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Beach-user perceptions and attitudes towards drone surveillance as a shark-bite mitigation tool
Abstract
Management of human-wildlife conflict is often challenging and complex, particularly when the conflict involves sharks. New technologies are being trialled in New South Wales, on Australia's east coast, to accommodate the community demand for increased beach-user protection that does not harm marine wildlife. Drones (or unmanned aerial vehicles), are one of a suite of potential tools that can address both these demands. We released an online survey to assess beach-user perceptions and attitudes toward drones on NSW beaches as a shark surveillance tool. From 439 respondents, we found the use of drones on coastal beaches was accepted by the majority of people surveyed (88%) due to perceptions of reduced impact on sharks, and the relatively low cost. Drone surveillance was also the preferred approach for bather protection overall. Arguably the most vulnerable beach-user group for a shark bite incident, surfers, claimed the highest level of awareness of the use of drones for shark surveillance, but also indicated lower confidence in their utility compared to other groups. The study demonstrates an overall social licence regarding the use of drones for shark surveillance purposes, with the levels of support likely to increase with further public education efforts and improvements to the efficacy of drone-based surveillance.
... In terms of geographic coverage, Abreo et al. (2023) and Stokes et al. (2020) demonstrate that UAVs can cover wide areas easily, which is particularly beneficial in environmental studies for tasks like marine litter data collection and wildlife conflict management as mentioned in Table 6. This broad coverage is essential for comprehensive environmental monitoring. ...
... In terms of geographic coverage, Abreo et al. (2023) and Stokes et al. (2020) demonstrate that UAVs can cover wide areas easily, which is particularly beneficial in environmental studies for tasks like marine litter data collection and wildlife conflict management. This broad coverage is essential for comprehensive environmental monitoring as mentioned in Table 6. ...
... Geographic coverage Covers wide areas easily Abreo et al. (2023), Stokes et al. (2020) Data resolution High resolution with photogrammetry and imaging capabilities Lim et al. (2022), Shao et al. (2021) Speed of data collection Fast and efficient, collecting data in a short time Azmi et al. (2020), Sylverken et al. (2022) Operational cost High initial cost for equipment but efficient in the long run Kleinschroth et al. (2022), Vilbig et al. (2020) Access to difficult areas Easily accesses difficult and hazardous areas Lewińska et al. (2022), Carmona et al. (2020) Multidimensional data collection ...
Objective
This study highlights the transformative impact of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in social sciences, revealing their growing importance across methodologies and ethical considerations. Initially prominent in military use, UAVs now significantly benefit civilian and academic domains, including anthropology, geography, and archaeology. A comprehensive literature review assesses UAV integration into these fields, emphasizing innovative applications and case studies that demonstrate their value in enhancing data collection and research capabilities. UAVs’ ability to gather detailed, wide‐ranging geographical information efficiently underscores their methodological revolution in social science research. This paper underscores UAVs’ potential for deeper analysis and the ethical challenges they pose, forecasting their profound effect on future research trends by marrying technological advances with ethical mindfulness. In moving forward, this study advocates for interdisciplinary collaborations and the development of robust ethical frameworks to maximize the benefits of UAVs while mitigating potential risks, paving the way for their responsible and impactful application in social science research.
... There was very strong support for the use of drone surveillance for shark mitigation, which aligns with findings of a similar study on beachgoer attitudes to drone shark surveillance [68]. Drones have substantial potential in effectively detecting and monitoring ocean wildlife, and their efficacy is demonstrated in various studies [9,30,32,53,59]. ...
... Overall, drones are a useful, non-invasive mitigation tool for localised patrolling of beaches and surf zones, to increase protection of beachgoers (especially surfers) from potential encounters with sharks. However, surfers can have lower confidence in the efficacy of drones as a shark mitigation tool compared to other beach and ocean users [68]. ...
... There are some concerns about the use of drones at beaches, due to loss of privacy, the potential for operator misuse, and the malfunction of drones and/or operator error causing injury to beachgoers, which is consistent with findings of similar research on drone surveillance at beaches by Stokes et al. [68] and Shekari [60]. However, fully trained drone pilots and comprehensive operating protocols reduces this risk. ...
