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Analysis of marine protected area management: The Marine Park of the Azores (Portugal)
Abstract
A significant number of declared marine protected areas (MPAs) lack management plans, or they are not being applied appropriately, leading to poor management and, in the worst case scenario, so-called "paper parks". Evaluating the management of an MPA helps detect strengths and weaknesses, make decisions and correct mistakes in the future. Unfortunately, few evaluations have been done. In recent decades, management has gone from a traditional governance system to a more inclusive and participatory one that seeks to understand and integrate the interests and needs of all parties. Social actors are participating more actively in decision-making, and their support is fundamental for the success of an MPA. This study analyses the management of the Marine Park of the Azores (Portugal), one of the most emblematic areas of the European Union (EU). For this purpose, a methodology has been developed to evaluate the management of MPAs. It is based on the analysis of four key aspects: managing body, planning, public participation and implementation. For each one, specific indicators have been designed, resulting in five possible scenarios being proposed where priority is given to one or other factors, where each one has consequences on the biophysical and socioeconomic systems of the MPA. These scenarios are defined as: proactive, consultative, centralized, by learning and formal management. The results demonstrate that the Marine Park of the Azores is currently under centralized management, with a sound management body, but yet should be consolidates the process of planning and public participation.
... The objective of this paper is to analyze the management model of the Galapagos National Park and Marine Reserve, with the intention of highlighting the weaknesses and strengths of the management of one of the most iconic protected areas in the world. We have chosen a methodology proposed by Maestro et al. [57], which presents five possible management scenarios and allows us to see how an MPA is evolving, and to propose a series of improvements. ...
... The methodology used to evaluate the management of the Galapagos National Park and the Marine Reserve has been designed by Maestro et al. and it has been applied before in the Azores Marine Park in Portugal [57], Santa Rosa, Marino Ballena and Cahuita National Parks in Costa Rica [59] and Brijuni National Park, Telašcica Nature Park and Pakleni Islands Significant Landscape in Croatia [60]. This work has a socio-economic perspective, focusing on the analysis of two fundamental elements: processes and people involved. ...
... A method of analysis and projection of reality through the construction of scenarios has been used. Alternative (five options) and contrasted (can be compared) scenarios are used [57]. It is a tool for understanding the potential and limits of management. ...
The Galápagos Islands are one of the most emblematic protected areas on the planet, and also one of the most studied. Their main economic activity is tourism, which has grown rapidly in recent years. The increase in tourists is associated with the increase in population and the introduction of invasive species, which puts conservation at risk. This makes adequate management even more necessary and relevant on an international scale, since the economy of Galápagos depends on the good state of conservation of its ecosystems and species. Numerous studies have shown that social factors, rather than physical-natural ones, determine the success or failure of a marine protected area (MPA), so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. In this study we have analyzed the management of the protected areas of Galápagos: the National Park and the Marine Reserve. The methodology used presents five prescribed scenarios in which priority is given to one or other factors, each of which has an impact on biophysical and socio-economic systems that are influenced by the MPA. These scenarios have been called: proactive, interactive, centralized, learning, and formal management. The results show that the archipelago's protected areas follow a proactive management model, with a continuous feedback loop. This feedback is a key element in any adaptive management process, which also allows practitioners to anticipate future problems. Both public participation and strategic planning are essential.
... Because of the diversity in marine features, species and interests involved in spatial management of marine resources, efforts to utilise a co-management approach have varied in practice. Co-management has taken many forms and can be applied at a range of scales across the running and organisation of MPAs; in planning, designation and ongoing governance (Maestro et al., 2020). During each of these phases the level of stakeholder participation can vary, and can be split into three key categories: 1) informed; 2) consulted; 3) involved (Pita et al., 2010). ...
... Remaining references (n = 2 133) were then screened by title, then by abstract and/or executive summary. de Oliveria, 2013;Hogg et al., 2013;Hogg et al., 2017;Maestro et al., 2020;Russi, 2020;Said et al., 2018). Three articles focused on theoretical benefits that co-management of MPAs could produce (Di Franco et al., 2020;Rodriguez-Rodriguez et al., 2015;Ruiz-Frau et al., 2015). ...
... Three articles focused on theoretical benefits that co-management of MPAs could produce (Di Franco et al., 2020;Rodriguez-Rodriguez et al., 2015;Ruiz-Frau et al., 2015). However, only two included an in-depth assessment of existing comanaged MPAs and their progress towards meeting management goals (e.g. the effect of management on fish stocks, or critical habitat protection) (Maestro et al., 2020;Mangi et al. 2011). ...
This study evaluates the costs and benefits on fisheries and aquaculture of three types of spatial protection measures: (i) Fish Stock Recovery Areas (FSRAs), (ii) Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), and areas designated as (iii) Other Effective area-based Conservation Measures (OECMs). The research assesses how far fisheries co-management approaches can potentially help to achieve the European Union targets. The study uses three case studies from France, Spain and Greece to collect data on the different types of spatial protection measures and assesses how the cost-benefit analysis framework can be applied for their evaluation.
... The methodology used to evaluate the management of the Galapagos National Park and the Marine Reserve was designed by Maestro [4] and it was applied before in one protected area in Portugal [60], three national parks in Costa Rica [61], and three protected areas in Croatia [62]. ...
