich product generated from biomass through pyrolysis. In this study, the effects of pyrolysis temperature and heating rate on the yield and physicochemical and morphological properties of biochars obtained from safflower seed press cake were investigated. The results showed that the biochar yield and quality depend principally on the applied temperature where pyrolysis at 600°C leaves a biochar with higher fixed carbon content (80.70%) and percentage carbon (73.75%), and higher heating value (30.27MJkg(-1)) in comparison with the original feedstock (SPC) and low volatile matter content (9.80%). The biochars had low surface areas (1.89-4.23m(2)/g) and contained predominantly aromatic compounds. The biochar could be used for the production of activated carbon, in fuel applications, and water purification processes.
A study was conducted to investigate the effect of different planting dates (25 April, 5 May and 15 May 1998 and 30 April, 15 May and 25 May 1999) on the seed yield, oil content and fatty acid composition of three safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) cultivars (Yenice 5-38, Dincer 5-118 and 5-154) grown in fields of the research facility of Akdeniz University in Antalya, Turkey. While seed yield, oil content, and palmitic acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid contents decreased, linoleic acid content increased from 50.86 to 55.72 % with delay in planting date. The effect of genotype on fatty acids was greater than that of environment.
Safflower seed oil extraction with supercritical CO2 at series operational parameters of pressure, temperature, flow rate and particle size was investigated in a bench scale apparatus. The results show that the extraction yields plotted as a function of time are significantly affected by the extraction pressure, flow rate and particle size, but extraction yields plotted versus CO2 used are scarcely affected by flow rate. Extraction temperature has a slight effect on the extraction curves. In order to describe the extraction process, the Sovova’s extended Lack’s Model (SLM) was used and the experimental data were well fitted by it. The extraction was scaled up to pilot plant and the computed values of SLM are in good agreement with the pilot plant data. Additionally, the quality of safflower seed oil obtained by supercritical CO2 extraction is superior to that of oil obtained by traditional methods. It is noted that a new method of changing flow rate was proposed to improve the process efficiency and proved to be valuable by experiment.
The aim of this study was to investigate levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (marker and dioxin-like congeners), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (EPA 15 + 1), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (14 predominant congeners) and pesticides (74 compounds) in various cold-pressed vegetable oils. Poppy seed oil, rapeseed oil, sesame seed oil, pumpkinseed oil, hempseed oil, linaire oil, borage oil and evening star oil were investigated. Results of this study revealed that concentrations of PCBs, PBDEs and PAHs were low in majority of the investigated samples. However, high concentrations of organophosphorus insecticides were found. Chlorpyrifos methyl and pirimiphos methyl were the pesticide residues most commonly found in the studied oils. Concentration of 15 + 1 EPA PAHs was within the 17.85-37.16 μg kg(-1) range, concentration of (marker) PCBs varied from 127 to 24,882 pg g(-1), dioxin-like TEQ values were below 0.1 pg TEQ g(-1). Concentration of PBDEs was below LOQ in most cases.
Safflower has a long history of cultivation. Some would classify it as the world's oldest crop. Because safflower was introduced to many lands, it is known by a number of different names, for example, false saffron, benihana, safflor, thistle saffron, and so on. Safflower is a plant of desert origin. Flowering takes place during the warmest part of the growing season. Most farming areas of the world receive some summer rains. If rains occur, then the safflower has a chance of surviving. However, the chances also increase for the plant to be attacked by various molds. The history and botanical description of safflower are detailed in this chapter. Safflower seed consists of a tough fibrous hull that protects the kernel. Attempts have been made to produce commercial hybrids of safflower seed by exploiting heterosis to increase seed or oil content. Safflower oil is pale yellow to golden and exhibits the highest level of linoleic fatty acid of any commercial oil. This high level has made safflower oil attractive to consumers. Processing of the safflower to produce the oil is done in various stages: extraction, refining, bleaching, and deodorizing. Marketing of safflower and the quality assessment of the seed and oil are discussed. Unique uses for safflower seeds include bird feed, ornamental plantings, food coloring, dyes, in medicinal products, and in cosmetics.