The future of shark mitigation worldwide, not only depends on economic and environmental considerations but on community support and acceptance of mitigation approaches. Shark mitigation strategies and policy development based on publicly held values in combination with expert knowledge is more likely to be supported and accepted by the public and society in general. In 2015, the New South Wales (NSW) government implemented a five-year Shark Management Strategy (SMS) to trial new and emerging technologies following a cluster of shark bites in 2014 and 2015 (including fatalities); most notably on the NSW north coast. The strategy aimed to increase protection of beachgoers while minimising harm to sharks and other marine animals. This paper synthesises various SMS-related social research studies to generate knowledge and improve understanding of community attitudes, support and preferences for different shark mitigation approaches trialled in the SMS. Our findings show non-invasive mitigation approaches involving shark detection and tracking, and public notifications were supported and preferred over invasive and/or lethal approaches such as nets. Drone surveillance was very highly supported (and preferred over helicopters) for being localised, having the capacity to be incorporated into beach safety operations, and with future potential for automation and the use of artificial intelligence to increase detection capability. Community education was seen as a fundamental component of shark mitigation to help people increase their ability to take personal responsibility for their own safety, improve public knowledge and understanding of sharks, and to mitigate fear; ultimately, to foster coexistence without jeopardising public safety.
... When shark bites occur, authorities may respond with a range of management strategies that vary in their social and environmental impacts [21,33,35]. Different in-water and out-of-water approaches to reducing the risk of shark bites have real and perceived strengths and weaknesses concerning invasiveness [6,7] to marine life, economic costs, and 'effectiveness' of mitigation [33,35]. ...
... When shark bites occur, authorities may respond with a range of management strategies that vary in their social and environmental impacts [21,33,35]. Different in-water and out-of-water approaches to reducing the risk of shark bites have real and perceived strengths and weaknesses concerning invasiveness [6,7] to marine life, economic costs, and 'effectiveness' of mitigation [33,35]. Individuals and communities differ in their attitudes to living with and managing other species. ...
... Conflicts arise when subsections of the community differ in attitudes to the acceptability of approaches to management [38]. For authorities, managing human-wildlife conflict is a 'juggling act' ( [35], 7) that 'becomes a process of mediating between stakeholder tolerance and wildlife persistence' ( [13], p. 143). ...
Little is known about relationships between features of shark-human interactions and community expectations of authorities to respond. Previous research reports attitudes to wildlife management are influenced by context. This study comprised three phases. Phase one analysed social media related to shark management, identifying five commonly discussed variables in shark-human interaction contexts likely to influence attitudes towards management response. These context variables were: Level of human use of location; recency of other bites at the location; activity of victim; time of day; severity of harm to victim. Phase two used focus groups with ocean users to validate the Phase one context variables, and refine scenarios and management response options for Phase three, an experimental survey measuring the influence of context variables on New South Wales ocean user attitudes to management responses. The article focuses on Phase three, which randomly assigned participants (N = 1769) one of 48 shark-human interaction scenarios comprising different manipulations of the five context variables. Participants rated support for 20 shark management response options. Contrary to expectations, context variables did not influence attitudes to shark management responses. There was almost unanimous support for education and research as preferred response to managing risk from sharks, and little support for invasive strategies perceived to harm marine life, such as shark nets and drumlines. Support for shark management responses decreased as invasiveness of the response increased. The findings reflect community dislike of 'knee-jerk' policy making, indicating that attitudes to shark management are relatively stable, and do not fluctuate in response to specific incidents.
... For example, the South African Shark Spotters program relies on spotters using binoculars positioned on high-elevation terrain adjacent to beaches to observe sharks 24,25 . Aerial patrols using helicopters, although used more widely, are costly 26 , provide only short-term coverage with relatively low shark spotting rates (below 20%) and questionable effectiveness 23 . Drones are an emerging technique that have been shown to be effective for monitoring large marine fauna off coastal beaches 26 . ...