... A method of analysis and projection of reality through the construction of scenarios was used. Alternative (five options) and contrasted (can be compared) scenarios were used [60]. It is a tool for understanding the management potential and limits. ...
The Galapagos Islands are one of the most emblematic protected areas on the planet and also one of the most studied. Their main economic activity is tourism, which has grown rapidly in recent years. The increase in tourists is associated with the increase in population and the introduction of invasive species, which puts conservation at risk. This makes adequate management even more necessary and relevant on an international scale since the economy of Galapagos depends on the good state of conservation of its ecosystems and species. Numerous studies have shown that social factors, rather than physical–natural ones, determine the success or failure of a marine protected area (MPA), so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. In this study, we analyzed the management of the protected areas of Galapagos, including the National Park and the Marine Reserve, with the purpose of highlighting their weaknesses and strengths. The methodology used presents five prescribed scenarios in which priority is given to one or other factors, each of which has an impact on the biophysical and socio-economic systems that are influenced by the MPA. These scenarios were called proactive, interactive, centralized, learning, and formal management. Data were obtained through a comprehensive literature review and primary data collection methods, including in-depth interviews with key stakeholders and DPNG managers, as well as direct observations. Interviewees covered the main relevant sectors in the archipelago (fishing, tourism, and conservation). The results show that the archipelago’s protected areas follow a proactive management model with a continuous feedback loop. This feedback is a key element in any adaptive management process, which also allows practitioners to anticipate future problems. Both public participation and strategic planning are essential.
... Afin de tester le potentiel des approches participatives dans l'évaluation, et dans les démarches de gestion/restauration des ENPR en général, nous avons choisi d'utiliser une approche participative innovante. L'idée de proposer une approche innovante est basée sur le fait que des évaluations récentes de la participation au sein des ENPs montrent que les fondements conceptuels et méthodologiques des approches participatives peuvent être considérablement améliorés (Kovács et al, 2017 ;Maestro et al., 2020). Ceci pourrait se faire dans le cadre d'une collaboration étroite entre chercheurs et gestionnaires des ENPs. ...
... Des évaluations récentes de la participation au sein des ENPs montrent que des aspects conceptuels et méthodologiques restent à améliorer (Kovács et al., 2017 ;Maestro et al., 2020). En effet, dans de nombreux cas, les décisions relatives aux ENPS ont été prises sans tenir compte de l'avis des communautés locales (Piwowarczyk et Wróbel, 2016), que ce soit à propos de leur création ou de leur périmètre. ...
En France, comme dans de nombreux pays du monde, l'une des principales stratégies de protection de l'environnement est la création, la gestion et/ou la restauration d’Espaces Naturels Protégées (ENPs). Cette thèse s’intéresse aux ENPs de la Bande rhénane, reconnus à l’échelle internationale pour ses zones humides et sa biodiversité. Malgré les nombreux enjeux de protection, les stratégies de gestion/restauration mises en place le long de cette zone restent insuffisantes pour une amélioration significative des dynamiques des écosystèmes. La participation est l’une des pistes identifiées par les travaux scientifiques pour atteindre les objectifs fixés au sein des ENPs, y compris ceux de la Bande rhénane. En effet, cette approche, utilisée sous certaines conditions, semble prometteuse pour améliorer la qualité des décisions en favorisant les échanges entre les parties prenantes et en intégrant leurs connaissances variées. Cette thèse présente les résultats d'une étude théorique et expérimentale sur la gestion/restauration des ENPs rhénans en utilisant une approche participative innovante. Notre expérience, qui s'est déroulée, de manière collaborative avec le Conservatoire des Sites Naturels Alsaciens, dans la Réserve naturelle nationale du delta de la Sauer, nous a permis d'évaluer les apports et les limites de notre proposition et d'identifier les perspectives de recherche pour sa mise en œuvre.
... The methodology used to analyze the management of Pakleni Islands, Telašćica Nature Park, and Brijuni National Park has been applied before in Azores Marine Park [50] and in three national parks of Costa Rica [51]. It has a social perspective that is based on the analysis of two fundamental elements: processes and people involved. ...
... A method of analysis and projection of reality through the construction of scenarios was used, by applying alternative (five options) and contrasted (can be compared) scenarios [50]. This is a tool for understanding the potential and limits of management. ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely used tools to conserve marine ecosystems and their services. They are complex socio-ecological systems where human activities and nature interact. Croatia has 409 protected areas, of which 19 are coastal-marine. The aim of this paper is to analyze the management model of MPAs in Croatia and to identify their strengths and weaknesses. For this purpose, three MPAs have been chosen: Brijuni National Park, Telašćica Nature Park, and Pakleni Islands Significant Landscape. The methodology used assesses 26 specific indicators to analyze the status of 4 key factors: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The results of this evaluation are 5 possible scenarios: proactive (1), learning (2), interactive (3), centralized (4), and formal (5) management. The results show that Brijuni presents a proactive scenario (1), Telašćica an interactive scenario (3), and Pakleni Islands a centralized scenario (4). A series of measures are presented, which can improve the score. In general, MPA management in Croatia tends towards a proactive model, where the management body is its greatest strength. There is a shift from a top-down to a bottom-up approach, which implies a greater involvement of the population in decision-making. However, public participation is not yet fully consolidated.