This study aimed at evaluating the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination of commercial vegetable oils and examined the identity through the fatty acids profiles. Coconut, safflower, evening primrose, and linseed oils marketed in São Paulo (Brazil) were investigated totaling 69 samples. Four PAHs, benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), were detected in 96% of the samples at individual levels ranging from not detected to 14.99 μg kg⁻¹. Chrysene was the abundant hydrocarbon found among all types of oils, with the highest median values. The results of the fatty acid profiles revealed that 43% showed different profiles according to the ones on their labels, with a higher incidence of adulteration of evening primrose oils. The maximum tolerable limits by European Regulation No. 835/2011 were exceeded for BaP in 12%, and for total 4 PAHs in 28%, with a greater contribution of adulterated samples.
Background Safflower is a multiple purpose crop generally grown for oil production. The safflower oil is considered to be a better oil since it contains higher amount of oleic and linoleic acids than other oil seed crops. Safflower oil has numerous applications in food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and feed industry. An added advantage of safflower oil is lower cost of production thus can become an alternate option for those who cannot afford to buy olive and other functional oils. Scope and approach This manuscript provides a comprehensive review on critical aspects of pharmacological and nutritional applications of safflower oil. A higher antioxidant activity renders better stability of safflower seed oil over extended storage period. Moreover, a higher content of omega six fatty acids makes it a healthier choice for consumption especially where olive oil being the only but costly choice. There has been a surge in developing innovative and efficient methods to extract safflower oil including super critical fluid and enzymatic extraction techniques. Key findings and conclusions A higher stability index makes it possible to encapsulate safflower oil or used it as a carrier in bioactive functional ingredient delivery systems. The functional properties of safflower oil can be used to treat skin infections, bone related disorders, menopause and atherosclerosis. Composition and distribution of phenolic contents of safflower oil has not been explored to its full potential. There is a need to conduct exclusive research on exploring the role of phenolic compounds in food and pharma industrial applications.
The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of heating and microwave treatment on the
levels of volatile oxidation products and the stability of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), sesame
(Sesamum indicum) and canola (Brassica napus L.) cold-pressed oils. Cold-pressed oils were subjected to
conventional heating (oven test) using air-forced oven at 60℃ and microwave heating for 2 and 4 min. The
changes in conjugated diene (CD) and conjugated triene (CT) values were monitored during treatments. As
expected, heating generates an increase in CD and CT values. The volatile compounds in treated oils were
determined using solid phase micro-extraction-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS).
The obtained GC/MS data were used to characterize volatile compounds of cold-pressed oils during heating
and microeave treatments. Under oven conditions, 2-heptenal and 2,4-heptadienal isomers were identified
as major components in canola oil, while hexanal and 2-heptenal were found in high levels in safflower and
sesame oils. Among volatiles, p-cymene was the dominant compound found in microwave-treated canola oil.
In addition, hexanal and 2-hexenal were found at high amounts upon microwave treatment especially after
4 min of application.
Chemical properties of cold pressed onion (OnSO), okra (OkSO), rosehip (RSE), safflower (SSO) and carrot (CSO) seed oils were evaluated in terms of triglyceride (TG), fatty acid and tocol (tocopherol and tocotrienol) compositions. Cold pressed OnSO, OkSO, RSO, and SSO had high amounts of OLL, PLL, LLLn and LLL triglycerides, respectively, whereas cold pressed CSO had a significant amount of OOL triglyceride. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) were dominant in CSO with 81.8%, while polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were dominant in OnSO, OkSO, RSE, and SSO oils at 58.7%, 47.9%, 74.1% and 73.8%, respectively. The highest total tocol content was in OnSO (2608.8 mg kg-1), followed by RSO (1124.2 mg kg-1), OkSO (716.7 mg kg-1), SSO (417.5 mg kg-1) and CSO (258.0 mg kg-1) seed oils. There was a positive association between total tocopherol and PUFA and between total tocotrienol and MUFA.
