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Arbeitsplatzmobilität zwischen Ost-, Nord- und Süddeutschland: Erfolgsfaktoren von Einkommenszuwächsen
Abstract
Zusammenfassung In Deutschland beeinflussen regionale Disparitäten besonders auch zwischen Ost- und Westdeutschland individuelle Lebens- und Einkommenschancen. Individuen können versuchen, ihre Arbeitsbedingungen – etwa ihr Einkommen – durch räumliche Mobilität zu verbessern. Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht Mobilität zwischen Ost-, Nord- und Süddeutschland und damit einhergehende Einkommensveränderungen. Basis ist ein Linked Employer-Employee Datensatz, der um regionale Strukturindikatoren ergänzt wurde. Die Ergebnisse zeigen: Jüngere und Hochqualifizierte wechseln häufiger und realisieren bei Betriebswechseln mit höherer Wahrscheinlichkeit Einkommenszuwächse. Anreize für Ost-Westmobilität bestehen fort, da bei Wechseln aus Ostdeutschland in Richtung Nord- oder Süddeutschland preisniveaubereinigt die Wahrscheinlichkeit von Einkommenszuwächsen höher ist als bei Wechseln innerhalb Ostdeutschlands. Wechsel nach Ostdeutschland können mit Einkommensverlusten, aber auch Einkommenszuwächsen einhergehen. Abstract: Workplace-mobility Between East, North and South Germany. Success Factors of Income Increases In Germany, regional disparities especially between East and West Germany influence individual life and income opportunities. Individuals can try to improve their working conditions – for example their income – through spatial mobility. The present article examines job moves between East, North, and South Germany and the related income perspectives. The data basis is a Linked Employer-Employee data set which has been supplemented with regional structural indicators. The results of the analyses show: Younger and highly qualified employees change more frequently and are more likely to increase their income when they change companies. Incentives for East-West mobility persist, because for trajectories from East to North or South Germany, adjusted for regional price level, a comparatively higher probability of income success can be determined. Transitions to East Germany can be associated with a loss of income but also a gain of income.
... Therefore, the spatially uneven nature of economic and labour market opportunities implies that besides being highly skilled, it is also important to work in specific types of places. However, Ganesch et al. (2020) found that after a move, company characteristics are more important for income growth than the economic structural environment in the destination region. ...
... Accounting for the individual-level aspects of job mobility, the models control for various personal characteristics. As the theory and the results of previous studies on the determinants of job change suggest, the models control for sex, age, age squared, migration background, years of education, marital status, and occupation (Bächmann and Frodermann 2020;Ferreira 2009;Ganesch et al. 2020;Sacchi et al. 2016). As in Ferreira (2009), a variable is introduced to account for some heterogeneity in the propensity that each worker experiences job mobility. ...
Job-to-job transitions are associated with career progression and wage gains. Thus, regional differences in job mobility potentially contribute to and reinforce regional and social inequalities. This study aims to close the research gap in the understanding of the regional contexts in which individual job mobility occurs. Using the theoretical concept of regional opportunity structures, three key aspects of region-related job changes are investigated: regional determinants of (1) general job mobility; (2) job mobility with wage gains; and (3) simultaneous job and residential mobility. This study is based on individual data from the German Socio-Economic Panel study, enriched with regional indicators. The results show that job changes are negatively associated with labour market tightness, indicating that workers are less likely to change jobs in regions with a high ratio of job vacancies to unemployed workers. Fewer job-to-job transitions in tighter labour markets suggests that regional factors such as job availability and security play an important role in shaping job mobility, and that policies aimed at promoting job transitions may need to consider the specificities of local labour markets. The effects of other indicators of economic opportunities remain insignificant, and there are no clear effects of other aspects of regional opportunity structures.
Regional disparities exist between states as well as within countries. In the Federal Republic of Germany, as a result of reunification, there are still considerable regional differences in terms of economic conditions. Local economic and structural circumstances affect individual employment opportunities and can be a motive for migration. Based on rational-economic approaches, the article examines the spatial labor market behavior of full-time employees subject to social security contributions, taking into account individual, firm-specific and regional characteristics. Workplace mobility is analyzed as a job move between the macro regions of North, South and East Germany. For this purpose, a linked employer-employee dataset (LIAB) from the “Institute for Employment Research” is used, supplemented by regional structural indicators (INKAR) at the level of the spatial planning regions. The analyses using binary logistic regression models show that transregional mobility especially depends on individual characteristics such as age and qualifications. Regarding regional features, it can be seen that the emigration tendency of younger employees increases with the local level of unemployment. Overall, the results do not indicate that there is a single-track brain drain from structurally weak regions. Nevertheless, these regions face a problem in age-specific migration patterns. The outflow of young workers weakens structurally poor areas directly and permanently.
The debate on the nature and state of peri-urban development in Europe is dynamic. While residents and their residential preferences have long been identified as strong drivers of the process of peri-urbanisation, other influences have also been discussed, such as the supply side of the housing market or job opportunities for residents. This paper analyses the population and job growth trends in the last five decades of 230 urban areas in mainland France. The results show that the pattern of peri-urban development of all the large and medium cities of the country have strong common characteristics. In particular, the areas around cities have proven dynamic both in terms of population, as would be expected in the peri-urbanisation process described by the literature in France, but also in terms of jobs, which have been less analysed. A review of the economic literature on the determinants of firms’ location choice puts forward some of the most relevant determinants that may explain a choice of location outside central cities. This helps put in perspective the role of job opportunities in shaping peri-urbanisation in France in the recent past.