... Aerial patrols using helicopters, although used more widely, are costly 26 , provide only short-term coverage with relatively low shark spotting rates (below 20%) and questionable effectiveness 23 . Drones are an emerging technique that have been shown to be effective for monitoring large marine fauna off coastal beaches 26 . Other systems rely on a combination of shark tagging and subsequent detection on acoustic listening stations, and others on the ability of sonar arrays to determine a target shark has been observed and an alert emitted locally and broadcast via web and social media platforms 22 . ...
... Other systems rely on a combination of shark tagging and subsequent detection on acoustic listening stations, and others on the ability of sonar arrays to determine a target shark has been observed and an alert emitted locally and broadcast via web and social media platforms 22 . Social acceptance is key to the success of any approach and there is emerging social support for non-lethal detection and surveillance technologies for shark hazard mitigation 22,26 . Innovative solutions are therefore required to minimise environmental impact and maximise risk reduction. ...
Conflict between humans and large predators is a longstanding challenge that can present negative consequences for humans and wildlife. Sharks have a global distribution and are considered to pose a potential threat to humans; concurrently many shark species are themselves threatened. Developing strategies for coexistence between humans and this keystone group is imperative. We assess blimp surveillance as a technique to simply and effectively reduce shark encounters at ocean beaches and determine the social acceptance of this technique as compared to an established mitigation strategy—shark meshing. We demonstrate the suitability of blimps for risk mitigation, with detection probabilities of shark analogues by professional lifeguards of 0.93 in ideal swimming conditions. Social surveys indicate strong social acceptance of blimps and preference for non-lethal shark mitigation. We show that continuous aerial surveillance can provide a measurable reduction in risk from sharks, improving beach safety and facilitating coexistence between people and wildlife.
... In this category are also studies that place some focus on injuries caused to people and damaged infrastructure Packer et al., 2019;Pooley et al., 2021). The ability of people in the local community to move around freely and undertake everyday-or leisure activities in the physical environment may also be impacted to avoid risk Stokes et al., 2020). Local communities, including crop-and livestock farmers are thereby central actors in HWC, defined in the literature by their activities (Fig. 6A). ...
... Among these, 7 described the occurrence of contrasted attitudes and rhetoric towards controversial wildlife species or management methods among members of the public (Auster et al., 2020a;Draheim et al., 2019;van Eeden et al., 2021;Perez et al., 2021;Tan et al., 2020;Van Herzele and Aarts, 2019;Villatoro et al., 2019). Eight studies focused on the occurrence of contrasted views and attitudes towards wildlife and management interventions among members of the local community, who live closer to wildlife Laverty et al., 2019;Mitchell et al., 2019;Meena et al., 2020;Merkebu and Yazezew, 2021;Perry et al., 2020a;Stokes et al., 2020). Three papers studied attitudes of specific human groups that could be described as stakeholders in the wildlife context: intra-organisational attitudes towards macaques among forest department personnel (Anand and Radhakrishna, 2020), attitudes towards intervention priorities for various wildlife species among conservation practitioners (Baynham-Herd et al., 2020), and diverging farmer attitudes towards bears (Escobar-Lasso et al., 2020). ...
Co-occurrence of humans and wildlife leads to interactions with potential positive or negative outcomes for the human actors and for the wild animals. It may also lead to positive or negative interactions between various human actors, who perceive the wildlife or wildlife conservation and management similarly or in different ways. The description of negative interactions as Human Wildlife Conflicts (HWC) is criticised as too imprecise, and a distinction to differentiate between wildlife “impacts”, from social “conflicts” has previously been suggested. In this review paper, most reviewed studies within HWC are identified as dealing with “impacts” (n = 156), while a smaller number of papers are focusing on the social conflicts (n = 45). Illustrated by this sample of HWC literature, the concept of HWC is disentangled based on the Human-Environment Interaction Model and Appraisal Theory of Emotion. The framework can provide a structure for understanding the HWC-situation where various actors relate to the wild animals or local activities as part of the physical environment, and other actors as part of the social environment, within the multiuse landscape in which they perform their activities. The discussion provides insight to the internal psychological process as the situation is appraised by the individual actor for the relevance and implications it has to individual goals. A framework for appraising the situation of others can facilitate understanding and empathy between actors, important for future co-existence and sustainable conservation of wildlife in multiuse landscapes.
