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Properties of chitin and chitosan extracted from silkworm pupae and egg shells
Abstract
Chitin and chitosan from silkworm pupae and egg shells show distinct properties with excellent antimicrobial properties and cytocompatiblity. Spent silkworm pupae and hatched egg shells are discarded as waste but contain valuable carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Chitosan has excellent antimicrobial properties and is widely used for food, medical and biotechnological applications. In this paper, we report the properties of chitin and chitosan from silkworm pupae and egg shells in comparison to commercially available chitosan. Defatted and deproteinated pupae and shells were demineralized and later acetylated to form chitosan. Thermal behavior, physical structure, antimicrobial activity and ability to support the attachment and growth of NIH3T3Cells were studied. Chitin and chitosan from both pupae and shells had similar structure and composition. Crystallinity of the pupae chitosan was 48% compared to 38% for egg shell chitosan. Silkworm chitosan showed considerably higher antibacterial and antifungal activity compared to standard. Cells were viable in the presence of pupae and egg shell chitosan until 96 h at 10 μg/ml. Based on these observations, it can be inferred that silkworm pupae and shells provide a renewable and sustainable source for chitosan with properties suitable for food and medical applications.
... 21.2%, 23.7%, and 17.5% [19]. In another study by Battampara et al. [20], about 18% and 6% of chitin was obtained in silkworm pupae and eggshells [20]. The yield percentage during extraction can be seen in Table 1 Egg shell 6 [20] by using: ...
... 21.2%, 23.7%, and 17.5% [19]. In another study by Battampara et al. [20], about 18% and 6% of chitin was obtained in silkworm pupae and eggshells [20]. The yield percentage during extraction can be seen in Table 1 Egg shell 6 [20] by using: ...
... In another study by Battampara et al. [20], about 18% and 6% of chitin was obtained in silkworm pupae and eggshells [20]. The yield percentage during extraction can be seen in Table 1 Egg shell 6 [20] by using: ...
The level of plastic waste is already at an alarming level, so the demand for environmentally friendly and biodegradable materials such as bioplastics can be proposed as an effective solution. In this study, bioplastics were successfully made from chitin base material using fish scales (Chanos chanos) with extraction results reaching 33.1%. Bioplastic sheets were obtained by the steps of fish scale crushing, deproteination, demineralization, chitin solubilization, and molding. Changes in structural properties are indicated by a shift in the 2 position (33.21 19.88) of X-ray diffraction peaks, a reduction in crystallite size distribution (33.5 8.5) in nm, and an increase in crystallinity index (27.41% 29.54%) as a result of the transformation of fish scales into bioplastics. Fourier transform infra-red reveals meaningful tuning of the low electron loss function, narrowed vibrational phonons, and non-deep penetration depth which facilitates optical information of bioplastic to determine its surface properties as a packaging film. The appearance of cracks that were previously flat solid surfaces from the scanning electron microscope results indicates that the bioplastic degradation process occurs effectively in natural decomposers in the form of laterite soil. The degradation rate ( 0.0015 mm/h) has been reported, and simulations of the effect of volume and thickness differences have also been evaluated to customize bioplastics to conform to be standards, specified requirements, and suitable people's needs.
... The crystalinity of chitin to chitosan also increases as shown in Fig. 5 from 57.18 % to 64.94 %. However, as reported by Battampara et al., deacetylation of chitin to chitosan by extracted from silkworm pupae and eggshells causes considerable decrease in crystallinity [25]. This shows the deacetylation process by NaOH 40 % significantly changed the crystal structure of chitin that extracted from fish scales. ...
... The FTIR spectrum of chitosan powder shows the functional groups OH in the wavenumber at 3450 cm − 1 , NH 2 and CH stretching at 2925 cm − 1 . The band spectrum at 1650 cm − 1 was identified as the CO stretching amide I group, indicating deacetylation of chitosan [17,25]. The bands spectrum at 1130 cm − 1 and 1060 cm − 1 corresponds to C -O bonds within the C-O-C groups [17,28,29]. ...
... The spectrum at 602 cm − 1 is due to the vibration of the N-H functional groups [10]. C -H wagging bands and CO-NH deformation are identified in the spectrum at 1341 cm − 1 [25,26], for more details of chemical bonding can be seen in Table 3. ...
... Aunque los animales marinos son sus principales fuentes, la mayoría de los insectos (escarabajos, saltamontes [Miranda et al., 2016], gusanos de seda, gusanos de la harina [Achinivu et al., 2022], moscas y las escamas de pescado (Kumari & Rath, 2014) contienen cantidades considerables de quitina (Kurita, 2001), pero son pocos los estudios reportados sobre la caracterización de su quitina y derivados (Kaya et al.,2015). Dentro de los trabajos encontrados cabe mencionar los realizados por Wu (2011) donde reportaron quitosano con alto porcentaje de desacetilación a partir de larvas de Clanis bilineata mediante métodos enzimáticos; los realizados por (Song et al., 2013), que determinaron las propiedades físicas, químicas y antioxidantes del quitosano de la larva Megacephala chrysomya; el estudio de (Miranda et al., 2016), sobre el contenido de quitina en los saltamontes, así como el de (Battampara et al., 2020), quienes reportaron un contenido de quitina del 18 % en crisálidas de gusano de seda y una conversión del 91 % de quitina en quitosano. Además, en este estudio ambos biomateriales presentaron actividad antimicrobiana. ...
... La forma γ presenta algunas similitudes con la β-quitina, sin embargo, la α-quitina incluye una gran cantidad de enlaces de hidrógeno y es la forma más estable (Khajavian et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2000). La quitina extraída particularmente de larvas y crisálidas de gusano de seda se caracteriza por presentar una estructura química denominada forma γ, que le confiere mayor estabilidad y reactividad (Battampara et al., 2020), así como una mayor biodegradabilidad y biocompatibilidad respecto a las estructuras presentes en moluscos crustáceos (He et al., 2016;Kumari & Rath, 2014;Paz et al., 2012) y hongos (Achinivu et al., 2022;Kurita, 2001), El quitosano es un polisacárido funcional derivado de la quitina. Presenta una cadena lineal compuesta por la repetición de unidades de 2-amina-2-desoxi-β-(1,4)-D-glucosamina y 2-acetamida-2-desoxi-β-(1,4)-D-glucosamina. ...
... La sericultura (cría del Bombyx mori) deja como principal residuo las crisálidas. Aproximadamente, en la producción de 1 kilogramo de seda se generan 2 kg de crisálidas secas como residuo (Battampara et al., 2020;Cifuentes, 1999;Huet et al., 2020;Paulino et al., 2006;Zhang et al., 2000). La producción mundial de seda se estima en 1.6 millones de toneladas, al menos 3 millones de toneladas de crisálidas secas están disponibles cada año. ...
El uso de biomateriales como la quitina y el quitosano ha venido aumentando en los últimos años y con esto sus aplicaciones biotecnológicas. Una fuente alternativa de obtención de estos son los insectos, entre los que se incluye el Bombyx mori L. (gusano de seda). En esta investigación se obtuvieron y caracterizaron quitina y quitosano a partir del Bombyx mori L Hibrido Pilamo 1 que se produce en el departamento de Risaralda, Colombia. Los biomateriales se extrajeron con NaOH al 10 % y HCl 1N y se caracterizaron por infrarrojo (IR-TF), microscopia electrónica de barrido (SEM), espectroscopía de rayos x de energía dispersa (EDS), análisis termogravimétrico (TGA) y calorimetría diferencial de barrido (DSC). El contenido de quitina en las crisálidas fue del 2.1 % en base seca. En el espectro IR de la quitina se encontraron las señales características a 1618 cm−1 y 1655 cm−1 correspondientes al estiramiento de C-N, vibración C=O de la amida I, a 1545 cm-1 del estiramiento de N-H de la amina II y a 3256 cm-1 de los grupos NH2 y OH. El espectro IR del quitosano evidenció la desacetilación por la señal a 1590 cm-1 y la señal a 1654 cm-1, presentando una mayor intensidad que la quitina debido al aumento de grupos NH2. La acetilación para la quitina fue del 61.83 % y para quitosano del 12.37 %; este resultado es de gran importancia considerando su relación con la solubilidad. Las microscopias mostraron diferentes morfologías superficiales que pueden deberse a la fuente de obtención, el método de extracción o grado de desacetilación. Las principales características de la quitina y quitosano obtenidos coinciden con estudios previos reportados para otras razas de gusano de seda, sin embargo, es necesario continuar la investigación, para establecer si es posible emplear al Bombyx mori L. Híbrido Pílamo 1 como una fuente promisoria de estos biomateriales disponible en la región.
... Similarly, DD of chitosan prepared from silkworm (B. mori) eggshell and pupae was 59.2 and 66.9%, respectively (Battampara et al., 2020). These variations may be due to methods adopted for preparation, and also the sources. ...
... Further, small molecules of chitosan after penetrating into bacterial cell walls, can inhibit DNA transcription and mRNA synthesis by directly binding with DNA (Cheung et al., 2015). Similarly, the antimicrobial action of chitosan isolated from silkworm (B.mori) was also studied by Pachiappan et al. (2018) and Battampara et al. (2020). ...
... The exposure concentrations (10 to 200 µg/ml) of tasar chitosan, as well as shrimp chitosan, did not show any cytotoxicity (Fig. 6). The findings corroborate well with the earlier reports of Battampara et al. (2020). Additional cytocompatibility studies are required for developing silkworm-based chitosan biomaterials that could have applications in tissue engineering, drug delivery system, cosmetics and other biomedical applications. ...
... The chitin structure in insects is reliant on their growth, which allows for controlled synthesis and degradation, allowing for ecdysis and regeneration. Previously, chitin has been isolated from a variety of insect species, including silkworms (Battampara et al. 2020), beetle (Shin et al. 2019), yellow mealworms (Son et al. 2021), cicadas (Sajomsang and Gonil 2010), cricket (Ibitoye et al. 2018), and others. Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), are currently the most popular and studied arthropods among insects. ...
... The results of percent recovery of BSFL chitin in the present study were comparable to other research studies conducted with BSF and other insects. Chitin yields in adult Holotrichia parallela is 15% (Liu et al. 2019); in Bombyx mori larva ranged between 15-20% (Battampara et al. 2020); 36% in cicada sloughs (Sajomsang and Gonil 2010); in Chelonibia patula contains 3.11% of chitin (Kaya et al. 2014a, b, c); in Portunidae segnis the chitin yield ranged from 18-33% (Hamed et al. 2020) crustacean shells are about 7-40% (Tolaimate et al. 2003;Younes and Rinaudo 2015); in the species Tenebrio molitor the yield was 58% (Song et al. (Feás et al. 2020) in Hermetia illucens (BSF) the chitin yield in the studies ranged between 9-32% (Soetemans et al. 2020). In comparison, the yields of α-chitin from prepupae of H. illucens is thus one of the promising alternative sources of chitin. ...