Although supplementation effects of safflower seed oil (SSO) on dairy cattle have been extensively studied, little information exists on the effective use of SSO in lactating dairy goat. Thus, this study investigated the effects of SSO supplementation on feed intake, yield, composition and fatty acid profile of milk of lactating dairy goat. Fifteen multiparous Xinong Saanen dairy goats (63 ± 2 DIM) were assigned to a 3 × 3 Latin square for periods of 21-d. They were randomly allocated to 3 treatments: A) unsupplemented (control), B) supplemented with 10 g SSO (low dose, SSO-1), and C) supplemented with 30 g SSO (high dose, SSO-2) per kilogram diet dry matter (DM) of total ration. Feeding SSO resulted in a significant increase of DM intake compared with the control (P < 0.01). Ruminal pH values in SSO-1 were increased in comparison with the control (P < 0.05). SSO supplementation increased the content of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in serum (P < 0.01). Yield and ratio of mike fat with SSO supplementation decreased significantly compared with the control (P < 0.01). SSO supplementation decreased the ratios of short- and medium-chain fatty acids (C ≤ 16) but significantly increased the ratios of long-chain fatty acids (C > 16) in milk fat. Furthermore, SSO supplementation increased cis-9, trans-11 CLA contents from 0.49 g/day of the control to 0.68 and 1.18 g/day for SSO-1 and SSO-2, respectively (P < 0.01). This study demonstrated that SSO supplementation improved milk fat composition of dairy goat.
The oil contents of safflower seeds ranged from 23.08% to 36.51%. The major fatty acid of safflower oil is linoleic acid, which accounted for 55.1-77.0% in oils, with a mean value of 70.66%. Three types of tocopherols were found in safflower oil in various amount α-tocopherol, β-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol, ranged from 46.05 to 70.93 mg/100 g, 0.85 to 2.16 mg/100 g and trace amount to 0.45 mg/100 g oils, respectively. This research shows that both fatty acid and tocopherol contents differ significantly among the safflowers.
Fatty acid contents and physicochemical characteristics of a kind of oil extracted from seeds of 17 safflower genotypes from Iran along with three genotypes from Germany and Canada were studied. Oil content, refractivity index, specific gravity and peroxide, iodine, saponification, acid and tiobarbitoric acid values were measured according to AOCS official methods. These determinations were carried out in triplicate. Fatty acids composition was determined by gas chromatography. Results indicated that there was a significant difference (P < 0.01) in all characteristics among genotypes. The seeds contained 22.03–36.73% oil and 15.64–21.50% protein. Linoleic acid (C18:2) was the most abundant unsaturated fatty acid, followed by oleic acid (C18:1) and linolenic acid (18:3).Practical ApplicationsBecause safflower seeds are rich sources of unsaturated fatty acids and possess high nutritional and pharmaceutical values, it is necessary to study the physicochemical characteristics of various safflower lines to be commercially exploited for food applications. Moreover, different types of oil can be produced, depending on the genetics of safflower lines. In order to design an appropriate breeding program, it is important to know how much the phenotypic variation of a characteristic is heritable.
Safflower oil, either with high linoleic acid or high oleic acid content, has a tocopherol profile dominated by α‐tocopherol. Novel safflower germplasm that accumulates predominantly γ‐tocopherol in seeds instead of α‐tocopherol has been developed. The objective of this research was to evaluate the chemical properties and stability of safflower oil with high oleic acid and γ‐tocopherol contents, produced by either mechanical pressing or solvent extraction from seeds of safflower line IASC‐2. Safflower oil with high oleic acid and α‐tocopherol contents from seeds of safflower line CR‐6 was used as a control. Seeds of IASC‐2 had low oil content (22.2% compared to 39.3%), which is the result of its wild origin. Oil samples showed only slight differences in the fatty acid profile and total tocopherol content. The predominant tocopherol form, either α‐ or γ, accounted in all cases for more than 95% of total tocopherols. Solvent extracted oils had more sterols than pressed oils, with oils from IASC‐2 having higher sterol content than oils from CR‐6. Major differences were observed for oil stability, measured with Rancimat. High γ‐tocopherol pressed oil from IASC‐2 had an induction period of 66.4 h, compared to 38.0 h for high α‐tocopherol oil from CR‐6, whereas solvent extracted oil from IASC‐2 had an induction time of 121.0 h, compared to 32.0 h for oil from CR‐6.