... • Aerial photographyacquiring high quality images or video for a number of different interests including ceremonies, events [20], tourism [20], real estate [21], crime scene forensics [22], wildlife/nature documentaries [23], or live streaming. A platform that can fly slowly, equipped with an optical daylight camera are essential for this usage category. ...
... Additionally, there are some surveys that look at singular cases of drone usage to address a particular issue. For example, Stokes et al. (Australia, 2020) surveyed 439 beach-users to determine attitudes towards drone usage for shark surveillance and found that 88% of the public was supportive of drone use for this application [23]. A survey such as this mirrors the characteristics of public interest missions where benefits to society are emphasized. ...
The aviation industry has seen a lot of innovation over the last 125 years. Advancements such as transatlantic flight and the development of avionics technologies and composite materials have changed how we think about what the future will hold. Advanced aviation technologies such as remotely piloted aircraft systems (i.e., "drones") and urban air mobility may be the next revolution in the aviation industry. While many in the aviation industry look forward to greater inclusion of these technologies, the public may have a different perspective. This review aims to examine the factors that may influence one's perception of advanced aviation technologies. First, an overview of the technologies is presented to categorize the different types of drones and how they are used, followed by a discussion on the principles of technological adoption. Next, data from past studies investigating the public perception of drones and air taxis was collected and analyzed to discover if any patterns exist in terms of overall acceptance or mission preferences, and to determine the root causes of hesitancy towards this emerging technology. The trends suggest that drones have become increasingly accepted as public awareness rises, and missions that support the common good are viewed more favourably than commercial uses such as package delivery or air taxi services. The major obstacles include the perceived level of risk, pre-existing judgement as to the technological reliability, as well as the lack of perceived benefits when compared to existing technologies. Each of these topics are discussed and finally, a roadmap towards public acceptance is presented, incorporating the viewpoints of the public, drone users, and regulatory authorities. Together, this review discusses the current state of the field and what must be done to better integrate advanced aviation technologies into everyday life.
... Readily accessible UAVs have the capacity to autonomously follow fixed search patterns and can deliver high-resolution imagery in post and real-time, which is often crucial for making robust fauna identifications and assessments (Burke et al., 2019;Colefax et al., 2019). Indeed shark-spotting from drones is the current publicly preferred shark-bite mitigation option in New South Wales, Australia, and has already achieved baseline success as a management strategy at several beaches Colefax et al., 2019;Stokes et al., 2020). ...
... Maintaining positive public perceptions of shark surveillance is paramount for successful implementation and continued operation as a mitigation strategy (Liordos et al., 2017;Stokes et al., 2020). There are potential consequences for human safety and subsequent public perception in the event of an undetected or misclassified target shark. ...
Over the last five years remotely piloted drones have become the tool of choice to spot potentially dangerous sharks in New South Wales, Australia. They have proven to be a more effective, accessible and cheaper solution compared to crewed aircraft. However, the ability to reliably detect and identify marine fauna is closely tied to pilot skill, experience and level of fatigue. Modern computer vision technology offers the possibility of improving detection reliability and even automating the surveillance process in the future. In this work we investigate the ability of commodity deep learning algorithms to detect marine objects in video footage from drones, with a focus on distinguishing between shark species. This study was enabled by the large archive of video footage gathered during the NSW Department of Primary Industries Drone Trials since 2016. We used this data to train two neural networks, based on the ResNet-50 and MobileNet V1 architectures, to detect and identify ten classes of marine object in 1080p resolution video footage. Both networks are capable of reliably detecting dangerous sharks: 80% accuracy for RetinaNet-50 and 78% for MobileNet V1 when tested on a challenging external dataset, which compares well to human observers. The object detection models correctly detect and localise most objects, produce few false-positive detections and can successfully distinguish between species of marine fauna in good conditions. We find that shallower network architectures, like MobileNet V1, tend to perform slightly worse on smaller objects, so care is needed when selecting a network to match deployment needs. We show that inherent biases in the training set have the largest effect on reliability. Some of these biases can be mitigated by pre-processing the data prior to training, however, this requires a large store of high resolution images that supports augmentation. A key finding is that models need to be carefully tuned for new locations and water conditions. Finally, we built an Android mobile application to run inference on real-time streaming video and demonstrated a working prototype during fields trials run in partnership with Surf Life Saving NSW.