... Chitin extracted in the present study is α-chitin, as the peaks are found to be at 9.6°, 19.6°, 21.1° and 23.7° in both the study substrates (Jang et al. 2004). Chitin from other insect species like silkworm pupae (Battampara et al. 2020); Periplaneta americana ; Acheta domesticus (Psarianos et al. 2022); Spirobolida (Raghu et al. 2018); Coridius nepalensis (Sharbidre et al. 2021) reported to show similar result, with reflection at 12°, 20°, 23°, 26° ) (Waśko et al. 2016). ...
Insect chitin was isolated from different life stages of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens, such as instar stages, prepupae and pupae, reared separately on fruit and vegetable waste substrates after removal of fat, protein and minerals. Chitin yield was high in prepupae fed with vegetable waste (11.78 ± 0.13%) followed by fruit waste (6.82 ± 0.36%). The extracted chitin was compared with a commercial chitin from shrimp by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The results revealed that both chitins from commercial shrimp source and the H. illucens had similar chemical structures and physicochemical properties indicating the H. illucens chitin samples to be of α- chitin orientation type. With regards to the H. illucens samples, small physiochemical changes were noticed. Furthermore, the polymers derived from BSF are equivalent to commercial polymers in terms of purity and structural morphology, indicating their utility for industrial and medical applications. Thus, H. illucens prepupae is a promising alternative source of chitin.
... As a result, following defatting and protein extraction, carbohydrate-dense pupae are ready for consumption. However, there are differences in the amount of chitin present in silkworms depending on the race and the sex [129]. The chitin content of multivoltine silkworms was greater than that of univoltine silkworms, and male insects had higher chitin content than female insects [129,168,169]. ...
... However, there are differences in the amount of chitin present in silkworms depending on the race and the sex [129]. The chitin content of multivoltine silkworms was greater than that of univoltine silkworms, and male insects had higher chitin content than female insects [129,168,169]. ...
... Finally, Battampara et al. [129] used a multi-step process to isolate and purify chitin and chitosan from silkworm pupae and eggshell. Chitin and chitosan were separated using hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). ...
Chitin and chitosan are biopolymers that are frequently found in nature and have a broad range of applications in the food, biomedical and industrial sectors, due to their high biological activity. The primary source of chitin and chitosan is shellfish, however, shortages in the supply chain, seasonality issues in their availability, as well as ecological degradation are only a few of the problems with the main chitin resources. Due to the broad spectrum of applications for which chitin can be used, the demand for chitin and its derivatives is increasing. Therefore, the market is looking for widely available, greener alternatives to the main commercial chitin sources. Insects appear as a suitable candidate to fill this gap. During insect rearing and processing, a number of side streams are generated, e.g., exuviae of larvae and pupae, dead adults, etc. which are currently mostly discarded as waste. However, these side streams could constitute a novel and long-term supply of chitin for industrial applications. Recent research has demonstrated the suitability of several edible insect species for the production of chitin and chitosan, wherein the exoskeleton of the black soldier fly and field cricket are rich in chitin, making them a good source for chitin and chitosan extraction and purification among other farmed insect candidates. Moreover, several potential uses have been identified for insect-derived chitin and chitosan. Thus, this review aims to present recent advances in the production of chitin and chitosan from edible insects, specifically on their extraction and purification, as well as on their applications for agriculture, food and nutrition, biomedicine and bioplastic production.
... The cocoons are mainly exploited for silk production. The pupae are used for oil extraction, biogas and biodiesel production, mushroom cultivation, and chitosan production [2][3][4]. Silkworm frass is a combination of partially digested plant material and fecal matter with eventually dead larvae. It can be used as fertilizer [3]. ...
... Silkworm pupae are rich in proteins, calcium, vitamins, minerals, and lipids (essential fatty acids) [3][4][5]. Therefore, silkworm pupae and pupal waste (after oil or chitosan extraction) are good substitutes for fish meal or plant proteins in feed [2]. Their use as foodstuff for fish, poultry, and pigs has contributed to improved growth, increased resistance to pathogens, and reduced feed costs [5][6][7]. ...
The silkworm, Bombyx mori, is reared on a large scale, mainly for silk production. The waste from this silk production, like pupae, is underused. As an edible insect, B. mori is a good source of protein in human food and animal feed. In recent years, European legislation on the use of insects has evolved and a multitude of European companies have initiated the rearing of insects specifically for food and feed applications. Regarding animal feed, Commission Regulations (EU) 2021/1372 and 2021/1925 authorize eight insect species, including silkworm, as processed animal proteins for use in fish, pig, and poultry feed. The incorporation of edible insects into the human diet falls within Regulation (EU) No. 2015/2283 concerning novel foods. Implementation of authentication methods is imperative to ensure the conformity of the products. In the present study, we propose a specific real-time PCR method for the detection of silkworm (B. mori). The developed PCR test amplifies a 98 bp fragment of the cadherin gene. This gene is present in a single-copy per haploid genome, as demonstrated by experimental evidence. The qualitative method was successfully evaluated on the performance criteria of specificity, sensitivity, efficiency, robustness, and transferability. The applicability of the test was assessed on samples of B. mori from industry. Light microscopy and DNA metabarcoding approaches were used as a complement to genomic analysis as a means of providing authentication of the samples.
... According to the SEM observations, the surface of the film is rough, with regular indentations of a similar size between 0.2 and 0.7 µm long by approximately 0.1 µm wide (see Figure 6). Chitin whiskers indicate the surface uniformity of the film as significantly improved, and display a smooth and dense structure [27][28][29]. These results are in agreement with the literature data [24][25][26]; above 250 • , the thermal stability of a polysaccharide is affected by decomposition (see Figure 5). ...
... According to the SEM observations, the surface of the film is rough, with regular indentations of a similar size between 0.2 and 0.7 µm long by approximately 0.1 µm wide (see Figure 6). Chitin whiskers indicate the surface uniformity of the film as significantly improved, and display a smooth and dense structure [27][28][29]. The EDX analysis shows the presence of C, O, and N distributed uniformly within the membrane. ...
Pachycymbiola brasiliana is a marine snail found in the seas adjacent to the coasts of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, whose eggshells are composed primarily of chitin. In this work, Pachycymbiola brasiliana eggshells were used to prepare films and their structural and physicochemical characteristics were investigated. The main focus was on their mechanical stability, water sorption, and methylene blue rejection. From the FTIR spectra, the bands corresponding to chitin were identified. The differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) data showed that the biopolymer has a glass transition temperature of around 32 °C. The morphological analysis was carried out by using SEM and XRD. The study of the films’ mechanical stability showed an improvement with an increase in water activity. Regarding the methylene blue separation processes, a low permeation through the film and a rejection rate of 94 to 99% were demonstrated. Therefore, Pachycymbiola brasiliana eggshell can be considered a promising source of biopolymers for preparing biodegradable, non-toxic films with valuable separative properties.
... Also, chitosan extracted from V. orientalis adults recorded the highest degree of deacetylations (DDA) (73.74%), compared with A. thalassinus extracted chitosan (DDA: 72.95%). Similar results were recorded by Battampara et al. [28], where the DDA% of chitosan derived from silkworm pupae was 67.0%, compared with 59.0% for the eggshell chitosan, maximum DDA % of chitosan isolated from shrimp (Panaeus monodon), crab (Scylla olivicea and Scylla serrata), locust (Schistocerca gregaria), honeybee (Apis mellifera), beetle (Calosoma rugosa), and fish scales (Labeo rohita) was 95.0e98.0% [16]. ...
... In addition, The X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements also showed two sharp peaks for chitosan extracted from V. orientalis at approximately 19.9 and 26.72 and one faint peaks at 9.56 . While chitosan extracted from A. thalassinus exhibited one sharp These findings are consistent with those of [29], which found that chitosan from silkworm pupae had a crystallinity of 48.0% compared to 38.0% from egg shells [28], and which used XRD to illustrate differentiation between chitin and chitosan derived from Tenebrio molitor cuticle [30]. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) showed irregular masses and a soft structure with some pores on its surface; rough surface sequentially fish scale shaped are observed for V. orientalis chitosan. ...
... Beyond conventional textiles, there are many opportunities for product diversification. This is due to the fact that silkworm cocoons and pupae can be exploited as sericin [119], regenerated silk fibroin [120], and chitin/chitosan [121]. These are high-value biomaterials with potential applications in many fields. ...
... These are high-value biomaterials with potential applications in many fields. In the last couple of decades, progress around the science of silk has enabled the utilization of silk-based materials in exciting areas such as the pharmaceutical/medical field [121][122][123][124], cosmetics [125,126], electronics [127][128][129], the energy sector [130,131]. Although these are niche markets, product diversification efforts may lead to renewed interest from investors and developers in the sericulture industry. ...
The domestic silkworm or mulberry silk moth, B. mori L., provides more than 99% of the world’s silk. Silk, as a sericulture product, was first introduced in Indonesia through a trade mechanism and began to develop in 1953. Several factors (economic, ecological, market, and cultural) support sericulture and make it become one of the non-timber forest product priorities. However, the competitive advantages alone have not encouraged the development of prospective sericulture industry in Indonesia yet. This paper is a review of tropical sericulture development in Indonesia. The literature on the development of sericulture in Indonesia between 1989 and 2022 is used to describe conditions related to mulberry cultivation (moriculture), and silkworm rearing (sericulture), as well as the state of socio-economic development, culture, and institutions. Moriculture and sericulture techniques, socio-economic aspects, institutional arrangements, and community motivations are intertwined, creating a challenging atmosphere for sericulture development. There are potential resources, such as exploring quality mulberry production and quality silkworm production through research and development, valuable cultural aspects, and potential stakeholders to build network engagement. Commitment, cooperation, and action from all stakeholders are needed to enhance the development of sericulture in Indonesia. In this context, the central government can play an important role in facilitating multi-stakeholder partnerships in the development of integrated sericulture in Indonesia.
... In native Thai mulberry silkworm pupae, the polyphenols mainly contain (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, rutin, quercetin, myricetin, trans-resveratrol, luteolin, naringenin, and kaempferol [38]. The sugars in silkworm pupae can be divided into two main groups, chitosan and chitin, as well as isolated and purified polysaccharides, all of which are biologically active [39][40][41]. Chitosan and chitin from silkworm pupae are not cytotoxic, but have strong physiological activity, especially carboxymethyl chitosan [42,43]. ...
... It was found that the chitosan in silkworm pupae was 48% crystalline and 67% acetylated. The antibacterial and antifungal activity of chitosan from silkworm pupae was better than that of commercially available chitosan, with the fastest inhibition of bacteria being achieved at 1-2 h [40]. The antibacterial component of silkworm pupae could be used as a resource for treating diseases and could be used to reduce the high use of antibiotics. ...