... Evaluation of the measures implemented is essential to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the management of each MPA and its impact on the communities (Pomeroy et al., 2006;Stoll-Kleemann and Job, 2008;Maestro et al., 2020). In this regard, various methodologies have been developed, some of which are based on the framework developed by IUCN-WCPA, following an iterative cycle of context, vision, planning, inputs, management processes, outputs, outcomes, and evolution (Pomeroy et al., 2006). ...
... The methodology used to analyze the management of Santa Rosa, Marino Ballena and Cahuita National Parks has been applied before in the Azores Marine Park (Maestro et al., 2020) and the Galápagos National Park and the Galapagos Marine Reserve. It has a social perspective that is based on the analysis of two fundamental elements: processes and people involved. ...
Costa Rica is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, and stands out for its commitment to conservation. Along its two coasts, it presents a great heterogeneity of ecosystems and social realities. Social factors, more than physical-natural factors, determine the success or failure of an MPA, so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. The objective of this work is to analyze the management of three marine protected areas, to establish improvements. These areas are Santa Rosa National Park, Marino Ballena National Park and Cahuita National Park. The methodology used assesses 26 indicators grouped into 4 key factotres: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The results of this evaluation are 5 possible scenarios. These scenarios have been termed (from the ideal situation to the least favourable): proactive (1), learning (2), interactive (3), centralized (4) and formal (5) management. The results of this study show that both Santa Rosa and Cahuita present a proactive scenario (1), with high citizen participation, although in practice the way the two MPAs are managed is very different. Marino Ballena, on the other hand, is in scenario 5 (formal), and a series of measures are presented that can move it towards scenario 2 (learning). In general, MPA management in Costa Rica tends to be adaptive, with high public participation, as determined by its public policies. However, the existence of a public policy favors but does not guarantee success in MPA management, as can be seen in the difference in results. Therefore, the periodic evaluation of its management, allowing for feedback, is essential.
... Se ha empleado un método de análisis y proyección de la realidad mediante la construcción de escenarios. Se utilizan escenarios alternativos (cinco opciones) y contrastados (se pueden comparar) (Maestro et al., 2020). Se trata de una herramienta para conocer el potencial y los límites de la gestión. ...
... This usually occurs in coastal areas, including marine national parks, and involves activities such as snorkeling, diving, and whale watching [2]. The main purpose of marine ecotourism is to raise awareness about the sustainability of marine natural resources as well as generate income that helps the maintenance and development of marine national parks [3]. In addition, marine ecotourism can also help reduce conflicts between human activities and the sustainability of the marine environment [4]. ...
... The Azores Marine Park is one of the largest networks of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within the EU and is unique in integrating Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (Calado et al., 2011;Maestro et al., 2020). This network of 15 MPAs covers a total area of 111,393 km 2 , encompassing 13 MPAs that include ridges, seamount and hydrothermal vent ecosystems. ...
Trait-based approaches that complement taxonomy-based studies have increased in popularity among the scientific community over the last decades. The collection of biological and ecological characteristics of species (i.e., traits) provides insight into species and ecosystem vulnerability to environmental and anthropogenic changes, as well as ecosystem functioning. Here, we present the FUN Azores trait database, describe our approach, evaluate its scope, compare it to other marine trait databases, and explore the spatial distribution of its traits with “functional maps.” While most of the available trait databases to date contain essential information to understand the functional diversity of a taxonomic or functional group, our ecosystem-based approach provides a comprehensive assessment of diverse fauna (i.e., meio-, macro-, and megafauna) from benthic and pelagic environments in the Azores Marine Park; including ridges, seamounts, hydrothermal vents, and the overlying water column. We used a collaborative approach involving 30 researchers with different expertise to develop the FUN Azores database, which contains compiled data on 14 traits representing morphological, behavioral, and life history characteristics for 1,210 species across 10 phyla. The “functional maps” show a distinct distribution of the two most common size classes, suggesting different communities with different functionalities. The following traits had the best scoring coverage (i.e., >95% of the species scored): maximum body size, body form, skeleton material, feeding structure, motility, environmental position, substratum affinity, distribution, and depth range; while traits related to species behavior (e.g., sociability or aggregation tendencies) and life history (e.g., developmental mechanism) had lower scoring coverage, highlighting the need for further research to fill these knowledge gaps. We found a larger number of species in the benthic compared to the pelagic environment and differing species composition between areas within the Azores Marine Park resulting from varying biodiversity, ecosystem types, sampling effort, and methodologies used. The FUN Azores database will foster and facilitate trait-based approaches in the area, develop a framework for expansion of cross-ecosystem and cross-taxa trait databases elsewhere, and improve our ecological understanding of the Azores Marine Park and its conservation requirements.
... Il existe, par conséquent, d'importantes marges d'amélioration en la matière dans la gestion des ENPs français (Martinez, 2007 ;Morère, 2017). La recherche académique peut jouer ici un rôle important (Kovacs, 2017 ;Maestro, 2020), en particulier par le biais de collaborations entre chercheurs et gestionnaires. Pourtant, bien que les collaborations entre chercheurs et gestionnaires se développent actuellement en France en matière d'environnement (Salles et al., 2021), notamment sur les ENPs, elles sont dominées par les sciences de la terre et du climat, au détriment de disciplines comme les sciences humaines et sociales (SHS) (FRB, 2018), lesquelles sont pourtant essentielles pour traiter de problématiques comme celle de la participation. ...