... Such species-specific information on behaviour can enhance our success of identifying and tracking sharks under different environmental conditions. Currently, drones are one socially preferred method for assisting shark bite mitigation through hazard reduction, along with other monitoring techniques, particularly compared with cull-based strategies [41]. This is despite a sentiment of concern around the reliability of detection during unfavourable weather conditions, and the ability to effectively discriminate between shark species by the pilots. ...
... In addition, drone-based surveillance can potentially provide opportunistically collected data to conservation agencies as a by-product [28,42,43]. With further research and development, the utility of drone-based surveillance will further increase, as should public perceptions, particularly if operations remain incident-free [41]. ...
Over the past decade, drones have become a popular tool for wildlife management and research. Drones have shown significant value for animals that were often difficult or dangerous to study using traditional survey methods. In the past five years drone technology has become commonplace for shark research with their use above, and more recently, below the water helping to minimise knowledge gaps about these cryptic species. Drones have enhanced our understanding of shark behaviour and are critically important tools, not only due to the importance and conservation of the animals in the ecosystem, but to also help minimise dangerous encounters with humans. To provide some guidance for their future use in relation to sharks, this review provides an overview of how drones are currently used with critical context for shark monitoring. We show how drones have been used to fill knowledge gaps around fundamental shark behaviours or movements, social interactions, and predation across multiple species and scenarios. We further detail the advancement in technology across sensors, automation, and artificial intelligence that are improving our abilities in data collection and analysis and opening opportunities for shark-related beach safety. An investigation of the shark-based research potential for underwater drones (ROV/AUV) is also provided. Finally, this review provides baseline observations that have been pioneered for shark research and recommendations for how drones might be used to enhance our knowledge in the future.
... Within the general field of safety and emergencies, the use of drones has been explored, particularly for search and rescue applications [11,12], such as shark sightings from the shore [13,14], distress in athletics competitions [15], beach usage [16], and crowd control [17]. In Spain, a highly tourist-dependent country, rescue drones can be implemented for surveillance, and search and rescue tasks along its 5978 km of coastline. ...
... Finally, in a study on the acceptance of the use of drones for sharkbite mitigation, it was found to be more widely accepted among surfers, as they were the ones who frequented the beach more than any others [14]. In this study, we analyzed the frequency of beach use, to ascertain whether frequent beachgoers would show greater willingness to accept the use of drones as technological lifeguards. ...
The use of rescue drones is expected to increase in forthcoming years. However, the success of their implementation through different applications will depend on public acceptance. Studies to date have analyzed public support for the use of drones with various applications, although public acceptance of drones in specific contexts remains to be explored. In particular, the use of drones for beach rescues has proven beneficial in reducing response times, thus helping to save lives. In this study, we analyze the public acceptance of lifesaving drones and their associated variables. Data collected from a survey of beach users (N = 3363) for this study are used to measure public acceptance of rescue drones. We found that public acceptance of rescue drones is moderate, with approximately half of all participants accepting their use. In terms of influencing variables, we found that the factors most associated with their use are 'perceived benefits' and 'perceived risks'. We also found that the participants from beaches without lifeguard services were more likely to accept the use of rescue drones. These results initiated a discussion on the variables that are associated with the public acceptance in the specific context of lifesaving. In addition, based on the results of this study, we propose implementation plans for rescue drones that might also include public information campaigns on their benefits for beach users.
... Single-study regions such as Sweden and the Dominican Republic hint at the emerging recognition of drones' potential within their research communities, setting the stage for expanded use in the future (Stokes et al. 2020;Vanderhorst et al. 2021). The global proliferation of drone technology also signifies its increasing affordability, thus fostering its accessibility for a broader demographic of researchers and studies. ...
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or drones, are transforming social science research by introducing innovative methodologies for data collection and analysis. This study systematically reviews the last two decades of literature to evaluate the role of UAVs across various social science disciplines, including archaeology, geography, public health, and disaster management. The analysis reveals that UAVs significantly enhance research capabilities by improving data accuracy, resolution, and accessibility, particularly in remote or challenging environments. Despite these advancements, challenges such as privacy concerns, ethical considerations, and technical limitations persist. The study underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration and the development of ethical frameworks to guide UAV integration in social sciences. The findings advocate for the continued exploration of UAV technology to address existing challenges and expand its applications, paving the way for future research that can further enhance the impact of UAVs on social science methodologies.