Silkworm pupae are insects that are beneficial to human health, not only for their high nutritional value but, more importantly, for the variety of pharmacological functions they can perform when consumed. Currently, there is a lot of interest in the pharmaceutical applications of silkworm pupae. In recent years, the biological functions of domestic silkworm pupae have gradually been identified and confirmed, especially for their beneficial effects on human health. Studies have found that silkworm pupae have positive effects on liver protection, immune enhancement, antiapoptosis, antitumour, antibacterial, regulation of blood glucose and blood lipids, and lowering of blood pressure. However, the pharmacological mechanisms and systemic safety of silkworm pupae have not been systematically evaluated. In this paper, the nutritional composition of the pupae of the domestic silkworm is first summarised. The pharmacological functions of silkworm pupae and their components are then classified, and their mechanisms of occurrence are described. In addition, we provide a preliminary evaluation of the safety of silkworm pupae, analyse their application prospects, and suggest future directions for further pharmacological function studies. The aim is to generate interest in the promotion of human health through the use of silkworm pupae.
... Moreover, it is rich in chitin and chitosan, possessing antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Jayakumar et al., 2010). It has been suggested that the antibacterial and antifungal activity of chitosan from SWP is more potent than commercially available chitosan (Battampara et al., 2020). ...
An experiment was conducted to assess the inclusion of silk worm pupa (SWP) in the diet of fingerling Beluga sturgeon ( Huso huso ). Four trial diets based on the nutritional requirements of fingerling Beluga sturgeon prepared. They include: Fish meal with no silk worm pupa meal inclusion as the Control (FM), 5% silk worm pupa meal inclusion (SWP5), 10% silk worm pupa meal inclusion (SWP10), 15% silk worm pupa meal inclusion (SWP15). Fish were fed experimental diets for a period of 8 weeks. The results revealed that the SWP15 treatment showed significantly more weight gain among treatments, although no significant effect was found in the Condition Factor (CF) and Specific Growth Rate (SGR). Growth hormone genes (GH) as well as appetite genes (Ghrelin) were up-regulated in the treatments fed (SWP) diets. There was a significant increase in protein metabolism (TOR) gene expressions, which showed favorable effects of (SWP) inclusion in diets. Biochemical parameter data confirmed that total protein, lysozyme and IgM activity in both serum and mucus were significantly influenced by dietary (SWP) inclusion. On the other hand, immunity gene expression (IL-1 β) did not appear to be significantly affected by (SWP) inclusion, although it showed a higher level in (SWP5), which might be related to the beneficial effect of (SWP) on fish immunity status. Liver impairment enzymes, including; aminotransferase alanine (ALT), aminotransferase aspartate (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), analysis uncovered no destructive effect among treatments. Overall, the findings of this work demonstrate that substitution of fish meal protein up to 15% with (SWP) into the diet of fingerling Beluga sturgeon is promising on growth and health which could be successfully introduced into the aquafeed.
... Concerning gram-positive bacteria, both chitosan derived from AD demonstrated high inhibitory effects against S. aureus, but both TM and commercial chitosan did not show any inhibitory effect (Tables 6 and 7). Previous studies have shown that insect-derived chitosan presents high antibacterial activity against S. aureus (Al-saggaf and Saravanan, 2021; Basseri et al., 2019;Battampara et al., 2020;Jing et al., 2007;Lin et al., 2021;Shin et al., 2019). Furthermore, except for house cricket, all chitosan exhibited antimicrobial activity against B. cereus, while none of the chitosan samples inhibited the growth of L. monocytogenes. ...
Fractionation of edible insects and their rearing by-products can lead to expanded industrial applications and extraction of value-added products. The main goal of this study was to extract chitin and synthesise chitosan from three different insect sources – Tenebrio molitor larvae, adult Acheta domesticus and A. domesticus rearing by-products (legs and wings). Furthermore, the physicochemical, structural, and bioactive properties of insect-derived chitin and chitosan were characterised and compared to commercial crustacean-based samples. Chitin was isolated from defatted sources through chemical hydrolysis followed by decolourisation and was deacetylated with a strong alkaline solution to synthesise chitosan. Notably, A. domesticus rearing by-products yielded the highest chitin and chitosan content. Chitin and chitosan derived from insects exhibited physicochemical and structural characteristics consistent with the α-polymorphic form, similar to the commercial samples. Differences were found in surface morphology, with insect-derived samples presenting large and irregular flakes and porosity, while the crustacean-derived samples presented irregularly arranged fibres and a more regular and smoother surface. As for antioxidant activity, although all chitosan samples demonstrated poor DPPH radical scavenging activity, this study showed for the first time that insect-derived chitosan presents lipid peroxidation inhibition ability. All chitosan samples presented antimicrobial activity against different pathogenic bacteria, with K. pneumoniae being the most susceptible strain. Nevertheless, there is potential for enhancement of the biological properties through modifications on the molecular weight and deacetylation degree. This research introduces the potential of cricket-rearing by-products as sustainable sources of chitosan with functional bioactive properties.
... Therefore, the development of effective drugs is crucial for the treatment of AAA [2]. In the development primarily due to its structure and multifunctionality [9,10]. Chitosan, composed of repeating units of d-glucosamine and n-acetyl-d-glucosamine linked by 1-(1,4) glycosidic bonds, is the most abundant natural amino polysaccharide worldwide, obtained by partial deacetylation of chitin through high-temperature alkali treatment [11,12]. ...
The abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a dilation of the lower part of the body aorta. AAA has no obvious symptoms in the early stages until the aortic wall ruptures suddenly, resulting in massive blood loss and flow into the abdominal cavity. Currently, there is no effective drug treatment for AAA, and the development of effective drugs is crucial. In this study, a novel approach utilizing chitosan/genipin/zinc oxide (CH/G-ZnO) composite nanoparticles as a drug delivery system is proposed. Compound 1 was loaded onto these nanoparticles to form CH/G-ZnO@1 composite. The composite material exhibited light-triggered and rapid gelation properties, and its structure and performance were comprehensively characterized. Subsequently, by treating vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), we found that CH/G-ZnO@1 was able to significantly reduce metalloproteinase (MMP) and increase the expression of COL4A1, thereby increasing the proliferative activity of VSMCs.
... Similar to marine crustaceans, chitosan can also be extracted from the exoskeletons and wings of certain insects through alkaline heat treatment. Battampara et al. [23] extracted chitosan from discarded silkworm chrysalises, achieving a DD of 67% and a yield of 18%. In addition, Chae et al. [24] obtained chitosan from crickets, with a DD ranging from 66.54% to 84.98% and a yield of 41.75%. ...
Chitosan, a cationic polysaccharide derived from the deacetylation of chitin, is widely distributed in nature. Its antibacterial activity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity have given it extensive uses in medicine, food, and cosmetics. However, the significant impact of variations in the physicochemical properties of chitosan extracted from different sources on its application efficacy, as well as the considerable differences in its antimicrobial mechanisms under varying conditions, limit the full realization of its biological functions. Therefore, this paper provides a comprehensive review of the structural characteristics of chitosan, its preparation methods from different sources, its antimicrobial mechanisms, and the factors influencing its antimicrobial efficacy. Furthermore, we highlight the latest applications of chitosan and its derivatives across various fields. We found that the use of microbial extraction shows promise as a new method for producing high-quality chitosan. By analyzing the different physicochemical properties of chitosan from various sources and the application of chitosan-based materials (such as nanoparticles, films, sponges, and hydrogels) prepared using different methods in biomedicine, food, agriculture, and cosmetics, we expect these findings to provide theoretical support for the broader utilization of chitosan.
... Silkworm egg shell chitosan has antibacterial and anti-fungal activity similar or better than commercially available chitosan. With large availability and limited applications, egg shells can be used as renewable and sustainable sources for chitosan [16]. The protein extract of egg shell is sold as the Humanofort B product in Romania (Fig. 3). ...
Sericulture is an agro based industry that includes production of raw silk by breeding, rearing of silkworm and cultivation of their host plants. The manufacture of various types of silk was the only emphasis of the traditional sericulture industry, and leftovers were typically disposed away as trash. Byproducts and products from sericulture can be used medicinally in addition to generating silk. The silkworm is a valuable tool in laboratory research and has been utilised as a model organism in life sciences, environmental monitoring, antimicrobial drug screening, and other applications. Protein extract from silkworm eggs is used to improve memory and assist control weight. The silkworm's larvae are also beneficial medicinally; they include blood glucose-lowering agents and silkworm gut fibre, among other things. Similarly, silkworm pupae, a significant by-product of the silk reeling business, have great nutritional content and potential medical applications including hepatoprotection, anticancer, and anti-aging. They can be utilised as an alternative to conventional dietary supplements. As a result, functional sericulture under a new paradigm has replaced sericulture to produce solely silk fabric, greatly increasing farmer revenue while also relieving patient suffering.
... Fresh spent silkworm pupae debris are discarded in nearby areas after being reeled from cocoons. The silk industry generates a massive amount of waste in the form of silkworm pupae, with global estimates reaching a staggering three million tons annually [29]. These fresh silkworm pupae are highly degradable that create pollution and odour in the surrounding locations. ...
The growing demand for cost-effective and sustainable poultry feed has spurred interest in alternative protein sources. This review explores the potential of silkworm pupae meal (SWPM) as a viable substitute for conventional protein sources such as soyabean and fish meal in poultry diets. Silkworm pupae, a by-product of the silk industry, are rich in crude protein (up to 80% in defatted meal) and essential amino acids, particularly lysine and methionine. These nutritional attributes, along with a high content of fatty acids, make SWPM an attractive ingredient for poultry feed. The paper discusses the environmental benefits of using silkworm pupae, which include reducing waste and mitigating the ecological impact of traditional feed ingredients. Additionally, the incorporation of SWPM in poultry diets has been shown to improve nutrient digestibility, feeding preferences, and gut health in chickens. This review highlights the promise of silkworm pupae meal as a sustainable and economical alternative in the poultry feed industry, offering a potential solution to the challenges of rising feed costs and environmental sustainability. Replacing the traditional protein sources such as soyabean meal & fish meal with silkworm pupae meal may break a chain of increasing feed costs and make a sustainable change towards a cost-effective feed. In this arena, silkworm pupae meal is a high-nutritional-value protein rich animal feed component, exceeding up to 50% crude protein content to over 80% at times. It contains methionine, lysine, chitin, and insoluble protein, possibly indicating fibre. Researchers have investigated in many ways how the use of full-fat and defatted silkworm pupae meal in chicken feed affects nutrient digestibility, feeding preferences and gut bacteria, with the aim of potentially substituting it for traditional protein sources in poultry diets.
... After each moult, larvae sheds its skin called exuviae. In sericulture industry, silkworm larvae, pupae, pupal exuviae and egg shell are the excellent source of chitin and chitosan [12,13]. Silkworm pupae exuviae and beetle larval cuticle excellent source Zhang et al. [3]. ...