Over the last two decades, patterns of internal migration in Germany have been discussed under the headings of East-West movements and sub- and re-urbanisation. This paper argues that the intense scientifi c and public debate that ignited about the possible causes and consequences of internal migration should
be based on a clear understanding of how internal migration flows impact on regional population change. Using the German Internal Migration (GIM) database, a unique new dataset that holds annual interregional migration counts drawn from the population register for 397 regions with temporally consistent boundaries, this paper aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the spatial structure of inter-county migration in Germany and how it has changed over the period 1995-2010. To reduce the complexity of the county-level flow data and to facilitate the
identification of patterns and trends, county-to-county flows were analysed using a spatial framework of 132 “analytical regions”. The results show that the intensity of migration between East German regions has been higher than East-West migration
throughout the period, suggesting that the former type of migration has a stronger impact on rural population decline than commonly believed in the literature. Following a strong suburbanisation pattern in the 1990s, over the last decade, migration between counties in eastern Germany has resulted in a growing concentration of population in the cities of Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. Increasing net migration gains were recorded by many urban cores across Germany. The trend was driven by
both continuing in-migration of young adults in search for education and employment, and by a cessation of the long-term trend of family out-migration to the cities’ suburban and non-metropolitan hinterlands.
This paper examines the forces driving skill selectivity of regional migration in a context where modelling the migration decision as a wage-maximising process may be insufficient due to persistent employment disparities. The paper thus extends a Borjas type framework on the selectivity of internal migrants to allow migrants to move to regions that best reward their skills in terms of both wages and employment. This framework predicts that high-skilled workers are disproportionately attracted to regions with higher mean wages and employment chances as well as higher regional wage and employment inequalities. Estimates from a labour flow fixed effects model and a GMM estimator show that these predictions hold, but only employment disparities induce a robust and significant skill sorting. The paper thus establishes a missing link why employment disparities may actually be self-reinforcing.
Human capital theory predicts pecuniary returns to regional migration, but also positive self-selection of migrants. Therefore, when estimating the causal effect of migration one has to take care of potential self-selection. Several authors recommend using fixed effects models thereby controlling for time constant unobserved heterogeneity. However, if selection operates not only on wage level but also on wage growth conventional fixed effects models are also biased. In this paper we want to investigate, whether migrants are self-selected on wage growth and if this biases conventional fixed effects estimates of the returns to migration. We use data from the SOEP 1984-2010. First we analyze the time pattern of the wage differential between migrants and stayers to see whether they are on different wage trajectories. Second we introduce a fixed effects model with individual slopes to investigate whether conventional results are biased.
Increasing inequality in qualification specific employment prospects characterises labour markets in most highly developed countries. Theoretical models suggest that in-plant skill segregation might matter for the polarisation of employment and wages. According to these models production technology and the educational level of the work force are important determinants of skill segregation. There are some studies that investigate the increasing in-plant skill segregation at the national level. However, since production technologies and skill structures are characterised by pronounced regional disparities, there are likely significant differences in the level of segregation between regions. But empirical evidence on corresponding regional inequalities is lacking. The objective of this analysis is to investigate regional disparities in skill segregation in Germany. Our findings point to marked disparities among German regions. Moreover, we analyse the determinants of these differences at the regional level. The results of a regression analysis indicate that the local endowment with human capital is an important determinant for the regional level of skill segregation. Furthermore, skill segregation is increasing in most areas during the period under consideration, which may lead to unfavourable labour-market conditions for low-skilled workers in corresponding regional labour markets. --
Abstract We extend in this analysis an approach introduced by Patterson and suggested by Möller and Tassinopoulos. Our approach uses a generalization of an econometric analogue of the common shift-share method, suggested here as a new “workhorse” for regional analyses. The results obtained with this shift-share-regression, and with very differentiated data from the employment statistics of eastern Germany, show that processes of deconcentration play a role in explaining regional disparities, since inverse localization and positive urbanization effects are visible. The relevant processes can be understood by implementing approaches of “new economic geography”, structural change and endogenous growth theory.
Die Untersuchung beschreibt die interregionale Mobilität von Arbeitskräften in Deutschland, wobei sowohl Wandern und Pendeln
als auch das Qualifikationsniveau der Beschäftigten berücksichtigt werden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Arbeitskräftemobilität
in Deutschland wesentlich durch die unterschiedlichen Arbeitsmarktbedingungen in Ost- und Westdeutschland beeinflusst wird.
Ostdeutschland ist durch die Abwanderung von Arbeitskräften und einen Auspendlerüberschuss gegenüber dem Westen gekennzeichnet.
Bemerkenswert ist, dass diese Verluste bei den geringqualifizierten Arbeitskräften vergleichsweise stark ausfallen. Hingegen
sind die Humankapitalverluste der ostdeutschen Regionen im Bereich der Hochqualifizierten gemessen an der Bedeutung dieses
Qualifikationssegments eher niedrig.
This article analyses internal labour mobility within Germany, distinguishing between migration and commuting and between
different educational levels. Our results show that mobility flows in Germany are influenced mostly by differences in labour
market conditions between East and West Germany. East Germany is characterized by net migration and net commuting losses.
Remarkably, these mobility losses are rather serious in the lowest educational group and tend to be less pronounced for the
workforce with academic degrees, resulting in smaller human capital losses than often expected.