... This paper analyzes the management of three marine protected areas: Santa Rosa National Park, Marino Ballena National Park and Cahuita National Park. The methodology proposed by Maestro et al (2020) was used to analyze four factors: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The methodology proposes 5 possible scenarios in which priority is given to one or other factors, each of which has consequences on the biophysical and socioeconomic systems that are influenced by the MPA. ...
... This paper analyzes the management of three marine protected areas: Santa Rosa National Park, Marino Ballena National Park and Cahuita National Park. The methodology proposed by Maestro et al (2020) was used to analyze four factors: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The methodology proposes 5 possible scenarios in which priority is given to one or other factors, each of which has consequences on the biophysical and socioeconomic systems that are influenced by the MPA. ...
... The results highlighted conflicts due to inefficient resource allocation and low interaction between managers and stakeholders (Tupper et al., 2015). From the MEEs of individual MPAs, various management issues were also identified, such as low quality of planning and lack of public participation (Maestro et al., 2020). Overall, management strengths and weaknesses identified by MEEs are highly dependent on the socio-ecological context of MPAs. ...
Rapid population growth is putting enormous pressure on fragile marine ecosystems. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a widely adopted management tool to address these challenges, but their conservation effectiveness is uncertain, especially in developing countries such as China. Management effectiveness evaluation (MEE) is an efficient method for assessing MPA outcomes and identifying key impact factors. However, only a limited number of MEEs have been conducted for China's MPAs in the past two decades, thus largely limiting their improvement of management. In this context, we conducted a comprehensive review of MPAs status and existing MEEs in China. We found that despite the significant increase in the number and coverage of China's MPAs, their conservation effectiveness might be impacted by the lack of systematic planning, adequate funding, appropriate zoning, long-term monitoring, and sound laws. Major challenges to the evaluation of MPA management effectiveness in China include the lack of a standardized framework, limited survey data, financial support, and public engagement. To address these challenges, we developed a comprehensive framework based on the common objectives of China's MPAs and existing MEE frameworks. We also recommend based on the developed framework: 1) establishing long-term monitoring pilots in national MPAs; 2) providing sustained funding support for MEE, monitoring and capacity building from government, social capital, and ecotourism; and 3) promoting public participation in MPA management and evaluation through advocacy, incentive mechanisms, and establishment of committees. Adopting our recommendations can strengthen adaptive management and provide new insights into evidence-based decision-making for MPAs in China.
Guidelines for managers of protected areas are an important component of conservation policies, on a par with large-scale frameworks and vehicles for conservation funding. In line with the recent literature proposing evaluations of conservation actions or political strategies to improve them, here we use an innovative, hybrid methodology, based both on an interpretative approach anchored in social sciences and a quantitative literature review, to identify available frameworks for evaluating conservation guidelines. The main result of this analysis is that the relevant literature in conservation is sparse and heterogeneous, but a relevant encompassing framework is provided by the literature in decision sciences based on the policy analytics framework. This evaluation framework consists of three criteria: scientific credibility, operationality and legitimacy. We then implement a pilot application by evaluating guidelines currently used in France to support all of the actors involved in protected areas management. The study concludes that these guidelines are plagued by significant weaknesses that could be overcome by implementing relevant participatory processes.
Compte tenu des services écosystémiques qu’ils fournissent, les milieux fluviaux occupent une place privilégiée dans les stratégies de protection de l’environnement, ce qui conduit fréquemment à la mise en place de mesures spécifiques de gestion et de restauration. La participation joue un rôle croissant dans la définition et la mise en œuvre de telles mesures, au point d’être considérée comme une norme politique. Pour garantir que la participation contribue effectivement à améliorer les actions de gestion et de restauration, nous proposons un type particulier de participation : la participation contre-argumentative. Cet article présente les résultats de l'application de celle-ci dans le cadre d’une collaboration avec le gestionnaire dans la Réserve Naturelle Nationale du Delta de la Sauer. À partir de cette application, et d’une esquisse de comparaison avec un processus participatif réalisé auparavant dans la même réserve, nous présentons les leçons qui peuvent en être tirées. Ces conclusions peuvent être transposées dans d'autres contextes de gestion et de restauration de milieux fluviaux, et plus généralement dans d’autres espaces naturels protégés.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) form the cornerstone of marine conservation. Identifying which factors contribute to their success or failure is crucial considering the international conservation targets for 2020 and the limited funds generally available for marine conservation. We identified common factors of success and/or failure of MPA effectiveness using peer-reviewed publications and first-hand expert knowledge for 27 case studies around the world. We found that stakeholder engagement was considered to be the most important factor affecting MPA success, and equally, its absence, was the most important factor influencing failure. Conversely, while some factors were identified as critical for success, their absence was not considered a driver of failure, and vice versa. This mismatch provided the impetus for considering these factors more critically. Bearing in mind that most MPAs have multiple objectives, including non-biological, this highlights the need for the development and adoption of standardized effectiveness metrics, besides biological considerations, to measure factors contributing to the success or failure of MPAs to reach their objectives. Considering our conclusions, we suggest the development of specific protocols for the assessment of stakeholder engagement, the role of leadership, the capacity of enforcement and compliance with MPAs objectives. Moreover, factors defining the success and failure of MPAs should be assessed not only by technical experts and the relevant authorities, but also by other stakeholder groups whose compliance is critical for the successful functioning of an MPA. These factors should be considered along with appropriate ecological, social, and economic data and then incorporated into adaptive management to improve MPA effectiveness.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are key tools to mitigate human impacts in coastal environments, promoting sustainable activities to conserve biodiversity. The designation of MPAs alone may not result in the lessening of some human threats, which is highly dependent on management goals and the related specific regulations that are adopted. Here, we develop and operationalize a local threat assessment framework. We develop indices to quantify the effectiveness of MPAs (or individual zones within MPAs in the case of multiple-use MPAs) in reducing anthropogenic extractive and non-extractive threats operating at local scale, focusing specifically on threats that can be managed through MPAs. We apply this framework in 15 Mediterranean MPAs to assess their threat reduction capacity. We show that fully protected areas effectively eliminate extractive activities, whereas the intensity of artisanal and recreational fishing within partially protected areas, paradoxically, is higher than that found outside MPAs, questioning their ability at reaching conservation targets. In addition, both fully and partially protected areas attract non-extractive activities that are potential threats. Overall, only three of the 15 MPAs had lower intensities for the entire set of eight threats considered, in respect to adjacent control unprotected areas. Understanding the intensity and occurrence of human threats operating at the local scale inside and around MPAs is important for assessing MPAs effectiveness in achieving the goals they have been designed for, informing management strategies, and prioritizing specific actions.