This study investigated the chitosan content in various developmental stages of silkworms, specifically focusing on larval cuticle, moult exuviae and larval exuviae. The chitosan percentage varied significantly among different stages, with the highest content observed in bivoltine hybrid larval exuviae (19.37%) and the lowest in the 1st instar larval cuticle (9.93%). Chitosan content showed a consistent increase during moulting stages, reaching its peak in exuviae. The investigation extended to examine properties of chitosan, including moisture content, nitrogen content, ash content, degree of deacetylation (DD), solubility, viscosity and pH. Moisture content ranged from 5.80 to 7.84%, nitrogen content from 5.05 to 6.17%, ash content within 0.50 to 0.80% and DD from 85.10 to 92.71%. Solubility ranged from 92.25 to 98.25% and viscosity was measured between 47 and 58 cP. The pH values ranged from 6.72 to 7.49. These findings contribute valuable insights into the chitosan characteristics at different developmental stages of silkworms, providing a comprehensive understanding of its variations and potential applications.
... The eggshell and silkworm pupae chitosan have similar or better antibacterial and antifungal activity. These properties qualify them for medical and food applications (Battampara et al., 2020). Recently, chitosan has also been isolated from Procambarus clarkii, which is a novel source. ...
The primary focus of this review is an eco-friendly biopolymer chitosan which is mainly produced by the conversion of environmental wastes into useful applications. Chitosan has drawn much interest due to its unusual characteristics, including anti-microbial, biodegradability, and non-toxicity. This study explores numerous approaches available for the production and extraction of chitosan from various sources, including crustaceans, fungi, and insects. The available techniques are classified into chemical and biological methods and further divided into enzymatic and fermentation methods. This review also covers the steps in the upstream and downstream processes that are involved in the production of chitosan. Additionally, a few techniques available for the characterization of chitosan are covered, including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, potentiometric titration, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray powder diffraction, and emission scanning electron microscopy. Comparisons are also made between the characteristics of chitosan derived from sources like insects and fungal strains. Characteristics of chitosan obtained from sources such as fungal strains and insects are compared with those of commercial chitosan. This study also focuses on the most recent applications of chitosan in the medical sector, wastewater treatment plant, agricultural sector, food packaging industry, and cosmetic industry. A few patents related to chitosan in the health sector are also discussed. Finally, it concludes that further research on chitosan and its derivatives is necessary to fully understand the advantages of this polymer. It also emphasizes the difficulties involved in extracting chitosan from crustaceans, insects, and fungi. To fully explore the advantages of this polymer, it is concluded that further research into chitosan and its derivatives is necessary.
... Silkworms, like crustaceans, can provide chitosan. Silkworm pupae are known to contain as much as 18% chitin, which can be deacetylated into chitosan [15]. Humans cultivate silkworms for their silk but discard the pupae. ...
Background and Aim
Ruminant enteric methane (CH4) is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. To minimize environmental harm caused by ruminants’ CH4 production, natural substances can be used to suppress it. Chitosan from crustacean sources had been known to obstruct CH4 generation in the rumen. About 18% of silkworm pupae is chitin, but little is known about the impact of silkworm pupae chitosan on rumen methanogenesis. This study investigated the efficacy of the silkworm chitosan extraction method and its impact on rumen fermentation, methanogenesis, and microbial growth in vitro.
Materials and Methods
This study employed a randomized complete block design featuring five treatments and four batches for rumen incubation as the blocking factor. In this study, five treatments were implemented: Control (CO) (basal diet with no added chitosan), basal diet with 6% chitosan from the Chinese Silkworm strain 804 (CHI804), basal diet with 6% chitosan from the PS 01 Hybrid Silkworm strain (CHIPS01), basal diet with 6% chitosan from the Hybrid F1 Japanese 102 × Chinese 202 races (CHIJC02), and basal diet with 6% commercial shrimp shell chitosan as the positive control (CHICOMM). The in vitro experiments assessed digestibility, pH, total gas generation, CH4 production, ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), and short-chain fatty acid levels, along with microbial population. Data were analyzed using a general linear model followed by Duncan’s test when applicable.
Results
A significant effect on dry matter digestibility (DMD), total gas production, CH4, NH3-N, and rumen microbial populations (Methanogens, Ruminoccocus albus, Ruminoccocus flavefaciens, Selonomonas ruminantium, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, Streptoccocus bovis, Prevotella spp., and Bacteroides spp.) was observed (p < 0.05). The extracted chitosan (CHIJC02) used in this study exhibited a similar quality to that of commercial chitosan (CHICOMM). CHI804 treatment could reduce gas production, NH3-N production, and B. fibrisolvens population significantly (p < 0.05), while CHIJC02 could reduce CH4 production, methanogen population, acetate (C2) production, and increase propionate (C3) production significantly (p < 0.05). CHIJC02 and CHICOMM treatments could also increase the population of R. flavefaciens, S. ruminantium, and Bacteroides spp. significantly (p < 0.05). Chitosan addition significantly (p < 0.05) reduced DMD but did not impact organic matter digestibility or pH.
Conclusion
The extracted chitosan mimics commercial chitosan in physico-chemical properties. Chitosan derived from Japanese and Chinese F1 hybrid silkworm strains demonstrated superior capacity for inhibiting CH4 generation compared to commercial chitosan. The quality and effects on methanogenesis, rumen fermentation, and rumen microbial populations can differ depending on the origin of chitosan.
... Such insights illuminate the dynamic interplay between chitin utilization and developmental requirements throughout the silkworm life cycle. A study conducted by P. Battampara et al. [31] demonstrated that employing the processes of deproteinization, decolorization, and demineralization enabled the isolation of 18% chitin content in the dry matter derived from Silkworm pupa. In contrast, the research conducted by A.T. Paulino et al. [40] demonstrates the isolation of 2.59-4.23% ...
Chitin, a ubiquitous biopolymer, holds paramount scientific and economic significance. Historically, it has been primarily isolated from marine crustaceans. However, the surge in demand for chitin and the burgeoning interest in biopolymers have necessitated the exploration of alternative sources. Among these methods, the mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori) has emerged as a particularly intriguing prospect. To isolate chitin from Bombyx mori, a chemical extraction methodology was employed. This process involved a series of meticulously orchestrated steps, including Folch extraction, demineralization, deproteinization, and decolorization. The resultant chitin was subjected to comprehensive analysis utilizing techniques such as attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS). The obtained results allow us to conclude that the Bombyx mori represents an attractive alternative source of α-chitin.
... At present, the acid-base extraction method is mainly used to extract CS from crustaceans. The main steps include removing inorganic salts with a strong acid and removing proteins and acetyl groups with a strong alkali [5]. The extraction rate, deacetylation degree (DD), and molecular weight (MW) obtained from shrimp shells using traditional acid-base extraction methods were 4-55%, 51-98%, and 160-1050 kDa, and the extraction yield of chitin was 16-20%. ...
As one of the most abundant natural polysaccharides that possess good biological activity, chitosan is extracted from chitin. Its application in the food field is being increasingly valued. However, chitosan extraction is difficult, and its poor solubility limits its application. At present, the extraction methods include the acid–base method, new chemical methods, and biological methods. The extraction rates of chitin/chitosan are 4–55%, 13–14%, and 15–28%, respectively. Different chemical modifications have different effects on chitosan, making it applicable in different fields. This article reviews and compares the extraction and chemical modification methods of chitosan, emphasizing the importance of green extraction methods. Finally, the application prospects of chitosan in the food industry are discussed. This will promote the understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of different extraction methods for chitosan as well as the relationship between modification and application, providing valuable insights for the future development of chitosan.
... Chitin and its derivatives are considered insoluble fibers with potential prebiotic properties to improve gastrointestinal health and change the gut microbiota [19]. The AD and BMp contained chitin at rates of 5.7% [41] and 18%, respectively [42]. Chitinase catalyzes the degradation of chitin to chitooligomers [43]. ...
Background and Aim
The gut microbiome plays an important role in the overall health and well-being of dogs, influencing various physiological processes such as metabolism, nutrient absorption, and immune function. Edible insects are a sustainable and nutritious alternative protein source attracting increasing attention as a potential component of animal feeds, including pet food. However, little is known about the effects of insect-based diets on the gut microbiota of dogs. This study aimed to examine the fecal microbiota of dogs fed a diet that substituted common protein sources (poultry meal) with the house cricket (Acheta domesticus [AD]) or mulberry silkworm pupae (Bombyx mori pupae [BMp]) at different levels.
Materials and Methods
Fifteen healthy adult mixed-breed dogs were systemically randomized and assigned into each block under a completed randomized block design into the following five experimental dietary groups: control diet, 10% AD, 20% AD, 7% BMp, or 14% BMp for 29 days. The amounts fed to the dogs were based on the daily energy requirement. Fecal samples were collected on days 14 and 29 and analyzed for bacterial community structure using 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene sequencing.
Results
At the phylum and genus levels, microbiota and their diversity were generally relatively similar among all treatments. The diets containing insects did not significantly alter the major phyla in the gut microbiome of dogs (p > 0.05). A few significant changes were found in the relative abundance of bacterial genera, with the levels of Allobaculum and Turicibacter being reduced in dogs fed a higher level of BMp. In contrast, only a decrease in Turicibacter was found in dogs fed the lower level of AD than the control diet (p < 0.05). Corynebacterium and Lactobacillus levels in the dogs fed 14% BMp were significantly increased compared with those in the control group (p < 0.05).
Conclusion
These findings suggest that insect-based diets may slightly alter the gut microbiota of dogs. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms by which insect-based diets influence the gut microbiota of dogs and the long-term potential health implications.
... Carbohydrate was estimated by anthrone method (Dubois et al., 1956). Chitin was extracted by defatting the samples followed by deproteinization (10% NaOH) and demineralization (7% HCl) as mentioned by Battampara et al. (2020). The energy content (kcal) of silkworm pupae was determined as the sum of protein, carbohydrate and fat by the Atwater system (Feás et al., 2012). ...
Aim: To investigate the proximate compositions, amino acids profile, phenols, flavonoids, fatty acids and minerals in Tasar silkworm pupae and assessment of biological potential of pupae extracts. Methodology: Biochemical composition such as proteins, fat, carbohydrate, chitin, ash, moisture and minerals were analyzed in Tasar silkworm pupae. The amino acid, vitamins, phenolics and flavonoid, fatty acids and free radical scavenging assay were evaluated. Results: The pupae powder contained 11.23% moisture, 60.67% crude protein, 23.83% fat, 3.29% carbohydrate, 5.1% ash and 3.87% chitin on a dry matter basis. Further, the pupae protein contained 19 amino acids, including all of the essential amino acids. Similarly, the pupae powder contained both water and fat soluble vitamins with higher content of tocopherol (13.23 µg 100 gm-1), phenolics compounds majorly ferulic acid (1317.5 µg gm-1) and p-coumaric acid (730.96 µg gm-1), flavonoids catechin (40.771 µg gm-1) and myricetin (12.466 µg gm-1) at higher levels and fatty acid with higher palmitic acid content (6.565 mg g-1). Mineral analysis indicated higher magnesium (208 mg 100 gm-1), calcium (47.79 mg 100gm-1) and iron (37.72 mg 100 gm-1) contents. Further, pupae extract exhibited free radical scavenging potential in a concentration-dependent manner. Interpretation: The results of the study indicate tasar pupae as a renewable and sustainable source for preparation of animal feeds. Key words: Antheraea mylitta, Antioxidants, Tasar pupae
... It is well known that Cht and Chs from various sources could have different morphologies [33,51]. The difference in morphologies depends on the innate properties of the source, extraction method, and DD [52]. For example, Chs from Oriental latrine fly larvae Chrysomya megacephala showed a fine regular fibril structure [36]. ...