SchlagwörterArbeitskräftewanderungen-Pendlerverflechtungen-Qualifikationsstruktur-Deutschland
Keywordsmigration-commuting-qualification structure-Germany
Viele theoretische und empirische Arbeiten der Soziologie und Ökonomie heben die Bedeutung betrieblicher Beschäftigungsstabilität
für Arbeitsmarktakteure und Sozialstaat hervor. Dabei wird intensiv und kontrovers die Frage nach der Entwicklung stabiler
und instabiler Beschäftigung diskutiert. Auf der Basis der IAB-Beschäftigtenstichprobe 1975–2001 (Regionalfile) und der zweiten
Welle des SFB 580-Betriebspanel untersucht der Beitrag die Entwicklung und die Ursachen betrieblicher Beschäftigungsstabilität.
Es wird verdeutlicht, dass die Beschäftigung instabiler wird. Dabei erweisen sich zentrale arbeitsmarkttheoretische „Barrieren“
gegen eine Ausweitung offener Arbeitsmärkte, wie etwa die Generierung betriebsspezifischen Wissens oder die Sicherstellung
von Leistungsbereitschaft, als wenig standfest.
Sociologists and economists emphasize the relevance of employment stability for labour market participants and the welfare
state. Consequently, changes in the distribution of stable and unstable employment are discussed intensively and controversially.
Based on the IAB Employment Subsample 1975–2001 (regional sample) and the second collection of the SFB 580-Firmpanel the paper
analyses trends and determinants of employment stability. The results show: Employment becomes more unstable. Past “barriers
of mobility” of the job market theory against an expansion of open job markets, like production and receipt of firm specific
knowledge or readiness to perform, prove as a little stable.
Die Arbeitsmarktforschung wird vor allem von zwei Disziplinen betrieben: der Ökonomik und der Soziologie. Für die Ökonomik stellt der Arbeitsmarkt neben dem Güter- und dem Geldmarkt einen von drei abstrakten Teilmärkten eines Wirtschaftssystems
dar. Die Funktionsweise dieser drei Teilmärkte wird grundsätzlich als identisch betrachtet und kann daher im Rahmen eines
integrierten theoretischen Modells analysiert werden. In der Regel zielen ökonomische Analysen auf die Erklärung von Makrozuständen
des Arbeitsmarktes, wie beispielsweise die Entstehung von Arbeitslosigkeit in einer Volkswirtschaft. Die offensichtliche Abweichung
der Arbeitsmarktwirklichkeit von den reinen theoretischen Modellen führte zu verschiedenen Weiterentwicklungen, etwa bei der
Berücksichtigung von asymmetrischen Informationen der Akteure.
Mit der Öffnung der innerdeutschen Grenzen 1989, der deutschen Einigung und den folgenden Umwälzungen in einer Vielzahl von
Lebensbereichen in Ostdeutschland wurden die Rahmenbedingungen für die räumliche Mobilität in Deutschland neu abgesteckt.
Die deutlichen Wanderungsverluste der neuen Länder und die Neubildung von Stadt-Umland-Wanderungen überlagern seitdem die
auch im Westen stattfindenden kontinuierlichen Verschiebungen der vorherrschenden Wanderungsverflechtungen. Dieser Beitrag
geht der Frage nach, wie sich ein gutes Jahrzehnt nach der Wende die Binnenwanderungen in Deutschland entwickelt haben, welche
markanten Muster sich herausgebildet haben und inwiefern sich ein Übergang von historischen Umbrüchen hin zu einer neuen Normalität
vollzogen hat.
With the opening of the inner-German boundaries in 1989, the unification of Germany and the following upheavals in numerous
sectors of life in East Germany, the general conditions for spatial mobility in Germany were redefined. Since then the marked
migration losses of the new federal states (Länder) and the re-emergence of migrations from the cities to suburban areas have
overlapped the continuous shifts of predominant migration linkages that also occur in the west. This article considers the
question how internal migrations have developed more than a decade after the unification, which prominent patterns have emerged
and in what way a transition from historic reversals towards a new normality has taken place.
Lehmer F. and Moller J. Group-specific effects of inter-regional mobility on earnings - a microdata analysis for Germany, Regional Studies. The paper analyses the relationship between regional mobility and earnings for different groups of workers. Using a large panel microdata set the authors find negative earnings differentials of movers in the year before migration and strong evidence for significant wage gains through mobility. A decomposition of Blinder/Oaxaca type reveals different group-specific rewards effects suggesting a positive post-mobility wage differential of movers over the incumbent workforce for some groups irrespective of the region of destination. The existence of a general wage growth effect of mobility appears to be robust and cannot be explained by the time-invariant part of unobserved heterogeneity.
This paper focuses on standard error estimation in Fixed-Effects panel models if there is serial correlation in the error process. Applied researchers have often ignored the problem, probably because major statistical packages do not estimate robust standard errors in FE models. Not surprisingly, this can lead to severe bias in the standard error estimates, both in hypothetical and real-life situations. The paper gives a systematic overview of the different standard error estimators and the assumptions under which they are consistent (in the usual large N, small T asymptotics). One of the possible reasons why the robust estimators are not used often is a fear of their bad finite sample properties. The most important results of the paper, based on an extensive Monte Carlo study, show that those fears are in general unwarranted. I also present evidence that it is the absolute size of the cross-sectional sample that primarily affects the finite-sample behavior, not the relative size compared to the time-series dimension. That indicates good small-sample behavior even when N=T. I introduce a simple direct test analogous to that of White [1980] for the restrictive assumptions behind the estimators. Its finite sample properties are fine except for low power in very small samples.