Practical applications: Safflower oil, either with high oleic or high linoleic acid contents, has been traditionally valued as a healthy edible oil. The results of the present research indicated that the nearly complete replacement of α‐tocopherol by γ‐tocopherol has a great impact on enhancing oil oxidative stability. Oils with high oxidative stability are demanded for high temperature applications such as deep frying or biolubrication. Also, extended oxidative stability is required for biofuels. According to the results of this research, the novel safflower oil with high oleic acid and high γ‐tocopherol content is more advantageous for such applications than safflower oils with high α‐tocopherol content.
Chemical properties and stability of safflower oil with high oleic acid and γ‐tocopherol contents.
Safflower is a world-wide plant for multiple uses. flower of safflower is honghwa(紅花) which has been used for heart disease in oriental medicine. but its seed was not used in oriental medicine. after the publication of "Shinyak(神藥)" - the late 1980s, its seed(紅花子, hongwhassi) was known as good for bone fracture, osteoporosis and menopausal disorders. so many researchers studied hongwhassi and delivered lots of papers. the concern of each paper is different. this paper is a review paper. this paper studied documentary records about hongwhassi, and analyzed hongwhassi research trend. the trend consists of cultivation, ingredient analysis, osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, periodontal ligament and phytoestrogen. many papers lack of information about plant origin. so this paper supplements the standard form of plant origin(when sowing, where grow up, which direction, what kind etc).
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Carthamus tinctorius L. (Compositae), a widely used traditional Chinese medicine, was known as Hong hua (Chinese: ), safflower. Safflower with a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects has been used to treat dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, postpartum abdominal pain and mass, trauma and pain of joints, etc. The present paper reviews the advancements in investigation of botany and ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of safflower. Finally, the possible tendency and perspective for future investigation of this plant are discussed, too.
Materials and methods:
The information on safflower was collected via piles of resources including classic books about Chinese herbal medicine, and scientific databases including Pubmed, Google Scholar, ACS, Web of science, CNKI and others.
Results:
Over 104 compounds from this plant have been isolated and identified, and quinochalcones and flavonoids are considered as the characteristic and active constituents of safflower. Safflower with its active compounds possesses wide-reaching biological activities, including dilating coronary artery, improving myocardial ischemia, modulating immune system, anticoagulation and antithrombosis, antioxidation, antiaging, antihypoxia, antifatigue, antiinflammation, anti-hepatic fibrosis, antitumor, analgesia, etc.
Conclusions:
As an important traditional Chinese medicine, it is important to investigate the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of this plant based on modern realization of diseases' pathophysiology. More bioactive components should be identified using bioactivity-guided isolation strategies, and the possible mechanism of action as well as potential synergistic or antagonistic effects of multi-component mixtures derived from safflower need to be evaluated integrating pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, bioavailability-centered and physiological approaches. Further studies on safflower can lead to the development of new drugs and therapeutics for various diseases, and how to utilize it better should be paid more attention to.
New Zealand cold-pressed hemp, flax and canola seed oils were analyzed for their fatty acid compositions, tocopherols, β-carotene, chlorophyll, total phenolics, flavonoids, color, quality, melting and crystallization characteristics. The dominant fatty acid of canola, hemp and flax seed oils was oleic (57.0 ± 0.0%), linoleic (55.7 ± 0.3%) and linolenic acids (58.7 ± 1.2%) respectively (p < 0.05). Hemp seed oil contained the highest tocopherol, flavonoid and phenolic acid contents. There was a significant difference in color for the oils (p < 0.05) due to the chlorophyll content in the oil. Melting and crystallization transitions and ΔH values varied for the three oils in the order canola > flax > hemp. All oils had low moisture and volatiles, unsaponifiable matter and free fatty acids. Peroxide value, p-anisidine, conjugated dienoic acid, acid value, specific extinction of cold-pressed oils at 232 and 270 nm were under the limits allowed in general regulations.