In this study, the chitin of adult Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuheniella) (Cht) was extracted and then converted to chitosan by deacetylation process to achieve the chitosan derived from E. kuheniella (Chsfm). The new chitosan-based scaffold was produced using the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) co-electrospinning technique. The degree of deacetylation was obtained using the distillation-titration and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The surface morphology and crystallinity index of Chsfm were observed using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis, respectively, and compared with the commercial chitosan (Chsc). Thermogravimetric analysis was used to estimate two chitosans’ water content and thermal stability. The average molecular mass analysis was performed using viscometry. Moreover, the minimum inhibitory concentration and DPPH assay were used to study the antimicrobial activity and antioxidant potential of the Chsfm, respectively. Accordingly, Chsfm was smoother with fewer pores and flakes than Chsc, and its crystallinity index was higher than Chsc. The water content and thermal stability were lower and similar for Chsfm compared to Chsc. The average molecular mass of Chsfm was ~ 5.8 kDa, making it classified as low molecular weight chitosan. The antimicrobial activity of Chsfm against a representative Gram-negative bacteria; E. coli resulted to be the same as Chsc. However, less effective than Chsc against a representative Gram-positive bacteria is S. aureus. The Chsfm/PVA ratio scaffold was optimized at 30:70 to fabricate a uniform nanofiber scaffold.
... Further studies have shown that this interaction through the combination of antimicrobial peptides can be used to treat gram-negative bacterial pathogens that have become resistant to common antibiotics [203]. In addition, chitin and chitosan from silkworm pupae [108], chitin from cockroaches [102], secretions from forest caterpillars (Calosoma sycophanta) [106], defensins from insects [204], and silkworm pupa oil and silk [105,205] also have antimicrobial activity. ...
For thousands of years, edible insects have been used as food to alleviate hunger and improve malnutrition. Some insects have also been used as medicines because of their therapeutic properties. This is not only due to the high nutritional value of edible insects, but more importantly, the active substances from edible insects have a variety of biofunctional activities. In this paper, we described and summarized the nutritional composition of edible insects and discussed the biological functions of edible insects and their potential benefits for human health. A summary analysis of the findings for each active function confirms that edible insects have the potential to develop functional foods and medicines that are beneficial to humans. In addition, we analyzed the issues that need to be considered in the application of edible insects and the current status of edible insects in food and pharmaceutical applications. We concluded with a discussion of regulations related to edible insects and an outlook on future research and applications of edible insects. By analyzing the current state of research on edible insects, we aim to raise awareness of the use of edible insects to improve human health and thus promote their better use and development.
... Pupae are composed of 20-30 % oil, 25-30 % proteins and 30-35 % carbohydrates. Some studies have explored the potential of using pupae as a source for fuel, fertilizer and extraction of chitin [33]. Since pupae are composed of 25-30 % proteins, they form a rich and low cost source for proteins. ...
A unique protein extracted from discarded silkworms was reinforced with hydroxyapatite (HA) and made into
films for potential tissue engineering applications. After reeling of silk, the silkworms are treated as waste and disposed.
However, the silkworms contain up to 25-30 % proteins, 40 % oil and 20-25 % carbohydrates and are inexpensive and a
renewable resource for various biopolymers. Proteins extracted from silkworms had purity of 90 %, molecular weights of
about 30 kDa and were soluble in a weak alkali. The proteins could be made into films using a simple compression molding
technique. Hydroxyapatite (HA) was synthesized and added to the proteins to promote cell growth for tissue engineering
applications. The changes in the structure, properties and enhancement in cell viability and growth due to the addition of HA
were studied. The ability of the films to differentiate osteoblast cells was determined using ALP assay and calcium activity
tests. Results showed that the addition of HA increased the tensile properties including the strength (3.5 to 5.5 MPa,
elongation from 3.3 to 5.7 % and modulus from 153 to 242 MPa). However, no significant change was observed in terms of
cell attachment, growth or viability. Yet, the inclusion of HA did not increase the cytotoxicity and hence, is considered to be
beneficial to obtain silkworm protein-based films.
... By 2019 more than 6000 tons insect black soldier fly and the yellow mealworm protein meal was produced in Europe alone [149]. Many species of insects including honey bees, silkworms, and synanthropic files can be artificially reared and used as a promising new chitin source for industrial purposes [150]. Insect's chitin extraction procedures are similar to those applied for crustacean sources except that insect chitin contains very low quantities of mineral when compared to crustacean shells [151]. ...
Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is derived from chitin. Chitin is found in cell walls of crustaceans, fungi, insects and in some algae, microorganisms, and some invertebrate animals. Chitosan is emerging as a very important raw material for the synthesis of a wide range of products used for food, medical, pharmaceutical, health care, agriculture, industry, and environmental pollution protection. This review, in line with the focus of this special issue, provides the reader with (1) an overview on different sources of chitin, (2) advances in techniques used to extract chitin and converting it into chitosan, (3) the importance of the inherent characteristics of the chitosan from different sources that makes them suitable for specific applications and, finally, (4) briefly summarizes ways of tailoring chitosan for specific applications. The review also presents the influence of the degree of acetylation (DA) and degree of deacetylation (DDA), molecular weight (Mw) on the physicochemical and biological properties of chitosan, acid-base behavior, biodegradability, solubility, reactivity, among many other properties that determine processability and suitability for specific applications. This is intended to help guide researchers select the right chitosan raw material for their specific applications.
... Furthermore, the ease of cultivation, extraction, and environmentally acceptable techniques enables the use of fungi as a key source of chitosan. While chitin can be recovered from bioprocessing waste biomass, fermentation-based fungal synthesis can directly produce chitin and chitosan (Battampara et al. 2020). Fermentative fungi are the most common microorganisms utilized in the industrial synthesis of chitin. ...
Accessibility to clean drinking water often remains a crucial task at times. Among other water pollutants, arsenic is considered a more lethal contaminant and has become a serious threat to human life globally. This review discussed the sources, chemistry, distribution, and toxicity of arsenic and various conventional technologies that are in option for its removal from the water system. Nowadays, biosorbents are considered the best option for arsenic-contaminated water treatment. We have mainly focused on the need and potential of biosorbents especially the role of chitosan-based composites for arsenic removal. The chitosan-based sorbents are economically more efficient in terms of their, low toxicity, cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, eco-friendly nature, and reusability. The role of various modification techniques, such as physical and chemical, has also been evaluated to improve the physicochemical properties of biosorbent. The importance of adsorption kinetic and isotherm models and the role of solution pH and pHPZC for arsenic uptake from the polluted water have also been investigated. Some other potential applications of chitosan-based biosorbents have also been discussed along with its sustainability aspect. Finally, some suggestions have been highlighted for further improvements in this field.
Graphical abstract
Both animal and plant proteins are preferred for biomedical applications due their biocompatibility and ability to be converted into different shapes and sizes. In addition, proteins have various functional groups that provide the ability to carry different biological entities required for various diagnostics and treatments. The proteins in silk, namely, fibroin and sericin have been used for medical applications for centuries. Silk fibroin and sericin are obtained from the cocoons and the silkworms (pupae) are discarded as waste. The weight of pupae generated is roughly equivalent to the weight of the empty cocoons. Although pupae contain 30 to 40% proteins, 25–30% oil and about 30 to 40% carbohydrates, they currently have limited applications. In this study, we have extracted the proteins in the spent silkworm pupae using mild alkali. The extracted proteins were characterized for their composition and structure. The proteins were converted into films through solution casting and compression molding and the films obtained were studied for their chemical and physical properties. Biocompatibility of the films for tissue engineering and other medical applications and potential of the films to be used for food packaging was also studied. Proteins extracted from the pupae (SWP) have amino acid composition different than fibroin and sericin in silk fibers with glutamic acid (12.7%), glycine (9%) leucine, alanine and arginine (8%) being the major components. Compression molded films were marginally stronger (4.7–5.7 MPa) but solution cast films have considerably high elongation (up to 32%). Crosslinking with citric acid improved the strength and stability and made the films suitable for food and medical applications. Fibroblasts cells were able to attach and proliferate on the films suggesting that the films were biocompatible. Hence, spent pupae offer a low cost, renewable source for proteins and flexible options to develop value added biomaterials for medical applications and bioproducts for the food industry.
Technology and technological education are fundamental for promoting a country’s development. A country that does not produce its own technology is doomed todepend on the production of other nations, leading to excessive expenses from importing components and equipment that could be locally produced, along with thecreation of qualified jobs that this would entail. This book presents three research findings from the School of Technology. The first pertains to the implementation and analysis of an electric vehicle chargingstation powered by solar energy. This project serves as a technological development benchmark, significantly contributing to the mitigation of environmental impactby utilizing an electric vehicle that replaces a combustion engine, thereby reducing pollution while employing a renewable energy source—solar power.
The domesticated mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori L. and the wild non-mulberry silkworms are discussed in this article as potential sources of raw materials for cosmetics. Both families of silkworms produce cocoons, which are made up of the pupa and the two main proteins, fibroin and sericin. The product of the B. mori L. silkworm has the potential to be a better biomaterial for cosmetic raw materials than other alternatives. Each product is described in more detail, including its definition, producer, extraction process, and application.
Objectives:
We investigated the efficacy and safety of silkworm pupae extract (SWP) consumption for 12 weeks on muscle mass and strength in middle-aged and older individuals with relatively low skeletal muscle mass who do regular low-intensity exercise.
Design:
A randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled trial.
Participants:
The study was conducted with 54 participants with relatively low skeletal muscle mass (SMM) (64.4 ± 6.1 years; body mass index, 23.8 ± 2.4 kg/m2).
Intervention and measurements:
Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: 1000 mg of SWP/day plus regular exercise (SWP group, n=27) or placebo plus regular exercise (placebo group, n=27). All participants were required to engage in 30-60 minutes/day of walking for ≥3 days/week for 12 weeks. The primary outcome was knee extension/flexion strength (Nm), measured at the velocity of 60°/s. Secondary outcomes included body composition, biomarkers (creatine kinase and creatinine), handgrip strength, and quality of life questionnaire.