"Die Studie untersucht das Ausma� und die Struktur der r�umlichen Mobilit�t von t�rkischen im Vergleich zu deutschen Arbeitnehmern f�r das Jahr 2001. Als Datenbasis wird die IAB-Besch�ftigtenstichprobe (IABS) verwendet. Die Forschungshypothesen beruhen auf den f�r individuelle r�umliche Mobilit�t zentralen Theorien, namentlich der Humankapital- und Suchtheorie. Unter Ber�cksichtigung relevanter Determinanten wie Alter und Bildungsniveau stellt dieser Beitrag heraus, dass die t�rkische Untersuchungspopulation mobiler ist als die deutsche. Die Tatsache, dass t�rkische Arbeitnehmer �berwiegend aus einer Phase der Arbeitslosigkeit den Arbeitsort wechseln, spricht allerdings eher f�r einen hohen Anteil an erzwungener Mobilit�t. Weiterhin kann gezeigt werden, dass das erh�hte Mobilit�tsaufkommen der t�rkischen Arbeitskr�fte in der demografischen und qualifikatorischen Zusammensetzung ihrer Gruppe begr�ndet ist. Bei Kontrolle dieser Faktoren ergibt sich eine geringere Mobilit�tsneigung von Arbeitnehmern t�rkischer Nationalit�t." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
The aim of this paper is to analyse the role of unobserved heterogeneity in structural discrete choice models of labour supply for the evaluation of tax-reforms. Within this framework, unobserved heterogeneity has been estimated either parametrically or nonparametrically through random co- efficient models. Nevertheless, the estimation of such models by means of standard, gradient-based methods is often difficult, in particular if the number of random parameters is high. Given the relative big set of pa- rameters that enter in labour supply models, many researchers have to reduce the role of unobserved heterogeneity by specifying only a small set of random coefficients. However, this simplification affects the estimated labour supply elasticities, which then might hardly change when unob- served heterogeneity is considered in the model. In this paper, we present a new estimation method based on an EM algorithm that allows us to fully consider the effect of unobserved heterogeneity nonparametrically. Results show that labour supply elasticities do change significantly when the full set of coefficients is assumed to be random. Moreover, we analyse the behavioural effects of the introduction of a working-tax credit scheme in the Italian tax-benefit system and show that the magnitude of labour supply reactions and post-reform income distribution do change signifi- cantly when unobserved heterogeneity is fully considered.
Over the last two decades, patterns of internal migration in Germany have been discussed under the headings of East-West movements and sub- and re-urbanisation. This paper argues that the intense scientific and public debate that ignited about the possible causes and consequences of internal migration should be based on a clear understanding of how internal migration flows impact on regional population change. Using the German Internal Migration (GIM) database, a unique new dataset that holds annual interregional migration counts drawn from the population register for 397 regions with temporally consistent boundaries, this paper aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the spatial structure of inter-county migration in Germany and how it has changed over the period 1995-2010. To reduce the complexity of the county-level flow data and to facilitate the identification of patterns and trends, county-to-county flows were analysed using a spatial framework of 132 “analytical regions”. The results show that the intensity of migration between East German regions has been higher than East-West migration throughout the period, suggesting that the former type of migration has a stronger impact on rural population decline than commonly believed in the literature. Following a strong suburbanisation pattern in the 1990s, over the last decade, migration between counties in eastern Germany has resulted in a growing concentration of population in the cities of Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. Increasing net migration gains were recorded by many urban cores across Germany. The trend was driven by both continuing in-migration of young adults in search for education and employment, and by a cessation of the long-term trend of family out-migration to the cities’ suburban and non-metropolitan hinterlands.
In Deutschland werden umfänglich Daten für die Arbeits- und Arbeitsmarktforschung erhoben. Gleichwohl bestehen Defizite. Die vorhandenen Erhebungen lassen zu vielen wichtigen Fragen, darunter Digitalisierung, neue (hybride) Arbeitsformen, Zuwanderung, Qualifikation und Gesundheit an Arbeitsplätzen, kaum Antworten zu. Dies ist ein Problem: „Gesucht wird nur dort, wo das Licht hinfällt“. Der Beitrag argumentiert, dass eine Diskussion über veränderte, sparsamere, aber besonders auch inhaltlich ertragreiche Erhebungen und Datenstrukturen notwendig ist.
Migration research has dealt mainly with the forces which affect migration and how strongly they have affected it, but little has been done to determine the influence of migration as an equilibrating mechanism in a changing economy. The movements of migrants clearly are in the appropriate direction, but we do not know whether the numbers are sufficient to be efficient in correcting income disparities as they emerge. There is a strong presumption that they are not.
Decisions taken at the start of one's career have long-term consequences and one important decision graduates have to make is whether to be regionally mobile when looking for the first job. We investigate whether being regionally mobile for the first job following graduation rather than to stay in the place of graduation pays off. Existing research on regional mobility mostly focuses on job-to-job mobility. We analyse the determinants of early career mobility and estimate a bivariate probit model to account for the dependency between the migration decisions for tertiary education and for the first job. In order to account for self-selection with respect to migration decisions, we exploit variation in the availability of university places at the regional level. Our results show that there is significant dependency between migration decisions made before and after tertiary education. Secondly, using an IV estimation strategy, we find significantly positive wage returns to regional mobility for the first job.