The high viscosity of vegetable oil can be reduced by transesterification with alcohols and converting it into biodiesel. Biodiesel can be used neat or blended with diesel as engine fuel. This study demonstrates that esters of castor oils have a higher viscosity than safflower oil derived esters and the viscosity can be reduced by blending with diesel. The viscosity increased in a non-linear fashion as the percentage of castor esters increased in castor esters diesel blends and in castor esters safflower esters blends. Only slight increases in viscosity were observed for B40 and B60 mixtures with No. 2 diesel. Addition of ten chemical additives in castor esters at the rate of 0.01%, 0.1% and 1.0% showed limited viscosity reduction.
Fifty wether lambs were used in a 48-day finishing study to evaluate the effects of feeding diets high in linoleic acid on animal performance, carcass characteristics and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content of muscle and fat tissue. Lambs were fed either a safflower supplemented diet containing 6% oil from safflower seeds or a control diet containing no added oil. Morlin safflower seeds, containing 37% oil with 79% linoleic acid, were utilized. Lambs fed the safflower supplemented diet had greater (P=0.04) ADG than those fed the control diet (0.29±0.01kg per day versus 0.25±0.01kg per day, respectively). Gain to feed ratio was greater (P=0.02) for lambs fed the safflower than control diet (14.8±0.54kg/100kg of feed versus 12.7±0.54kg/100kg of feed, respectively). Dressing percent, internal fat weight and longissimus muscle area did not differ (P>0.30) between lambs fed safflower or control diets. However, back fat thickness tended to be greater (P=0.17) for the lambs fed safflower diet (4.03±0.48mm versus 3.03±0.48mm, for safflower versus control lambs, respectively). Fat content of muscle tissue was greater (P=0.02) in safflower supplemented lambs (4.3±0.23g/100g muscle tissue versus 3.4±0.23g/100g muscle tissue for safflower versus control lambs, respectively). Safflower supplemented lambs had 2.3 percentage units lower (P=0.004) oleic acid (C18:1), 2.6 percentage units higher (P
Preliminary studies showed that powdered safflower seed lowered the plasma cholesterol concentration in high-fat and high-cholesterol fed rats. These studies were designed to test the hypolipidemic activity of safflower seed extracts prepared with ethanol or hot water. Male rats were fed a high-cholesterol (1%, wt/wt) or high-cholesterol diet supplemented with safflower seed powder (5%, wt/wt; SSP), safflower seed ethanol extract (0.15%, wt/wt; SSE), or safflower seed water extract (0.5%, wt/wt; SSW) for 5 weeks. The safflower seed extracts were supplemented in diets based on 5% raw safflower seeds. All the safflower seed preparations significantly lowered the plasma cholesterol concentration, whereas the plasma triglyceride concentration was only lowered by the supplementation of SSE and SSW. The hepatic total cholesterol contents were significantly lower in the SSW group compared with the control group, whereas the hepatic triglyceride contents were significantly lower in both the SSE and SSW groups compared to control group. Conversely, the hepatic HMG-CoA reductase activities were significantly higher in both the SSE and SSW groups compared with the other two groups. Finally, the hepatic ACAT activities were significantly lower in the SSE group compared to all the other groups. Accordingly, these results indicate that the supplementation of SSE or SSW is more effective than SSP in improving the atherogenic risk factors in high-cholesterol fed rats.
In recent years, the authentication of edible fats and oils has become an important issue for food producers, consumers, and regulatory authorities due to religious and economic reasons. Some high-priced edible oils such as extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), virgin coconut oil (VCO), and cod liver oil (CLO) are adulterated with lower price oils to improve profits. These oils can be considered functional food oils due to their beneficial effects on human health. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy combined with suitable chemometrics techniques has emerged as a potential tool that allows analysts to authenticate high-value edible oils. This review describes the potential use of FTIR spectroscopy for authentication of three functional food oils, namely, EVOO, VCO, and CLO.