Results:
Both the intention-to-treat (ITT) and per-protocol (PP) analyses revealed no significant impact of SWP on knee strength compared to the placebo group over 12 weeks. On the other hand, the SWP group had significantly greater increases in right-handgrip strength by 1.94 kg (95% CI: 0.08-3.79; p = 0.041) and left-handgrip strength by 1.83 kg (0.25-3.41; p = 0.024) compared to the placebo group in the ITT population, after 12 weeks. Moreover, in the PP population, the SWP group revealed an even greater increase in right-handgrip strength by 2.07 kg (0.15-3. 98; p = 0.035) and left-handgrip strength by 2.21 kg (0.60-3.83; p = 0.008) for the 12-week period. However, this study resulted in a failure to detect significant differences in the body composition, biomarkers, quality of life questionnaire, physical activity, and caloric intake between the groups. None of the participants in the SWP group experienced any significant adverse events. In the placebo group, two participants experienced urticaria and allergic side effects, leading to their withdrawal from the study and two exhibited elevated levels of liver enzyme and increased diastolic blood pressure, respectively at 12 weeks.
Conclusion:
SWP, in addition to low-intensity exercise, may enhance handgrip strengths in middle-aged and older adults with relatively lower SMM. Future studies need to use a large sample size over longer periods to validate our findings. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04994054.
Recently, chitosan-based biomaterials as carriers are favored by tissue and medical engineering researchers for their excellent physical, chemical and biological properties in promoting cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. The main chain of chitosan is rich in free amino groups, which can be chemically and physically modified to enhance the different properties of carriers, providing more choices for tissue and medical engineering. The research on chitosan-based scaffolds in different tissues of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine has not been fully introduced. Its degradation products will not accumulate in the body, and are non-toxic and immunogenic. They have the functions of antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hemostatic, reducing wound exudation and promoting wound tissue regeneration, repair and healing. At the same time, they can properly stimulate the corresponding functions of the body in specific applications, and will not cause adverse reactions such as inflammation to the human body. Here, the latest progress of chitosan-based biomaterials in the repair and regeneration of different tissues or organs in recent years were reviewed, including the advantages, shortcomings and bottlenecks. It is helpful to puts forward the challenges and prospects for the rapid development of chitosan-based biomaterials in tissue and medical engineering.
To obtain high-quality insect products, milling was used as a modification tool and its effect on grasshopper chitin, chitosan and chitosan films was investigated. Three grasshopper powders were obtained and classified into coarse-milled powder (CMP, D90 = 956 μm), medium-milled powder (MMP, D90 = 492 μm), and ultrafine-milled powder (UMP, D90 = 79.1 μm). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy illustrated that no drastic change due to milling was observed, but the crystallinity (X-ray diffraction) and thermal stability (Thermogravimetric analysis) of the chitin, chitosan and chitosan films reduced with increasing milling intensity. Besides, the purity of the chitin and the yield of chitosan obtained from UMP were improved. Chitosan prepared from UMP was also characterized by high degree of deacetylation (65.6 %) and solubility and rather low molecular weight (11.5 kDa), viscosity and water/fat binding capacity. The finer the powder used as the extraction material, the thinner the chitosan films and the more compact the structure. On the whole, the chitosan films prepared from the MMP had higher mechanical properties and better moisture-keeping ability on strawberries compared with CMP and UMP films. This study establishes the role milling intensity played in the modification of grasshopper products and provides a reference for practical applications.
In the current scenario, it is estimated that by 2050, there will be an additional 2.5 billion people and a 70% increase in food demand. Crop yields are not increasing fast enough to support global needs, and world agriculture is facing several serious challenges. Therefore, insects can be a nutritious alternative to meet the ever-increasing food demand in the present and future. The majority of insect consumption occurs in developing countries, with approximately 1,900 insect species consumed worldwide. Food and feed derived from them are of high quality, have a high feed conversion ratio and emit a low level of greenhouse gases. Among insects silkworms are beneficial to humans, not only because of their high nutritional value, but also because of their several pharmacological properties. Silkworm eggs, larvae, and pupae contains high amount of proteins, oils, minerals, vitamins, and several other beneficial components which are nutritious as well as have positive effect on human health. Studies have shown that silkworm pupae protect the liver, enhance immunity, inhibit apoptosis, inhibit cancer, inhibit tumor growth, inhibit microbial growth, regulate blood glucose and blood lipids, and lower blood pressure. This review paper summerized the nutritional value of different life stages of silkworm, nutritional comparison of silkworm with the major human foods, and the effects of silkworm consumption on human health, thus ittargets to generate interest toward in sericulture and improve human health by using silkworm as a nutritious food and attain sustainability in food and nutritional security.
The green and high-value recycling of shrimp shell and straw remains a worldwide problem. This study aimed to investigate the potential utilization of a fermentation broth (FB) which contains shrimp shell and straw as a new source for preparation of biodegradable films. Aureobasidium pullulans and Photobacterium sp. LYM-1 were used in the fermentation. The cellulase activity was 115.92 U/mL and chitinase activity was 17.89 U/mL in FB. The polysaccharides concentration in FB was 1.05 mg/mL after 7 days of fermentation. An eco-friendly PVA-reinforced FB biodegradable film (FBBF) was successfully prepared and the effect of different plasticizers and surfactants on the mechanical, structural, and impermeability properties of the film was determined. The formation of new bonds between PVA and FB was proved by FTIR spectroscopy. The FBBF containing 0.25 % (w/v) glycerol and 0.01 % (v/v) tween-20 showed better strength properties. Elongation and water-swelling properties were highly improved by adding 0.2 % (m/v) citric acid. According to FE-SEM images, the smooth and tight surface of citric acid added FBBF was observed. Interestingly, the FBBF film showed good heat/moisture capacity, antifungal, and degradation properties. This report reveals a new green, and high-value recycling of straw and shrimp shell by the co-fermentation with A. pullulans and Photobacterium sp. LYM-1. It is also a novel way for the preparation of biodegradable film.
As an alternative chitosan source, edible insects have been proposed as an unconventional but viable option. Taking fly pupae as an example, this work performed chitosan extraction through a traditional chemical method with some modifications, and investigated its physicochemical properties and antimicrobial activity. The results showed that adding 0.5% sodium sulfite (Na2SO3, w/w, Na2SO3/fly pupae) synergized with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for deproteinization was more effective than lye alone. Acid leaching was applied for desalination, and the optimal concentration of hydrochloric acid (HCl) was determined as 2 mol/L by ash content. For decoloration, the optimal decolorization oxidant was sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) with a concentration of 1.0%. For the deacetylation of chitin to chitosan, both the yield and degree of deacetylation (DD) using segmented treatment with alkali-NaOH were higher than those of traditional one-time deacetylation. The established physicochemical properties corresponded with the typical characteristics of chitosan. The determination of antimicrobial activity of chitosan by the turbidimetric method showed that chitosan exhibited notable activity in the order of Staphylococcus aureus > Escherichia coli > Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and this effect decreased with the increase in viscosity-average molecular weight (Mη). These results proved the viability of our improved method for the preparation of chitosan, a valuable antimicrobial agent, using an alternative natural source.
Undesired discharge of various effluents directly into the aquatic ecosystem can adversely affect water quality, endangering aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna. Therefore, the conceptual design and fabrication of a sustainable system for alleviating the harmful toxins that are discharged into the atmosphere and water bodies using a green sustainable approach is a fundamental standpoint. Adsorptive removal of toxins (~99% removal efficacy) is one of the most attractive and facile approaches for cleaner technologies that remediate the environmental impacts and provide a safe operating space. Recently, the introduction of biopolymers for the adsorptive abstraction of toxins from water has received considerable attention due to their eclectic accessibility, biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and enhanced removal efficacy (~ 80-90% for electrospun fibers). This review summarizes the recent literature on the biosorption of various toxins by biopolymers and the possible interaction between the adsorbent and adsorbate, providing an in-depth perspective of the adsorption mechanism. Most of the observed results are explained in terms of (1) biopolymers classification and application, (2) toxicity of various effluents, (3) biopolymers in wastewater treatment and their removal mechanism, and (4) regeneration, reuse, and biodegradation of the adsorbent biopolymer.
Silkworm pupa protein (SPP) that obtained by traditional method usually had a high fat content, which would impose restrictions on the further use of SPP. Herein, various functionalized ionic liquids (ILs) were used to extract SPP from silkworm pupae, the structure-performance relationship of ILs with their SPP separation performance were explored at the same time. The research showed that the maximum extraction yield of SPP was up to 62.6% with less than 0.5% low fat content by using 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([Emim]Cl), when the dissolution experiment was conducted at 90°C for 24 h with ethanol bath as the regeneration solvent. Comparing with the structure of raw material, the regenerated SPP maintained the native protein backbone. Meanwhile, all regenerated SPP showed a decreased crystallinity, which also exhibited decreased fraction of the α-helix comparing to that β-sheet united with coil random structures.
Biopolymers were designed in many formulations to either react by themselves or to be used in gene therapy. The biocompatibility of natural polymers allows cells to infiltrate the matrix and transfection can occur as these cells come into contact with the embedded DNA. The biopolymers contain eight groups based on their chemical structure. The eight types of biopolymers are: nucleic acids (DNA and RNA); polyamides which are polymers containing repeated amide groups; polysaccharides, any of a class of carbohydrates whose molecules contain chains of monosaccharide molecules; organic polyoxoesters; polyisoprenoides; inorganic polymers such as inorganic polyesters with polyphosphate, polyphenols, and polythioesters. Biopolymers have unique properties, which made them the best choice in various applications. They are in most cases, biodegradable, bioavailable, biocompatible, non‐toxic, environmentally friendly, applicable, diverse, and have many other useful properties. They also degrade to safe structures. Most of the biopolymers are produced by plants but some are produced by animals, algae and microbes.
Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) is one of chitosan derivatives which is able to give health benefits as well as antioxidant source. Instead crustacean, silkworm pupa is also an alternative source of chitosan. This experimental study was carried out to find the optimum molarity of NaOH (5 M, 10 M, and 15 M) on alkalization process in CMC silkworm pupa production based on its physicochemical characteristics. The best CMC characteristics were yield about 113.79 %-115.94 %, alkalinity levels about 4.01-4.22, moisture contents about 10.80 %-11.99 %, ash contents about 0.04 %-0.37 %, nitrogen totals about 4.06 %-4.76 %, solubility about 93.39 %-99.28 % and viscosity about 14.22-106.92 mPa.s. These CMC characteristic proved that CMC made from silkworm pupa was high quality which was produced by applying NaOH 10 M in alkalization process.
The study was envisaged to study the relative functional groups of Chitin and chitoson in the peels of waste sources such as egg shells (country chicken and white leghorn), peels of Alium sepa (onion), Alium sativum (garlic), Zingiber officinale (Ginger) and Solanum tuberosum (Potato) to investigate the scope of usage as biomaterial. The percentage of extracted chitin was found to be the highest in the shells of country eggs (1.48g / 2g, 74%) followed by the peels of ginger (1.32g / 2g, 66%), onion (1.28g / 2g, 64%), white leghorn (1.16g / 2g, 58%), Potato (1.14g / 2g, 57%) and garlic (1.10g / 2g, 55%). Similarly, the percentage of deacetylated chitin, chitoson was found to be highest in ginger (0.97g/1g, 97%), shells of country eggs (0.85g / 1g, 85%), onion (0.83g/1g, 83%), shells of white leghorn (0.65g / 1g, 65%), Potato (0.63g / 1g, 63%) and garlic (0.58g / 1g, 58%) respectively. The functional properties of chitin and chitoson were studied by Fourier transform infra red spectroscopy (FTIR). The differences in spectra were observed in form of peak formation due to the shifts in bands. FTIR spectra for the deacetylated chitin showed reduced peaks attributed to loss of acetyl groups. The most pronounced peak reduction was observed in the deacetylated chitin from the peels of ginger and shells of country chicken eggs.