Zusammenfassung
Lohnunterschiede zwischen Frauen und Männern werden in der ökonomischen und sozialwissenschaftlichen Diskussion unter anderem auf die unterschiedlichen beruflichen Tätigkeiten von Männern und Frauen (Segregation) sowie die unterschiedliche Ausstattungen mit Humankapital zurückgeführt. In diesem Beitrag wird unter Verwendung eines kombinierten employer-employee Datensatzes des Instituts für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung der Bundesagentur für Arbeit (LIAB-Daten) gefragt, ob die Lohnunterschiede zwischen den Geschlechtern mit der unterschiedlichen Verteilung von Frauen und Männern auf Wirtschaftsbereiche, Berufe und Betriebe erklärt werden können. Forschungsergebnisse aus den USA und Skandinavien zeigen, dass dort so gut wie keine geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschiede im gleichen Beruf und im gleichen Betrieb (in sog. Job-Zellen) zu finden sind. Unsere Ergebnisse für westdeutsche Betriebe zeigen jedoch, dass auch innerhalb von Job-Zellen eine beachtliche Lohndifferenz zwischen den Geschlechtern besteht. Sie ist im Untersuchungszeitraum (1993-2001) von etwa 17 auf 15 Prozent des Männerlohnes gefallen. Wenn wir Ausbildung und Berufserfahrung in den Job-Zellen konstant halten, beträgt der Lohnunterschied etwa 12 Prozent. Zusätzlich untersuchen wir, ob sich die relativen Löhne von Frauen für hierarchische Berufsgruppen (nach ISCO) unterscheiden. Die Lohndifferenzen in den Job-Zellen sind bei Leitungskräften und bei Wissenschaftlern mit 7 und 5 Prozentpunkten verhältnismäßig gering. Messprobleme und Eigenheiten des verwendeten Datensatzes können möglicherweise für einen Teil des im internationalen Vergleich hohen Lohnunterschied in den Job-Zellen verantwortlich sein.
Zusammenfassung
Langfristige Trends der räumlichen Mobilität in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland legen die These nahe, daß die Pendelmobilität zunehmend als Ersatz für Fernwanderungen in Erscheinung tritt. Eine Analyse des Sozioökonomischen Panels (SOEP) zeigt, daß diese Ersatzfunktion zumindest für einen beträchtlichen Teil von Fernpendlern bestätigt werden kann. In diesem Beitrag wird versucht, diesen ’Mobilitätsübergang’ mit Hilfe eines handlungstheoretischen Modells der Wahl zwischen Pendeln und Migration, das insbesondere die Einbeziehung von Veränderungen in den strukturellen Randbedingungen erlaubt, zu erklären. Das Entscheidungsmodell wird unter Verwendung von ereignisanalytischen Methoden mit den Daten des SOEP empirisch überprüft. Die theoretischen und empirischen Ergebnisse sind - wie sich zeigen wird - von unmittelbarer Bedeutung für die Diskussion, ob die beobachtbaren langfristigen Wanderungsentwicklungen den grundsätzlichen Behauptungen von Individualisierung und Mobilisierung widersprechen.
Ein wesentlicher Bestandteil von sozialer Dynamik ist die Mobilität. Sie wird allgemein definiert als Wechsel eines Individuums oder eines Haushaltes zwischen den Einheiten eines Systems.
Exploring Contemporary Migration provides the first comprehensive introduction to the various aspects of population migration in both the developed and the developing worlds. Some of the most important quantitative and qualitative methods used for the description and analysis of migration are presented in a clearly structured and accessible way. The various theoretical approaches used to explain the complex patterns of migration are also summarised. These patterns are then explored through the use of specific migration-related themes: employment, stage in the life course, quality of life, societal engineering, violence and persecution, and the role of culture. Exploring Contemporary Migration is written in a user-friendly, accessible style, appealing to undergraduate students of population geography and social science students taking a population module. This text will also be valuable reading to those researchers and academics concerned with gaining a broad understanding of the dynamics and patterns of contemporary population.
In this article, the authors propose some psychological principles to describe the boundaries of loss aversion. A key idea is that exchange goods that are given up "as intended" do not exhibit loss aversion. For example, the authors propose that money given up in purchases is not generally subject to loss aversion. The results of several experiments provide preliminary support for the hypotheses. The authors find that, consistent with prospect theory, loss aversion provides a complete account of risk aversion for risks with equal probability to win or lose. The authors propose boundaries for this result and suggest further tests of the model.
Human capital is a driving factor of innovation and economic growth. Economic prospects of cities depend on high qualified workers’ knowledge and therefore, attracting highly qualified workers plays a fundamental role for cities’ prospects. This study contributes to the question which factors primarily determine the mobility-decision of highly qualified workers by investigating the determinants of the migration balance of German cities between 2000 and 2010. Furthermore, it compares the effects of several labour- and amenity-related variables on migration rates of highly qualified workers and the remaining workforce. Findings suggest that local labour market conditions influence the mobility decision but amenities matter too
for the high-skilled. The preferences of the highly qualified workers partly differ from those of the rest of the workforce. However, there are also several factors that do not show systematic differences across skill groups.