To examine a potential role for phytoestrogens in postmenopausal bone loss, the oophorectomized (OOX) rat model has been used in three studies to investigate the effects of the phytoestrogens coumestrol, zearalanol and a mixture of isoflavones on estrogen-dependent bone loss. In the studies of coumestrol and zearalanol, the rats were allocated to a control group, a phytoestrogen-treated group (1.5 µmol coumestrol or 3.1 mmol zearalanol twice per week, intramuscular) or, in the coumestrol study, an estrogen-treated group (28.1 nmol, intramuscular). In the isoflavone study, the rats were allocated to a control group, an estrogen treated group or a treatment group that received 131.25 mg of phytoestrogens per week incorporated into the nonpurified rat diet. Bone mineral density was measured globally and at the spine and femur at base line and 6 wk post-oophorectomy. In the coumestrol study, blood and urine samples were collected. Compared with the control group, rats receiving coumestrol and zearalanol had significantly reduced bone loss at all sites measured. The estrogen-treated group had significantly greater bone density than the control and the coumestrol-treated groups in the spine and global measurements. Coumestrol reduced urine calcium excretion and the bone resorption markers pyridinoline and deoxypyridinoline after 1 wk of treatment. Oral isoflavone phytoestrogens had no effect on oophorectomized rats including bone loss at the dose used. Thus, for the first time, the bioactivity of coumestrol and zearalanol in preventing bone loss has been demonstrated in a well-recognized model of postmenopausal bone loss.
Seeds with different roasting (140°C to 180°C) and expelling (110°C to 150°C) temperatures were evaluated. The color development of their oils increased as both temperatures increased. The fatty acid compositions did not change, the major one being linoleic acid (80%). There were significant differences in the phosphorus content of oils prepared at different roasting temperatures, which was not the case with oils prepared at different expelling temperatures. The major phospholipid component of oil is phosphatidylinositol. The proportion of phosphatidylinositol in oil increased as both temperatures increased. Phosphatidylethanolamine in oil decreased as roasting temperatures increased. Tocopherols and tocotrienols were identified. The oxidative stabilities increased as both temperatures increased.
The thermo-mechanical properties of organogels developed by a complex mixture of n-alkanes present in candelilla wax (CW) were investigated and compared with the ones of organogels developed by a pure n-alkane, dotriacontane (C32). In both cases, the liquid phase used was safflower oil high in triolein (SFO) and the variables studied were two levels of gelator concentration (1 and 3%), cooling rates of 1 and 10 °C/min, and two gel setting temperatures, 5 and 25 °C (Tset). Based on comparisons of the organogels made with C32, the presence of minor molecular components in CW had a profound effect on the crystal habit of the n-alkanes in CW-based organogels, and therefore on their physical properties. Thus, independent of the cooling rate and Tset, C32 showed a higher solubility and higher self-assembly capability in the SFO than CW. Nevertheless, for the same gelator concentration and time-temperature conditions, C32 organogels had lower G' profiles than CW organogels. Additionally, independent of the type of gelator, more stable organogel structures were developed at Tset = 5 °C and using the lower cooling rate. The rheological behavior of the organogels was explained considering the formation of a rotator phase by the n-alkanes, its solid-solid transition, and their dependence as a function of the cooling rate and Tset. The results here obtained showed that it is possible to gelate SFO through organogelation with CW and without the use of trans fats.
Carotenoids and vitamin E in oils from the market – 6 rapeseed and 6 sunflower oils, half of each cold pressed and refined – and in the oils of rape, sunflower, flax and safflower as well as the respective seeds and press cakes from a local oil mill were quantified by HPLC. Furthermore, a photometric determination of carotenoid content was tested and checked against the chromatographic method. In the cold pressed oils minor amounts of xanthophylls (all-E)-lutein and (all-E)-zeaxanthin were determined. With exception of traces of (all-E)-β-carotene in cold-pressed rapeseed oil this provitamin A active compound did not occur. Cold pressed rapeseed oils contained 0.5–1.5 mg total carotenoids/100 g which was manifold the content of the further oils. Vitamin E was found in all vegetable oils at plant-typic tocopherol patterns. The photometric determination of carotenoids resulted in significantly higher concentrations compared to the HPLC. This overestimation bases on the carotenoid pattern which was validated by comparison with known high-carotenoid materials, i.e. maize flour with an abundant amount of xanthophylls and carrots with an abundant amount of carotenes.