The study was envisaged to study the relative functional groups of Chitin and chitoson in the peels of waste sources such as egg shells (country chicken and white leghorn), peels of Alium sepa (onion), Alium sativum (garlic), Zingiber officinale (Ginger) and Solanum tuberosum (Potato) to investigate the scope of usage as biomaterial. The percentage of extracted chitin was found to be the highest in the shells of country eggs (1.48g / 2g, 74%) followed by the peels of ginger (1.32g / 2g, 66%), onion (1.28g / 2g, 64%), white leghorn (1.16g / 2g, 58%), Potato (1.14g / 2g, 57%) and garlic (1.10g / 2g, 55%). Similarly, the percentage of deacetylated chitin, chitoson was found to be highest in ginger (0.97g/1g, 97%), shells of country eggs (0.85g / 1g, 85%), onion (0.83g/1g, 83%), shells of white leghorn (0.65g / 1g, 65%), Potato (0.63g / 1g, 63%) and garlic (0.58g / 1g, 58%) respectively. The functional properties of chitin and chitoson were studied by Fourier transform infra red spectroscopy (FTIR). The differences in spectra were observed in form of peak formation due to the shifts in bands. FTIR spectra for the deacetylated chitin showed reduced peaks attributed to loss of acetyl groups. The most pronounced peak reduction was observed in the deacetylated chitin from the peels of ginger and shells of country chicken eggs.
The structure of initial and ground samples of chitin and chitosan have been studied using a wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) and sorption of water vapor. To determine the crystallinity degree, an improved WAXS method was used based on the calculation of the relationship between integrated intensities of X-ray diffraction from crystalline and amorphous domains. The calculations revealed that the actual degree of crystallinity of initial chitin was 0.72, and of initial chitosan sample was 0.57. After ball-grinding in a short time, the decrease of the crystallinity degree was observed, whereas the prolonged grinding resulted in complete amorphization of the samples. Sorption of water vapor for chitin, containing hydrophobic acetyl groups was lower than for chitosan, containing hydrophilic groups. The sorption ability of the samples was inversely proportional to their degree of crystallinity. Reduction of the crystallinity degree promoted to the increase in sorption ability of the samples. This evidences that sorption mechanism of water vapor is absorption of the water molecules into amorphous domains of the hydrophilic polymers. The crystallinity degree calculated from results of water vapors sorption was close to the crystallinity degree of the samples obtained by the WAXS method.
Background: A biomaterial used in oral cavity should not become toxic, irritant, carcinogenic, and allergenic. Chitosan represents a new biomaterial in dentistry. Purpose: To examine the toxicity of chitosan from tiger prawn shell waste on cell culture with MTT assay. Methods: Chitosan with concentration of 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1% was used in this experiment. Each sample was immersed on eppendorf microtubes containing media culture. After 24 hours, the immersion of media culture was used to examine the toxicity effects on BHK-21 cell based on MTT assay method. The density of optic formazan indicates the number of living cells. All data were then statistically analyzed by one-way Anava. Results: The number of living cells in chitosan from tiger prawn shell waste was 93.16%; 85.07%; 78.48%; 75.66%. Thus, there was no significant difference among groups. Conclusion: Chitosan with 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1% concentrations from tiger prawn shell waste were not toxic for BHK-21 cell culture when using parameter CD50.
Degree of deacetylation (DD) is one of the main parameters characterizing chitosan. The most precise measurements of DD require sophisticated equipment (NMR spectrometer), not available at many laboratories worldwide working on chitosan. There is a need for low-cost, simple, yet sturdy and reliable methods and procedures for DD determination. The aim of this work was to test and compare - on the same set of chitosan samples - a few of the existing analytical techniques and provide recommendation for selecting DD determination methods. Tests were performed on four chitosans of nominal DD in the range 70 - 95%. Three different methods of titration, two different methods of spectroscopy UV / Vis and infrared spectroscopy using various calculation approaches were used. The results are summarized and compared with values obtained by 1H NMR, considered as the reference method. Moreover, evaluation of the ease of performance and availability of reagents in the given methods was performed. On that basis, recommendations for selection of DD determination methods were formulated.
Deacetylation of chitosan was performed by alkali treatment for different time periods. Degree of deacetylation (DDA) was determined by using FTIR spectrophotometer, potentiometric titration and CHN analyzer. The higher the duration of alkali treatment, the higher was the DDA and lower was the molecular weight. At low crosslinking concentration, the oil loading, loading efficiency and release rate of essential oil from deacetylated chitosan or deacetylated chitosan-gelatin matrix decreased as DDA increased. At higher crosslinker concentration, the trends were opposite. Swelling decreased as DDA increased. SEM study indicated that degree of deacetylation and crosslinking controlled the surface smoothness of the microcapsules.
Deacetylation of chitosan was performed by alkali treatment for different time periods. Degree of deacetylation (DDA) was determined by using FTIR spectrophotometer, potentiometric titration and CHN analyzer. The higher the duration of alkali treatment, the higher was the DDA and lower was the molecular weight. At low crosslinking concentration, the oil loading, loading efficiency and release rate of essential oil from deacetylated chitosan or deacetylated chitosan-gelatin matrix decreased as DDA increased. At higher crosslinker concentration, the trends were opposite. Swelling decreased as DDA increased. SEM study indicated that degree of deacetylation and crosslinking controlled the surface smoothness of the microcapsules.
Predictive microbiology develops mathematical models that can predict the growth rate of a microorganism population under a set of environmental conditions. Many primary growth models have been proposed. However, when primary models are applied to bacterial growth curves, the biological variability is reduced to a single curve defined by some kinetic parameters (lag time and growth rate), and sometimes the models give poor fits in some regions of the curve. The development of a prediction band (from a set of bacterial growth curves) using non-parametric and bootstrap methods permits to overcome that problem and include the biological variability of the microorganism into the modelling process.
Absorbance data from Listeria monocytogenes cultured at 22, 26, 38, and 42 degrees C were selected under different environmental conditions of pH (4.5, 5.5, 6.5, and 7.4) and percentage of NaCl (2.5, 3.5, 4.5, and 5.5). Transformation of absorbance data to viable count data was carried out. A random effect multiplicative heteroscedastic model was considered to explain the dynamics of bacterial growth. The concept of a prediction band for microbial growth is proposed. The bootstrap method was used to obtain resamples from this model. An iterative procedure is proposed to overcome the computer intensive task of calculating simultaneous prediction intervals, along time, for bacterial growth. The bands were narrower below the inflection point (0-8 h at 22 degrees C, and 0-5.5 h at 42 degrees C), and wider to the right of it (from 9 h onwards at 22 degrees C, and from 7 h onwards at 42 degrees C). A wider band was observed at 42 degrees C than at 22 degrees C when the curves reach their upper asymptote. Similar bands have been obtained for 26 and 38 degrees C.
The combination of nonparametric models and bootstrap techniques results in a good procedure to obtain reliable prediction bands in this context. Moreover, the new iterative algorithm proposed in this paper allows one to achieve exactly the prefixed coverage probability for the prediction band. The microbial growth bands reflect the influence of the different environmental conditions on the microorganism behaviour, helping in the interpretation of the biological meaning of the growth curves obtained experimentally.
Chitosan is an organic compound widely used in biomedical and agricultural fields due to its medicinal values. Chitosan is the largest biopolymer after cellulose and it is used as a food supplement as well as a primary health care product. The focus of the present study is to optimize the method for isolation and characterization of chitosan from Omani shrimp shell. The chitosan was isolated chemically from shrimp waste through the chemical processes of demineralization, deproteinization, discoloration and deacetylation. Chitosan isolation was done using hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at various concentrations and temperatures during the demineralization, the deproteinization, and the deacetylation processes. A total of twenty-seven samples were run in triplicate and used to isolate chitin from shrimp shell and then different methods of deacetylation were done to extract chitosan. The research was conducted by changing three variables such as the concentration of acid and base and temperature. The coarse powder shrimp waste samples were demineralized by varying the concentrations ranging from 3 to 9% of HCl and at the temperature range between 25 and 55 °C. The demineralized samples were treated with different concentrations of NaOH ranging from 20 to 60% and at the temperature range from 85 to 110 °C to deproteinize the samples. The optimal method for chitin isolation was selected by using FT-NIR spectroscopy. The optimal experimental conditions according to the present study were 3% HCl at 25 °C for an hour demineralization and 50% NaOH at 110 °C for 3 h deproteinization with a yield of 53.313%. Finally, the isolated chitin was decolorized by treatment with 30% H2O2 for 3 h then deacetylatised with 50% NaOH for 15 min. The weight loss was 0.29 gm/5 gm. In conclusion, shrimp waste could be a natural alternative source for the production of chitin. Furthermore, it could be used in medical, pharmaceutical, and biotechnology sectors.
Biologically active materials and polymeric materials used in tissue engineering have been one of the most attractive research areas in the past decades, especially the use of easily accessible materials from the patients that reduces or eliminates any patient's immune response. In this study, electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds were fabricated by using polyvinyl-alcohol (PVA), chitosan and hydroxyapatite (HA) polymers and platelet-rich plasma (PRP) as a bioactive substance isolated from human blood. Fabricated scaffold's structure and cytotoxicity were evaluated using scanning electron microscope and MTT assays. Scaffolds osteoinductivity was investigated by osteogenic differentiation of the mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) at the in vitro level and then its osteoconductivity was examined by implanting at the critical-sized rat calvarial defect. The in vitro results showed that scaffolds have a good structure and good biocompatibility. Alkaline phosphatase activity, calcium content and gene expression assays were also demonstrated that their highest amount was detected in MSCs-seeded PVA-chitosan-HA(PRP) scaffold. For this reason, this scaffold alone and along with the MSCs was implanted to the animal defects. The in vivo results demonstrated that in the animals implanted with PVA-chitosan-HA(PRP), the defect was repaired to a good extent, but in those animals that received MSCs-seeded PVA-chitosan-HA(PRP), the defects was almost filled. It can be concluded that, PVA-chitosan-HA(PRP) alone or when stem cells cultured on them, has a great potential to use as an effective bone implant.