The purpose of this discussion is to develop the concepts and tools with which to determine the influence of migration as an equilibrating mechanism in a changing economy. Some of the important costs and returns to migration--both public and private--are identified and to a limited extent methods for estimating them are devised. This treatment places migration in a resource allocation framework because it deals with migration as a means to promoting efficient resource allocation and because migration is an activity which requires resources. Within this framework the goal is to determine the return to investment in migration rather than to relate rates of migration to income differentials. The studies of net migration conducted thus far partially reveal the functioning of the labor market yet they provide little more than the fact that net migration is in the "right" direction. The estimated response magnitude of net migration to gaps in earnings is of little value in gauging the effectiveness of migration as an equilibrator. There are several alternative approaches. 1 simple approach is to compare rates of (gross) migration with changes in earnings over time. Numerous compositional corrections would be required and this approach would still have to answer the difficult question of how much equalization of earnings should be brought about by a given amount of migration. A better alternative at least analytically is to cast the problem strictly as one of resource allocation. To do this migration is treated as an investment increasing the productivity of human resources an investment which has costs and which also renders returns. The private costs can be broken down into money and nonmoney costs. The money costs include out of pocket expenses of movement and the nonmoney costs include foregone earnings and the psychic costs of changing ones environment. For any particular indivdual the money returns to migration will consist of a positive or negative increment to his real earnings streams to be obtained by moving to another place. This increment will arise from a change in nominal earnings a change in costs of employment a change in prices or a combination of these three. It was found that psychic costs of migration can be ignored since they involve no resource cost. Likewise nonmoney returns arising from locational preferences should be ignored to the extent that they represent consumption which has a zero cost of production. In sum migration cannot be viewed in isolation. Complementary investments in the human agent are probably as important or more important than the migration process itself.
This essay examines the shift toward "structural" explanations in recent studies of inequality. After reviewing this body of research and some of its shortcomings, we examine its theoretical underpinnings, comparing "structuralist" perspectives on work organization derived from institutional economics and neo-Marxism to more orthodox accounts based on neoclassical and "industrialism" theories. This discussion suggests areas where the different perspectives overlap and diverge. We conclude that work arrangements within the firm and their trend are the focus of most "structural" perspectives on positional stratification; thus, empirical studies grounded at the organizational level are more likely to inform current debates about the "structure of work" than is the growing body of research about structural effects on individual attainment or covariation among industrial/occupational characteristics. Toward that end, an agenda for future research is outlined, focusing on three aspects of work organization: (a) the units which comprise the structure of work and the dimensions underlying economic segmentation; (b) the effects of sectoral differentiation on technical and administrative arrangements within firms; and (c) temporal changes in how enterprises organize production. We provide some illustrations of the kinds of empirical data and research hypotheses required to link research on segmentation and stratification more closely to studies of organizations.
Highly skilled workers are increasingly recognised as a key competitive asset for regional development, and claims have been made that emphasise the importance of certain amenities for the prospects of attracting this particular group of workers. We use a recent large-scale survey to investigate the relative importance of jobs versus amenities for the decision to migrate, as perceived by the migrants themselves. The paper thereby adds important insights to the existing literature that has hitherto mainly focused on analysing the extent to which aggregate migration flows correlate with employment-related or amenity-related factors. The results show that jobs are considerably more important for the decision to move among highly educated migrants compared with migrants with lower education.
The paper presents a model of employment systems as the basis for a systematic comparative analysis of HRM. Such a model has particular value for international HRM, where a stronger theoretical anchor would allow for better explanations concerning the origins and impacts of emerging practices and trends. Having established a typology of employment systems, which describes how organizations all over the world manage employment, the paper highlights a series of characteristic 'boundary tensions', around which change in employment practices takes place. These change processes can also be seen all over the world, driven by economic and institutional influences. By focusing on these boundary tensions, we can see how changes in the external environment act as a lever to change approaches to employment. The paper argues that comparative international HRM should look at the impacts of change on groups of employees managed through particular models and at the adjustments firms make in relation to these. The focus for explanation and research is then on developments that reinforce, weaken or reframe archetypal systems of employment. The paper concludes by identifying three ways in which this can be done - focusing on change in particular elements of employment practice, change in the psychological contract and employee behaviour and change in the institutional environment.
A distinguishing feature of strategic human resource management research is an emphasis on human resource (HR) systems, rather than individual HR practices as a driver of individual and organizational performance. Yet, there remains a lack of agreement regarding what these systems are, which practices comprise these systems, how these systems operate, and how they should be studied. Our goal in this paper is to take a step toward identifying and addressing several conceptual and methodological issues regarding HR systems. Conceptually, we argue that HR systems should be targeted toward some strategic objective and operate by influencing (1) employee knowledge, skills, and abilities, (2) employee motivation and effort, and (3) opportunities for employees to contribute. Methodologically, we explore issues related to the relationships among policies and practices, sampling issues, identifying the appropriate referent group(s), and who should serve as key informants for HR system studies.
This paper provides an extensive analysis of the wage effects of inter‐regional mobility within Germany. Comparing skilled region‐type movers with skilled non‐migratory establishment movers we find clear evidence of an additional effect of inter‐regional mobility which becomes fully effective after three years. The highest returns are obtained by young workers and by rural‐urban movers. The introduction of fixed district and establishment effects tackles the notorious nuisance of regional price‐level differences and reveals that the mobility returns can be decomposed into roughly equal contributions of human capital accumulation and search gains.
Resumen
Este artículo proporciona un amplio análisis de los efectos salariales de la movilidad interregional en Alemania. Al comparar a la mano de obra cualificada que se traslada entre tipos de regiones con la también cualificada no migratoria que solo se traslada entre empleos, encontramos pruebas claras de un efecto adicional de la movilidad interregional que se hace plenamente efectivo al cabo de tres años. Los retornos más elevados los obtienen los trabajadores jóvenes y los que se trasladan de medio rural al urbano. La introducción de efectos fijos por distrito y empleo contrarrestan el notorio fastidio de las diferencias regionales del nivel de precios y revela que los retornos a la movilidad pueden atribuirse más o menos a partes iguales entre la acumulación de capital humano y la mejora en la búsqueda de empleo.