A method for the determination of total 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) in edible fats and oils was presented. 3-MCPD was released from 3-MCPD fatty acid esters by transesterification with NaOCH3/methanol. After derivatization with phenylboronic acid, 3-MCPD was determined by GC-MS. Deuterium-labeled 3-MCPD was used as internal standard. In a model experiment, it was shown that acidic hydrolysis with methanol/sulfuric acid, which is normally used for the release of 3-MCPD from its esters, can cause problems because under acidic conditions additional 3-MCPD can be formed. No additional 3-MCPD was formed using NaOCH3/methanol for transesterification. Eleven samples of cold-pressed and refined safflower oils were analyzed with this method. Levels of total 3-MCPD were in the range from <100 up to 3200 µg/kg.
Fatty acid composition and moisture and oil content were determined for Montola-2001 and Centennial safflower varieties at
three different harvest dates from flowering to maturity, which were grown as autumn and spring crops in two different locations
in 2001–2002 and 2002–2003. The experiment was carried out using split–split plots in a randomized complete block design with
three replicates. Sowing dates affected oil content and fatty acid compositions significantly (P<0.01), whereas moisture content in both years was not significantly affected. Moisture content declined 15days from flowering
period to maturity, while oil content increased. The rate of the palmitic acid formation decreased in both varieties 15days
from flowering period to maturity, whereas formation rates of the oleic and linoleic acids increased in Montola-2001 and Centennial
varieties, respectively.
The main sensory defects found in virgin olive oil (winey–vinegary, mustiness–humidity, fusty and rancid) were studied by dynamic headspace high-resolution gas chromatography with flame ionisation and mass spectrometry detection and dynamic headspace high-resolution gas chromatography–olfactometry to determine the most prominent volatile compounds responsible for them. A comparative study between defective and high quality virgin olive oils showed qualitative and quantitative differences in the volatile profiles, explained by the presence of enzymatic activities before the oil extraction process or by alteration during olive oil storage. The highest sensory significance, evaluated by odour activity values, corresponded to 1-octen-3-ol for mustiness–humidity, ethyl butanoate, propanoic and butanoic acids for fusty sensory defect, acetic acid, 3-methyl butanol and ethyl acetate for winey–vinegary and several saturated and unsaturated aldehydes and acids for rancid sensory defect.
The chemical composition and oxidative stability of safflower oil prepared from the seed roasted, at different roasting temperatures (140–180 °C), were evaluated and compared with those of unroasted safflower oil. The colour development and phosphorus content of oils increased significantly as roasting temperature increased. The fatty acid compositions of safflower oils did not change with roasting temperature. The major fatty acid was linoleic acid (ca. 80%). Four phospholipid classes, namely, PE, PI, PA and PC, were identified. The major phospholipid component of safflower seed oil is PI. However, the proportion of PI in the safflower oil increased significantly as roasting temperature increased (P<0.05), but, PE in safflower oil decreased significantly as roasting temperature increased (P<0.05). Tocopherol and tocotrienol homologues were identified, namely, α-, β-, and γ-tocopherols, and γ- and δ-tocotrienols, whereas no δ-tocopherol, or α-, and β-tocotrienols were detected. The major tocopherol in safflower oil was α-tocopherol. The content of α-tocopherol in safflower oil gradually increased from 441 to 520 mg/kg as roasting temperature increased from 140 to 180 °C. The oxidative stability showed that, as the roasting temperature increased, the oxidative stability of safflower oil increased.
The development of parenteral emulsions continues to play an important role in the formulation and delivery of many drugs. In addition to solubilization and stabilization applications, appropriately designed parenteral emulsions are effective delivery systems for sustained release and targeting of drugs. Control of the strict requirements of globule size and surface charge is important in the design and ultimate stability of the formulation. This review highlights the important issues and suggests strategies to assist the scientist in the development, manufacture and stability of this essential dosage form.