The present work aimed to compare the physicochemical, rheological, and morphologic properties of chitosan extracted from cicada slough, silkworm chrysalis, mealworm, grasshopper and shrimp shells. The physicochemical properties including solubility, fat binding capacity, water binding capacity, ash, viscosity average molecular weight and moisture content of them were determined. The characterization results showed that insect chitosan was quite different from shrimp shell chitosan including thermal stability, rheological characteristics and surface morphology. Crystallinity index values of chitosan from cicada slough, silkworm chrysalis, mealworm, grasshopper and shrimp shells were observed to be 64.8%, 32.9%, 51.9%, 50.1% and 49.1%, respectively. The crystallinity indices of shrimp shell, mealworm and grasshopper chitosan were very close to each other. Flow behavior revealed that chitosan from four insects exhibited the lower viscosity than shrimp shell chitosan. According to dynamic oscillatory analysis, insect chitosan revealed lower modulus values than shrimp shell chitosan. Each of them had a novel structure and different morphologic properties. These results will contribute to increasing potential application of insect chitosan in food and pharmaceutical industries.
In this research, sustainable and green bioproducts with controlled sorption and good mechanical properties have been developed from chitosan for commercial applications. Addition of citric acid, a biocompatible crosslinker, and later treating with alkali imparts excellent tensile strength and aqueous stability to the chitosan films. Films were developed from chitosan and studied for their sorption capabilities, mechanical properties, oxygen/water vapour transmission rates and antimicrobial abilities. Moisture sorption of up to 1466% based on the dry weight of chitosan was seen when the films were untreated. However, treating the films with alkali decreased their water sorption to 100-250% and made the films resistant even to boiling water. Modified chitosan could be moulded into various forms and made into bioproducts that could replace plastic based materials. The chitosan bioproducts developed have the potential to replace plastic based products and will help to provide a greener alternative for the plastic based commodity products in current use.
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of oil from silkworm pupae was firstly performed in the present research. The response surface methodology was applied to optimize the parameters for MAE. The yield of oil by MAE was 30.16% under optimal conditions of a mixed solvent consisting of ethanol and n-hexane (1:1, v/v), microwave power (360 W), liquid to solid ratio (7.5/1 mL/g), microwave time (29 min). Moreover, oil extracted by MAE was quantitatively (yield) and qualitatively (fatty acid profile) similar to those obtained using Soxhlet extraction (SE), but oil extracted by MAE exhibited favourable physicochemical properties and oxidation stability. Additionally, oil extracted by MAE had a higher content of total phenolic, and it showed stronger antioxidant activities. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that microwave technique efficiently promoted the release of oil by breaking down the cell structure of silkworm pupae. Therefore, MAE can be an effective method for the silkworm pupal oil extraction.
Chitin and chitosan were produced from the structures of the resting eggs of Ceriodaphnia quadrangula (Müller, 1785), of which tons are naturally produced in a dammed lake. On a dry weight basis, 16-17% chitin and 11% chitosan were extracted from the resting egg structures. The degree of deacetylation of the extracted chitosan was determined to be 80%. The produced chitin and chitosan materials were characterized using FT-IR, TGA, XRD and SEM. The crystalline index value of the chitin was measured as 74%. DTGmax values of chitin and chitosan were determined to be 381°C and 300°C, respectively. Based on a review of surface morphology, it was observed that both chitin and chitosan consist of nanofibre structures. We take the advantage of the excessive resting eggs production in adverse condition in the lake to produce an economically feasible source of chitin and chitosan. We conclude that α-chitin and chitosan produced from resting eggs of C. quadrangula can be used as an alternative source of these materials.
The egg-shells of 2 silkworm species, Bombyx mandarina (Bombycidae) and Antheraea mylitta (Saturniidae), were studied for the nature and chemical properties of their structural proteins, as a supplementary experiment to our previous work in which the shells of 6 silkworm species, 1 from Bombycidae and 5 from Saturniidae, were examined.The egg-shell of B. mandarina contained 3 structural proteins, proteins I, II, and III, in an approximate ratio of 79 : 16 : 5, whereas that of A. mylitta did not contain protein II at all and consisted of proteins I and III, their ratio being about 95 : 5. The 2 proteins I resembled each other and also the proteins I of the previous work in amino-acid composition and in electrophoretic mobility. Protein II was similar to that of B. mori, but the proteins III differed significantly from each other and from those obtained previously.Additional information was thus given by the present work as to the chemical organization of the silkworm egg-shells, indicating that the presence or absence of protein II may be a general difference between the shells of the 2 families, and that a marked species difference also exists in the fractions of the minor structural protein (III) in the family Bombycidae.
Chitin, extracted from silkworm chrysalides, was employed for the production of a high purity and porous chitosan, as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Chitin and chitosan produced were characterized by infrared (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR) spectroscopy, thermal analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and SEM. Two methods of chitin and chitosan extractions were investigated and compared, and although these were of high purity, the yield of chitin and chitosan were low if compared with the chitin and chitosan produced from crustacean shells. The yield of chitosan production by chitin deacetylation or degree of deacetylation (DD) was an average 83%. The molecular weight (MW) was determined by viscosimetric methods.
Chitin, extracted from silkworm chrysalides, was employed for the production of a high-purity and porous chitosan, as observed by scanning electron microscopy. Chitin and the chitosan produced from it were also analysed using 13C NMR spectroscopy to show the efficiency of deacetylation. The extracted chitin was investigated as an adsorbent material for aluminium removal from textile wastewater, by the column chromatographic method. After the treatment, the residual aluminium was lower than the limitation criterion of 0.2 mg L−1. The isotherms of adsorption on chitin and chitosan surfaces were investigated and the best fits were observed using the Freundlich isotherm. At pH 5.0, the maximum adsorption capacity was 21.3 mg of aluminium per gram of chitosan over 70 h of experiments. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry
Eri silkworm (Samia ricinii) is a traditional source of food in northeast India, where it is grown primarily for silk and food uses. Nutrient analysis showed that the proximate composition of eri silkworm prepupae and pupae grown on either castor or tapioca were comparable and it was a good source of protein (16 g%), fat (8 g%) and minerals. The amino acid scores of eri prepupae and pupae protein were 99 and 100, respectively, with leucine as the limiting amino acid in both cases. Net protein utilisation (NPU) of prepupae and pupae was 41 as compared to 62 in casein. Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) was 86. The high protein content in the defatted eri silkworm meal (75%) with 44% total essential amino acids makes it an ideal candidate for preparing protein concentrate isolates with enhanced protein quality that can be used in animal nutrition.Highlights► Eri silkworm is a good source of protein (16 g%), fat (8 g%) and minerals. ► Amino acid score of eri silkworm was 99 with leucine as the limiting amino acid. ► Net protein utilisation (NPU) of eri silkworm was 41 with PDCAAS of 86. ► Defatted eri silkworm meal is an ideal candidate for preparing protein concentrate.
Different molecular weight (MW) chitosans (5.5×104 to 15.5×104 Da) with the same degree of deacetylation (80%±0.29), were obtained by the method of acetic acid hydrolysis. The effect of antimicrobial activities of chitosan and acetic acid against Escherichia coli were investigated. All of the chitosan samples with MW from 5.5×104 to 15.5×104 Da had antimicrobial activities at the concentrations higher than 200 ppm. The growth of E. coli was promoted at concentration lower than 200 ppm. The antibacterial activity of chitosan had relationship to the MW at the concentration range from 50 to 100 ppm. The antibacterial activity of low MW chitosan is higher than that of the high MW samples. But the chitosan sample with the middle MW (9.0×104 Da) could promote the growth of bacteria. In the different stages of cultivation, the earlier chitosan was added the greater effect it did. And the mechanism of antibacterial activity was that E. coli was flocculated.
Chitin samples in a alpha-form structure were isolated from beetle larva cuticle and silkworm (Bombyx mori) pupa exuvia by treatment with 1 N HCl and 1 N NaOH. Chitosan was prepared by treating them in 40% NaOH containing NaBH(4). Chitin and chitosan were analyzed by X-ray, [13C]CP/MAS NMR, [13C]FT-NMR, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) methods. Insect chitin degraded more readily than shrimp chitin when treated with 6 N HCl and the enzyme-chitinase. After treatment with 2 N HCl at 100 degrees C, the insect chitin crystallinity increased. N-deacetylation of insect chitin was easier than that of crustaceous chitin, and about 94% of the N-acetyl groups were removed in one treatment with 40% NaOH for 4 h at 110 degrees C. After treatment with 2 N HCl, 55% of the N-acetyl groups of silkworm chitin were removed under the same conditions. Beetle chitin showed a higher affinity for chitinase than shrimp chitin.
In this contribution, maximum capacity for adsorption of Pb(2+), Ni(2+), and Cu(2+) by silkworm chrysalides (SC) was determined. The raw silkworm chrysalides (SC(r)) and chrysalides after acidic washing (SC(w)) were used. Chitin (CT), extracted from SC, and chitosan (CS), with 85% deacetylation, were employed as reference samples. Adsorption tests showed that all the studied adsorbents exhibited excellent performance in removal of metals. The choice of a more appropriate adsorbent is related to its efficiency for removal of a specific metal. The studied materials presented different intensities for metal adsorption as follows: (i) Ni(2+)>Cu(2+)>Pb(2+) for SC(r); (ii) Pb(2+)>Cu(2+)>Ni(2+) for SC(w); (iii) Ni(2+)>Cu(2+)>Pb(2+) for CT; and (iv) Cu(2+)>Pb(2+)>Ni(2+) for CS. Metal adsorption onto SC(r) and CS was analyzed by Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm equations. Adsorption values for CS-Pb and SC(r)-Ni were provided by the Freundlich model, while the adsorption values for CS-Cu, CS-Ni, SC(r)-Pb, and SC(r)-Cu were provided by the Langmuir model. The studied adsorbents are suitable for use in treatment of wastewater. From the economic point of view, the use of SC(r) as an adsorbent of heavy metals (mainly Ni(2+)) on the large industrial scale would be more appropriate.
Schiff bases of chitosan, N-substituted chitosan, and quaternized chitosan were synthesized and their antifungal properties were analyzed against Botrytis cinerea Pers. (B. cinerea pers.) and Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass) Ell.et halst (C. lagenarium (Pass) Ell.et halst) based on the method of D. Jasso de Rodriguez and co-workers. The results showed that quaternized chitosan had better inhibitory properties than chitosan, Schiff bases of chitosan, and N-substituted chitosan. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Amount of chitin, chitosan and chitosan based on chitin weight in pure races of multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm pupae Bombyxmori L
- Suresh
H.N. Suresh, C.A. MahalingamPallavi, Amount of chitin, chitosan and chitosan based
on chitin weight in pure races of multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm pupae
Bombyxmori L, Int J Sci Nat. 3 (2012) 214-216.
Amount of chitin, chitosan and chitosan based on chitin weight in pure races of multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm pupae Bombyxmori l
- Mahesh
In vivo antibacterial effect of chitosan against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus thuringiensis and its impact on economic parameters of silkworm, Bombyxmori. L
- PriyadharshiniPachiappan
Structure of oak silkworm egg shell and it’s relation to trichogrammatid parasitism
- Hsia
Amount of chitin, chitosan and chitosan based on chitin weight in pure races of multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm pupae Bombyxmori l
- D S Mahesh
- B S Vidhathri
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