In this article, the authors propose some psychological principles to describe the boundaries of loss aversion. A key idea is that exchange goods that are given up "as intended" do not exhibit loss aversion. For example, the authors propose that money given up in purchases is not generally subject to loss aversion. The results of several experiments provide preliminary support for the hypotheses. The authors find that, consistent with prospect theory, loss aversion provides a complete account of risk aversion for risks with equal probability to win or lose. The authors propose boundaries for this result and suggest further tests of the model.
Der Beitrag untersucht die Mobilität von Personen zwischen regionalen Arbeitsmärkten. Anhand von Mehrebenenanalysen wird der
Frage nachgegangen, wie sich die Arbeitslosigkeit auf die Mobilität zwischen regionalen Arbeitsmärkten auswirkt. Dabei wird
zwischen unterschiedlichen Dimensionen der Arbeitslosigkeit unterschieden: erstens die Arbeitslosigkeit als Zustand der Person,
zweitens die Dauer einer Arbeitslosigkeitsphase sowie drittens die regionale Arbeitslosenquote. Es wird der Befund geliefert,
dass mit steigender Arbeitslosenquote in einer Region die Rate des Wechsels auf den Arbeitsmarkt einer anderen Region zurückgeht
— und nicht, wie nach der neoklassischen ökonomischen Theorie zu erwarten gewesen wäre, zunimmt. Insofern wird der regionale
Kontext zu einer „Arbeitslosenfalle“, weil auch Arbeitslose unter ungünstigen Bedingungen zur Immobilität tendieren und deren
Humankapital dabei entwertet werden könnte.
The focus of this paper is on mobility between local labour markets. Using multilevel data, the effect of local unemployment
on mobility between local labour markets is investigated. A distinction is made between several dimensions of unemployment:
(1) unemployment as a status in the life course at the individual level, (2) unemployment duration, (3) the unemployment rate
at the regional level. One of the main results contradicts neoclassical economics: the rate of mobility between local labour
markets decreases with increasing local unemployment. In a sense, persons become “trapped” in the local context because under
bad labour market conditions unemployed persons, too, tend to immobility. As a result, a devaluation of human capital might
be possible.
This paper looks at the influence of regional unemployment rates on regional job mobility and firm
switches. For that purpose we use data from the German Life History Study that includes detailed individual
information and regional information about the place of work. This individual level data set is combined
with unemployment rates at the level of German Kreise from the Federal Employment Offices. While many earlier
studies did not find a significant impact of regional unemployment rates on mobility, we show that the reason
for job switches has to be taken into account. When we do this, we find that regional unemployment rates
influence job flows in two directions: voluntary switches decrease and involuntary switches increase. It
seems that regional mobility is considered especially often if the alternative is unemployment. We therefore
show that regional labour mobility contributes to equalizing regional unemployment rates in Germany, though
to a relatively small amount.
We contribute to the long-standing debate about an alleged “destabilization” and “destandardization” of employment biographies by analyzing how the job-shift patterns of West German workers have changed between 1984 and 2008. Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, we study changes in the rates of (upward) within- and between-firm mobility as well as the risk of employment exit, analyzing trends separately by gender, education, labour force experience, firm size, and sector. We document a considerable and pervasive reduction in the rate of (upward) within-firm moves. The decline is stronger for men and particularly steep for the employees of large companies and for those with limited labour force experience. We interpret these findings as evidence for a decline of internal labour markets and for increasing difficulties among labour market entrants. A second major result of our analysis is that rates of between-firm mobility and employment exit have risen primarily for low-educated men and women.
There is considerable variation in the skill composition of employment across cities and regions. The way how skill compositions evolve over time sheds light on the strength of concentration forces for high-skilled workers, such as localized increasing returns to human capital. In this paper I report robust evidence that regions with a large initial share of high-skilled workers had higher total employment growth in West Germany (1977–2002), but lower growth of high-skilled jobs. There has been a convergence of local skill compositions over time, on average and even within particular industries. These stylized facts for the German economy contrast available evidence from the US, where researchers have identified a divergence trend. My findings suggest that concentration forces in Germany are not strong enough to trigger a self-reinforcing spatial concentration of high-skilled workers. Some potential reasons for the differences with the US are also discussed.
Human capital-based theories of cities suggest that large, economically diverse urban agglomerations increase worker productivity by increasing the rate at which individuals acquire skills. One largely unexplored implication of this theory is that workers in big cities should see faster growth in their earnings over time than comparable workers in smaller markets. This paper examines this implication using data on a sample of young male workers drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Cohort. The results suggest that earnings growth does tend to be faster in large, economically diverse local labor markets—defined as counties and metropolitan areas—than in smaller, more specialized markets. Yet, when examined in greater detail, I also find that this association tends to be the product of faster wage growth due to job changes rather than faster wage growth experienced while on a particular job. This result is consistent with the idea that cities enhance worker productivity through a job search and matching process and, thus, that an important aspect of ‘learning’ in cities may involve individuals learning about what they do well.
Workers in cities earn 33% more than their nonurban counterparts. A large amount of evidence suggests that this premium is not just the result of higher ability workers living in cities, which means that cities make workers more productive. Evidence on migrants and the cross effect between urban status and experience implies that a significant fraction of the urban wage premium accrues to workers over time and stays with them when they leave cities. Therefore, a portion of the urban wage premium is a wage growth, not a wage level, effect. This evidence suggests that cities speed the accumulation of human capital.