Although nowadays the protected areas paradigm tends to a model in which citizens are able to participate actively in decision-making process, there are few empirical studies which corroborate such trends. That is why in this paper public participation is analyzed in a concrete area: the Bay of Cadiz Natural Park. To do so, quantitative and qualitative methodology is applied, based on the exploitation of a questionnaire exclusively designed for the Board members of this protected area, along with the scrutiny of different institutional public documents (meeting minutes, regulations, reports, etc.). This research allows a critical examination of different aspects affecting the internal governance of the protected area, as well as of the general framework in which this particular case occurs (Andalucia), which can be equally relevant within the national ambit. Final recommendations are aimed to seek improvement in standards for the governance of our natural capital.
Protected areas (PAs) are at the forefront of conservation efforts, and yet despite considerable progress towards the global target of having 17% of the world's land area within protected areas by 2020, biodiversity continues to decline. The discrepancy between increasing PA coverage and negative biodiversity trends has resulted in renewed efforts to enhance PA effectiveness. The global conservation community has conducted thousands of assessments of protected area management effectiveness (PAME), and interest in the use of these data to help measure the conservation impact of PA management interventions is high. Here, we summarize the status of PAME assessment, review the published evidence for a link between PAME assessment results and the conservation impacts of PAs, and discuss the limitations and future use of PAME data in measuring the impact of PA management interventions on conservation outcomes. We conclude that PAME data, while designed as a tool for local adaptive management, may also help to provide insights into the impact of PA management interventions from the local-to-global scale. However, the subjective and ordinal characteristics of the data present significant limitations for their application in rigorous scientific impact evaluations, a problem that should be recognized and mitigated where possible.
Research consistently documents positive links between human contact with nature and health and well-being. Recent work has explored the role of visitation to parks and protected areas in providing health and well-being benefits. This conceptual paper identifies the state-of-the-art research findings on this issue from an interdisciplinary perspective. The results reveal increasing understanding of the positive relationships between park and protected area visitation and the associated health and well-being benefits to the visitors. It also establishes the need for better collaboration between park and protected area and health institutions, which will require new and innovative transdisciplinary partnerships in order to better understand salient issues, realign common interests where appropriate, and effectively integrate empirical evidence into relevant policy, planning and management. Recommendations are made for specific knowledge user groups, such as policy makers, social and health professionals, protected areas professionals, and researchers, with the ultimate objective of better linking human health and well-being and protected areas policies to enhance delivery mechanisms for health promotion activities.
Protected areas are an important means of preserving biodiversity. This special issue investigates different ways of effectively managing protected areas. The ideal of undisturbed nature must be reconciled with people's need to use natural resources.
We explore the social dimension that enables adaptive ecosystem-based management. The review concentrates on experiences of adaptive governance of social-ecological systems during periods of abrupt change (crisis) and investigates social sources of renewal and reorganization. Such governance connects individuals, organi-zations, agencies, and institutions at multiple organizational levels. Key persons provide leadership, trust, vision, meaning, and they help transform management organizations toward a learning environment. Adaptive governance systems often self-organize as social networks with teams and actor groups that draw on various knowledge systems and experiences for the development of a common understanding and policies. The emergence of "bridging organizations" seem to lower the costs of collaboration and conflict resolution, and enabling legislation and governmental policies can support self-organization while framing creativity for adaptive comanagement efforts. A re-silient social-ecological system may make use of crisis as an opportunity to transform into a more desired state.
We characterized the seamount distribution of the economic exclusive zone (EEZ) of the Azores (Portugal) using 2 bathymetry datasets. Our algorithm showed that peaks and seamounts are common features in this region of the North Atlantic. The density obtained of 3.3 peaks of all sizes per 1000 km2 is in the same order of magnitude as that obtained on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge by a few other studies. A total of 63 large and 398 small seamount-like features are mapped and described in the Azorean EEZ. Our distribution of seamounts predicts that about 57% of the potential Azores seamounts lie in the zone protected from deep-water trawling by European Commission Council Regulation No. 1568/2005.