... • Limited autonomy: Previous research focused on UAS systems that had limited autonomous capabilities, requiring significant human intervention and control. This limitation hampers the efficiency and effectiveness of surveillance operations [27]. • Inadequate object detection accuracy: Previous studies struggled to achieve high accuracy in detecting and classifying objects in real-time scenarios. ...
Uninhabited Aerial System (UAS), or drones, are aircraft that could be remotely controlled and managed by a person or
have varying techniques, like autopilot support, and even fully autonomous modes that do not require human intervention.
In this paper, the drone can be remotely controlled and used for spying, among other things. The Pixhawk fight controller, combined with a transmitter and a receiver to transmit and receive radio signals for the drone’s remote control, makes
up the brains of the drone. The main components of this system are accompanied by four propellers for fight. The use of
an electronic speed controller (ESC) has been implemented to control and regulate the drone’s speed. Moreover, a lithium
polymer battery has been used to power up the drone. As previously indicated, the installation of the ESP Camera module
to this drone has been implemented, which will be utilized for live footage taken throughout its fight and to be able to relay
that footage to the user. The footage is analyzed for image processing and identifying objects in the video using the latest
You Only Look Once (YOLO) algorithm as surveillance is the primary function of this system.
... First, the methods used in this study could be readily adopted by California lifeguard agencies to monitor their beaches for shark activity. The New South Wales territory in Australia has developed a Shark Smart program that surveys local beaches in a similar fashion [46,97,98]. Using these methods, they can identify hotspots of shark activity at their beaches. ...
Juvenile white sharks (JWS) of the Northeastern Pacific population are present in nearshore southern California waters and form mixed size class (~1.5–3 m) aggregations for weeks to months, often within 500 m of shore. These nearshore beach habitats are heavily used for human recreation (e.g., surfing, swimming, body boarding, wading, and standup paddleboarding) and the amount of spatio-temporal overlap between JWS and humans is currently unknown. Increases in human population and the Northeastern Pacific population of white sharks have raised concern over human beach safety. To determine spatio-temporal JWS-human overlap at various spatial scales (e.g., across the entire southern California coastline, across different distances from shore, and within specific beach locations), 26 beach locations across southern California were surveyed monthly resulting in 1644 aerial drone surveys between January 2019 to March 2021. Thirteen environmental variables were assessed to predict when spatio-temporal overlap between JWS and water users was highest. Coast-wide distribution of JWS was clumped, limiting human-shark co-occurrence to specific locations, with 1096 of 1204 JWS observations occurring at Carpinteria and Del Mar Beach locations. Nearshore distribution indicated JWS are often close enough to the wave break to interact with some water users (median = 101 m, range = 2–702 m), although JWS had the most spatial overlap with stand-up paddlers. Daily human-shark co-occurrence was 97% at beaches where JWS aggregations had formed, and human activity showed high spatial overlap at shark aggregation sites. Although there is higher seasonal human-shark spatio-temporal overlap where aggregations form in southern California, the number of unprovoked shark bites across southern California is extremely low. This study provides evidence that high human-shark spatio-temporal overlap does not lead to an increased bite frequency in southern California, and there are a number of possible explanations as to why JWS are not biting water users despite daily encounters.
... In time-sensitive coastal emergencies, drones can be deployed instantaneously to aid in activities like aquatic search and rescue (Burke et al., 2019; Del-Real and Díaz-Fernández, 2021), sharks tracking for coastal recreation risk assessment (Stokes et al., 2020), or monitoring water quality emergencies such as oil spills and harmful algal blooms (Filippi et al., 2021;Windle and Silsbe, 2021). As these emergencies dynamically unfold, drones are ideally suited to capture relevant data, allowing relevant authorities to act on timely data-driven decisions. ...