A long-run equilibrium theory of turnover is presented and is shown to explain the important regularities that have been observed by empirical investigators. A worker's productivity in a particular job is not known ex ante and becomes known more precisely as the worker's job tenure increases. Turnover is generated by the exis- tence of a nondegenerate distribution of the worker's productivity across different jobs. The nondegeneracy is caused by the assumed variation in the quality of the worker-employer match.
Studies have suggested that urban agglomeration enhances productivity by facilitating the firm-worker matching process. This article develops a model that formalizes this notion and demonstrates that, when firm capital and worker skill are complementary in production, urban agglomeration will tend to generate more efficient, yet segregated matches. As a result, not only will local market size be positively associated with average productivity, it will also generate greater between-skill-group wage inequality and a higher expected return to skill acquisition. Recent data from the counties and metropolitan areas of the United States is consistent with each of these implications. Copyright 2001 by University of Chicago Press.
From 1940 to 1990, a 10% increase in a metropolitan area's concentration of college-educated residents was associated with a 0.8% increase in subsequent employment growth. Instrumental variables estimates support a causal relationship between college graduates and employment growth, but show no evidence of an effect of high school graduates. Using data on growth in wages, rents, and house values, I calibrate a neoclassical city growth model and find that roughly 60% of the employment growth effect of college graduates is due to enhanced productivity growth, the rest being caused by growth in the quality of life. This finding contrasts with the common argument that human capital generates employment growth in urban areas solely through changes in productivity. Copyright Copyright by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
I. Introduction, 261.—II. The basic model—risk neutrality, 262.—III. Mobility cost, 268.—IV. Education, 270.—V. Extensions
of the basic model, 272.—VI. Empirical applications, 274.
Following the unification of Germany in 1990, eastern wages and unemployment both rose rapidly. I demonstrate that rising wages reduced eastern emigration greatly, while rising unemployment had little effect. This reflects the behavior of the young, who are very sensitive to source region wages, and relatively insensitive to source unemployment. I show that most of the effect of source unemployment comes from the contemporaneous effect on those laid-off, who are more likely to be older. I find that, compared to stayers, young emigrants are much more skilled, older emigrants are slightly more skilled, and commuters are not more skilled, as measured by education and pre-move wages. My conclusions are based on a comparison of results from aggregate inter-state migration data and individual data from the eastern sample of the German Socio-Economic Panel for 1990-2000. (JEL: J61, P23) (c) 2006 by the European Economic Association.
Society persists despite the mortality of its individual members, through processes of demographic metabolism and particularly the annual infusion of birth cohorts. These may pose a threat to stability but they also provide the opportunity for societal transformation. Each birth cohort acquires coherence and continuity from the distinctive development of its constituents and from its own persistent macroanalytic features. Successive cohorts are differentiated by the changing content of formal education, by peer-group socialization, and by idiosyncratic historical experience. Young adults are prominent in war, revolution, immigration, urbanization and technological change. Since cohorts are used to achieve structural transformation and since they manifest its consequences in characteristic ways, it is proposed that research be designed to capitalize on the congruence of social change and cohort identification.
"In the paper, for the first time in western Germany, estimates of the wage curve are presented using individual panel data. Therefore, it is possible to control for the influence of individual unobserved heterogeneity on the estimation of the wage curve. The relationship between regional wages and the regional unemployment rate diminishes clearly if this is done. Furthermore, panel data makes it possible to control for unobserved regional effects through a specific variance component in the equation to be estimated. The results point to regional effects of a quite remarkable size." (author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
"Dieses LIAB-Datenhandbuch beschreibt die Linked Employer-Employee Daten des Instituts f�r Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung (IAB), wie sie �ber das Forschungsdatenzentrum (FDZ) der Bundesagentur f�r Arbeit (BA) im IAB f�r wissenschaftliche Auswertungen zur Verf�gung stehen. Die Linked Employer-Employee Daten im IAB (LIAB) bestehen aus den Betriebsdaten der j�hrlichen Erhebungswellen des IAB-Betriebspanels und Personendaten aus den Prozessdaten der BA. Durch die Verkn�pfung beider Datenquellen entstehen Linked Employer-Employee Daten. Das LIAB-Datenhandbuch stellt die wichtigsten Informationen zur Auswertung der LIAB-Daten zusammen. Diese �berarbeitete Neuauflage entstand vor dem Hintergrund der Vereinheitlichung der FDZ-Datenreporte und deren �bersetzung ins Englische. Anlagen zum Handbuch sind eine Datei mit Merkmalsauspr�gungen, wenn die Liste der Auspr�gungen besonders lang ist und eine Datei mit Ausz�hlungen zu allen Merkmalen. Die bisherigen Dokumentationen werden nicht weiter gepflegt, bleiben aber dem deutschsprachigen Leser als reichhaltige Nachschlagewerke erhalten. Weitere Literatur ist in Abschnitt 11 aufgef�hrt. Wer schon mit �lteren LIAB-Daten gearbeitet hat, sollte die Beschreibung der Erweiterungen und �nderungen beim Update auf 2005 und 2006 in Abschnitt 2 lesen. Bezogen auf das IAB-Betriebspanel wird in diesem LIAB-Datenhandbuch nur auf Aspekte eingegangen, die im Zusammenhang mit der Verkn�pfung mit Personendaten von Bedeutung sind. Vertiefende Informationen f�r das IAB-Betriebspanel stellt das FDZ auf seinen Internetseiten zur Verf�gung." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)Additional InformationAnlage zum FDZ Datenreport Nr. 3/2008(DE): Fallzahlen zu den LIAB-Daten