The theme of the study is the Regional Autonomous of Azores framework in the Ocean Governance Perspective. The research underlines the importance of the Ocean for the development of the territories and enhances the role of the ocean into sustainable development strategies. The case study of the Azores archipelago focus on different dimensions that ocean assume as: territory, space and resource. The Ocean vision evolution supported by the application of concepts and tools such as sustainable development principles; Ecosystem Based Management; Integrate Coastal Zone Management and Marine Protected Areas have been study to reach the study purpose - Governance of “Azores Sea”. Through the framework, identification and analysis of the policies, components and dynamics related to the sea the present research broads the concept of marine management to operational ocean governance for The Azores Archipelago. The discussions of the ocean policies, their vertical implementation, and their articulation to other horizontal policies at different international case studies allow a better understanding of the Azores present challenges and needs. The option for Azores Sea Governance Model aims to establish a rank of development priorities inserted at strategic guidelines and a set of recommendations for the bases of a possible Azores Marine Strategy.
The fundamental purpose of all integrated coastal management (ICM) initiatives is to maintain, restore or improve specified qualities of coastal ecosystems and their associated human societies. A defining feature of ICM is that it addresses needs for both development and conservation in geographically specific places—be they a single community, an estuary or the coast of an entire nation. The times required to achieve these fundamental goals at significant spatial scales far exceed those of the usual 4–6-year project, the dominant ICM modality in developing nations. This paper offers two simple, but elastic frameworks for assessing progress over the extended time periods involved. The first is the four Orders of Outcomes that group together the sequences of institutional, behavioral and social/environmental changes that can lead to more sustainable forms of coastal development. The second framework is a version of the more familiar ICM policy cycle. These conceptually simple frameworks are making it possible to unbundle and organize into consistent formats the usually implicit assumptions that underpin project and program designs and then group activities and outcomes along a critical path that leads—or is presumed to lead—to the desired outcomes. Each step in the ICM policy cycle and each Order of Outcomes suggest the indicators by which progress and learning can be assessed. The application of these frameworks to a diversity of ICM initiatives is proving useful in assessing progress across portfolios of ICM initiatives, extracting good practices and teasing out how different governance contexts effect the forces that shape the evolution of ICM initiatives.
La construcción colectiva de un nuevo modelo de gestión para el litoral andaluz (España) es muy necesaria. Teniendo como punto de partida la Proposición no de Ley del Parlamento de Andalucía, instando al Consejo de Gobierno a promover un proyecto de gestión integrada de zonas costeras (2005), este artículo presenta de manera sintética los trabajos realizados para el establecimiento e implantación de la Estrategia Andaluza de Gestión Integrada de Zonas Costeras (EA-GIZC): base conceptual, modelo metodológico, criterios, programas y actuaciones. El tipo de experiencia y el enfoque son tan novedosos, que proporcionan suficiente material para la reflexión acerca de una política pública de enorme trascendencia para cualquier región litoral.
The problematic of the effectiveness of the processes of decision and development of strategies and plans and ensure their effectiveness is analysed and characterized. A methodological framework using classical management instruments like PESTEL, SWOT analysis and Business Scorecards is presented, where these instruments are developed and adjusted to the requirements of the development of strategies and plans and their long-term management, implementation and adjustment. This framework aims also at enhancing the process accountability and mainly its comprehensibility, allowing its use as a basis for the strategy and plan adjustment after context or conjuncture changes, without changing its global philosophy and internal logic. An implementation conceptual example is given to illustrate the framework practical use and future developments are presented and justified.
Sustainable management of coastal ecosystems requires engaged communities—communities that support sustainable management policies and are willing to adopt behaviours that promote waterway health. Information provision is a common component of engagement practices, yet little is known about what type of information will most effectively motivate engaged communities. We conducted an experimental study (N = 702) examining the effectiveness of different messages about benefits of sustainable coastal management. We examined two messages about cultural ecosystem services (economic benefits and lifestyle benefits), messages focused on conservation benefits, and a ‘control’ message, which mentioned threats to coastal ecosystems but no benefits of management. We also compared the effect of factual and moral arguments on engagement outcomes. Overall, economic messages generated lower intentions to adopt household behaviours, and reduced information seeking across the whole sample. Moral arguments were not more effective than messages using factual arguments. In fact, factual arguments were associated with greater policy support and behavioural intentions. We also examined the role of participant values, political orientation and knowledge on message effectiveness. Participants with a conservative political orientation exhibited poorer responses to framed messages, compared with the control message. These findings highlight the importance of considering message content when communicating with communities. Specifically, messages about ecosystem services may not be superior to environmental messages when communicating about local issues. Recommendations for effective communication commonly suggest aligning messages with audience values. While our findings do not contradict this, they do serve as a reminder to avoid simple assumptions about what these values may entail, and that groups less supportive of conservation goals are likely to require more specific strategies to enhance communication effectiveness.
The aim of this investigation is to analyse the evolution of current trends in the management of MPAs within the international framework. To that end, three specific objectives are proposed: Analyse the current situation of the MPAs within the international framework. Determine if there are differences in the declaration of MPAs across different regions of the world. Assess the progress made in the management of MPAs since the beginning of the 21st century.
Although ecosystem-based management (EBM) has been adopted by many management organisations in principle, operationalising EBM has been problematic. A mismatch in institutional arrangements, created by the traditional sectoral focus of marine environmental and resource management, may be one factor acting against EBM implementation. To investigate this potential issue, this study focused on ‘sectoral interplay’ the challenges and tensions that prevent ‘whole of government’ cooperation, political consensus among conflicting user and interest groups, and collaboration between government and stakeholders that preconditon implementation of EBM. Four key challenges/tensions to sectoral interplay in marine EBM were found, including: governance structures and mechanisms, communication and sharing, participation and exclusion and fragmentation. Several ways in which these challenges/tensions could be addressed are proposed such as creating co-ordinating structures which operate across sectors and clarifying mandates and precedence between decision-making agencies. There are myriad case study examples from which to learn how to manage, and how not to manage, sectoral interplay in marine governance, and this should be the focus of future research.
As a part of a scenario planning process, or other futures oriented study, workshops are often arranged. They are participatory events where the intention can be to produce future-related knowledge, strengthen the futures thinking of the participants, network and co-operate, enhance the mutual understanding and social learning, communicate research results, or resolve a conflict. This paper reviews the literature of scenario planning and future oriented workshops, and discusses the findings of five scenario workshops arranged for lake management stakeholders in Finland. The findings suggest that scenario workshops can act as empowering events that enhance the futures consciousness of the participants, network people interested in the same topic, and enhance social learning. Scenario workshops are also an effective tool for participatory planning, enabling collecting of the views of the future of a certain topic and creating scenarios, as well as a platform for research communication. However, it is unlikely that the in-depth perceptions of the participants would drastically change due to the new knowledge obtained at a single workshop. The previous assumptions and cognitive schemas dominate the thinking, and are converted into workshop outcomes. To change the conventional paradigms, a longer-term process and typically a competitive new paradigm is required.
The success of participatory marine governance arrangements is influenced by the levels of trust that exist between decision-makers and diverse stakeholder groups within the community. While the benefits of high levels of trust among these groups is well established, specific approaches to building trust remain largely unknown. The aim of this study is to understand the extent to which scientific research programs can enhance trust among marine protected area (MPA) managers and community members via an evaluation of the Ningaloo Research Program-a large-scale program of marine research in the Ningaloo Marine Park. Results from a survey of 125 local residents show that community members along the Ningaloo coast believe that scientific research is important for the management of the marine park, and strongly support government investment in scientific research in the region. Results also suggest that science undertaken through the Ningaloo Research Program has increased the extent to which community members trust local managers, which study participants believe has led to improved social and environmental outcomes in the region. Finally, additional opportunities are identified to maintain and further enhance trust between community members and MPA managers, via targeted communication and engagement programs that account for different personality 'types'. In particular, the establishment of citizen science programs might further build trust. These results suggest that scientific research could be used as a means to increase trust among decision-makers and community members when coupled with an effective communication and outreach program, thus enhancing the success of participatory marine governance arrangements.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a critical element of fisheries management and biodiversity conservation strategies. However, MPA planning is a complex undertaking that requires consideration of ecological and other knowledge, including indigenous knowledge, as well as balancing social, cultural, and economic interests. Engaging a range of stakeholders and indigenous partners in MPA planning, establishment, and management has consistently been identified as key to successful MPA implementation. This paper interrogates MPA planning in Aotearoa New Zealand, with a focus on the role of participation and collaboration in the development and implementation of MPAs. Previous and current MPA processes were evaluated using best practice principles drawn from international MPA and other participatory process literature. Several factors hypothesised to be associated with improvements and efficiencies in the involvement of participants in MPA decision making are assessed, including aspects of participation, best available information, social learning and capacity, fair and respective process, and efficiency of administration. Processes were compared before and after introduction of the New Zealand Marine Protected Areas Policy and Implementation Plan in 2005. Areas for improvement in future evolutions of MPA planning also emerged from this research; these centre primarily on the need for inclusive and balanced participation; inclusion of multiple values and information types in MPA decision-making; time to build trust and establish shared understanding; and resourcing. These recommendations represent a conceptualisation of MPAs operating within holistic social-ecological systems frameworks that encompass more than biodiversity conservation or extractive use, potentially redefining how MPAs are conceived of, developed, implemented and valued.
Over the past ten years, efforts have been made in the Paraty region of Brazil towards more active state governance of coastal resources through the implementation and enforcement of various types of protected areas. Trindade is one of the communities making efforts to advocate for themselves as the key stakeholders in a negotiation process for a no-take protected area management plan. As is happening across South America, there has been a shift in policy in Brazil towards participatory environmental governance practices. The objective of this paper is to analyze the quality of community participation in a resource governance process, the perceptions of participating and non-participating community members, and the actual influence of community participants on the protected area management plan under review (in 2012/2013). The research was conducted as interdisciplinary action research. Data were collected through a qualitative approach, using mixed methods of narratives, interviews, focus groups, participant observation and workshops. The negotiation process and community participation in this negotiation process was studied through observation of meetings. Analysis of the negotiation process revealed the importance that community participants place on their rights as Caiçaras, and four further key themes emerged; communication disconnect, opportunity and capacity to participate, representation and decision-making, and conflict. Meaningful participation in natural resources management has not yet been achieved in the process reviewed. The process described is the initial phase of a long-term relationship between community members and government authorities, and changes need to be made so that the desired outcomes for natural resources management are more likely to be achieved.
In efforts to protect the world's oceans, the Convention on Biological Diversity has moved the goal of establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) to cover 10% of the ocean from 2012 to 2020. This adjustment suggests that the rush to establish MPAs without proper resources does not resolve conservation problems. In fact, such actions may create a false sense of protection that camouflages degradation of marine ecosystems on regional scales. To exemplify this phenomenon, we reviewed MPA efficacy in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where some 23,300 km2 have been decreed as MPAs. With the exception of Cabo Pulmo National Park, MPAs have not met conservation or sustainability goals. We examined MPA budgets and foundations’ investment in the region and found that funding for management is not the limiting factor in MPA efficacy, although funding for enforcement may be deficient. We conclude that MPAs have failed because of insufficient no-take zones, lack of enforcement, poor governance, and minimal community involvement. We need a new philosophy to implement MPAs to take advantage of the scientific knowledge and monetary investment that have been generated worldwide and ensure that they complement effective fisheries management outside their borders.
This paper examines the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) in remote small island settings with specific reference to the Portuguese island of Corvo in the Azores. This case study represents different approaches to marine conservation, ranging from an informal community-based no-take MPA to a government-driven multi-purpose natural park, involving diverse local and external actors interacting over an extended period of time. In-depth interviews were used to explore the perceptions of local and expert stakeholders about positive and negative aspects of MPA establishment. This demonstrated how differing approaches have led to varying degrees of MPA effectiveness. From the community-based MPA, several key ingredients for effective MPA establishment were identified, including engaging and empowering local communities, clear definition of goals, visible MPA outputs and community enforcement based on high levels of support and peer group pressure. However, in a context of complex marine resource use, the limitations of community-based initiatives prevent them from achieving broad ecosystem conservation goals. These might be better achieved through government-driven MPAs, provided that they are integrated in a wider regional marine strategy and that there is political will to effectively implement conservation measures and to allocate resources for management, enforcement and monitoring.
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships among biodiversity conservation, livelihood improvements, and tourism development using the appreciative inquiry approach as a research tool. The research was conducted in three different buffer-zone communities representing different levels of tourism development around Chitwan National Park, Nepal. The results indicate that tourism helps change local people’s attitudes toward the conservation of biodiversity and reduce people’s dependence on natural resources. Tourism, particularly small-scale and locally owned ecotourism ventures, is also identified as a tool to enhance the livelihoods of people around protected areas. The linkages, however, vary with the level of tourism development. This study also developed a framework to help understand these linkages.
This paper presents and discusses legal, methodological and political frameworks for the development of the proposed Portuguese Marine Spatial Plan initiated in 2008. It considers lessons learned and is informed by discussions that have taken place since publication of the 'Roadmap for Maritime Spatial Planning: Achieving Common Principles in the EU'. New goals are based on horizontal planning tools that cut across sea-related sectoral policies and support joined up policy making. It is in this context that Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) emerged as an essential process for sustainable decision making. The OSPAR Commission undertook an overview of national planning systems within its administrative boundaries, which confirmed spatial plans reduced conflicts. However, problems exist accessing good quality data and dealing with entrenched sectoral views. Furthermore, the transboundary nature of marine resources requires cooperation between neighbouring states. In 2006, Portugal developed a 'National Sea Strategy' that recognized the importance of developing its maritime space while valuing marine habitats and biodiversity. MSP development of the Portuguese sea commenced in 2008 and findings are now evaluated. They showed adaptation of existing tools to be possible and desirable, provided undertaken cautiously and found conceptual ambiguities were barriers to conflict resolution. Furthermore they showed management strategies should be designed and analysed on a case by case basis, recognising temporal and spatial variations.
The Azores Marine Park (AMP) proposal, developed by the Geographical Information and Territorial Planning Centre (Centro de Informação Geografica e Planeamento Territorial; CIGPT) at University of the Azores (Ponta Delgada), was submitted in 2010 by the Azores Environment Agency to the Azores Parliament and will be implemented upon approval. This is the most recent effort towards establishing a Portuguese legal entity for consolidating and creating a coherent Azorean network of offshore marine protected areas (MPAs). The proposal included seven existing designated MPAs: four offshore habitats located within the Azorean Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ; Banco Dom João de Castro seamount, Sedlo seamount, Lucky Strike hydrothermal vent field and Menez Gwen hydrothermal vent field), one located beyond the Azorean EEZ (Rainbow hydrothermal vent field), and two Marine Important Bird Areas (North of Corvo Offshore, and North of Corvo and Faial Offshore). These MPAs had been nominated by various conservation organizations and site-specific legally binding recommendations have been developed. AMP recommendations were created for each site according to strict protection objectives and management objectives adapted from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Protected Area Management Categories. Since its submission, three additional high seas MPAs in areas beyond national jurisdiction and subject to Portuguese continental shelf extension claims (Altair seamount, Antialtair seamount and an area of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of the Azores) were nominated in September 2010 by the OSPAR Commission. These MPAs have subsequently been proposed for inclusion in the AMP. With intensifying efforts to protect biodiversity, an increase in offshore Azorean MPAs is likely. Consequently, the AMP will likely extend its spatial limit to include new high seas MPAs and develop legally binding regulations for each new MPA as an on-going process. The full-scale “one-stop agency” AMP is envisioned to provide a representative offshore MPA network for the Azores that will protect all major ecosystem features in relation to their habitats and species, at an appropriate scale, within and across each bioregion.
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