Coasts are undeniably regions of critical importance for a range of environmental, sociocultural, and economic reasons. Yet they are also areas of intense anthropogenic impact and are particularly susceptible to climate change-related concerns. As such, it is imperative that we have the means to monitor and manage them in a sustainable manner. Drone technology has emerged as providing a unique value proposition in coastal environments to support data-driven monitoring and management decisions. With their highly detailed data capture capability, drones are particularly well suited to map the spatial heterogeneity, structural complexity, and temporally dynamic nature of coasts. Further, they are readily accessible to coastal populations and can promote grassroots action by the very people whose lives and livelihoods the coasts support. Herein, we cover several of the leading innovations in using aerial drones to map coastal ecosystems. We then consider how general trends and technology projections including artificial intelligence, as well as cloud and edge computing offer opportunities for the future of drone mapping and monitoring in a coastal context. While the challenge of change is inevitable, embracing the opportunities it provides will allow us to better understand and live sustainably with and within our coastal ecosystems.
... Therefore, it is recommended to increase awareness lectures about prevention and control. The study agree with previous study as (Okpala et al., 2021b), (Gorouhi et al., 2020), (Asare, 2020), (Adham et al., 2021), (Asadpour et al., 2020), (Ribah et al., 2021), (Stokes et al., 2020), (Okpala et al., 2021a). And disagree with (Prabhakar et al., 2017), (Ekanem et al., 2020) ...
This study assessed the knowledge attitude and practice of butchers in Derna City and nearby areas \ of Libya, aimed to gain Knowledge on meat handling of slaughterhouse workers in Derna, & the factors related to the knowledge, attitude and practices of slaughterhouse butchers in the Derna, Material & Methods: this was a descriptive cross-sectional study design that involved the use of quantitative methods. The study was conducted from different through personal interviews with butchers in the city of Derna and its suburbs, (Karssa, Martouba) and collecting questionnaires from them was completed from June 2021 to October 2021, Result: It is noticeable the percent of knowledge answered for Butcher, which receives vaccination (60%), which using PPE 58%, which check regally (66.7%), which know the discarded methods of wastes, (52.7%), which know the diseases which transmitted by meat (59.3%), which receive education program the control and prevention (44%). Conclusion: The results indicate that the study found no relationship between the extent of awareness of butchers and their practices in some questions and in some other questions there is no relationship between the level of education and awareness. Therefore, it is recommended to increase and intensify awareness lectures on prevention and control
... Therefore, it is recommended to increase awareness lectures about prevention and control. The study agree with previous study as (Okpala et al., 2021b), (Gorouhi et al., 2020), (Asare, 2020), (Adham et al., 2021), (Asadpour et al., 2020), (Ribah et al., 2021), (Stokes et al., 2020), (Okpala et al., 2021a). And disagree with (Prabhakar et al., 2017), (Ekanem et al., 2020) ...
This study assessed the knowledge attitude and practice of butchers in Derna City and nearby areas \ of Libya, aimed to gain Knowledge on meat handling of slaughterhouse workers in Derna, & the factors related to the knowledge, attitude and practices of slaughterhouse butchers in the Derna, Material & Methods: this was a descriptive cross-sectional study design that involved the use of quantitative methods. The study was conducted from different through personal interviews with butchers in the city of Derna and its suburbs, (Karssa, Martouba) and collecting questionnaires from them was completed from June 2021 to October 2021, Result: It is noticeable the percent of knowledge answered for Butcher, which receives vaccination (60%), which using PPE 58%, which check regally (66.7%), which know the discarded methods of wastes, (52.7%), which know the diseases which transmitted by meat (59.3%), which receive education program the control and prevention (44%). Conclusion: The results indicate that the study found no relationship between the extent of awareness of butchers and their practices in some questions and in some other questions there is no relationship between the level of education and awareness. Therefore, it is recommended to increase and intensify awareness lectures on prevention and control.
... This research has produced a range of valuable data including the ability of drones to detect marine fauna across a variety of environmental conditions Butcher et al., 2020), the influence of environmental conditions on shark sightability , the behaviour of white sharks in the vicinity of surf beaches and around whale carcasses (Colefax et al., 2020b;Tucker et al., 2021) and the abundance and diversity of other marine fauna (Colefax et al., 2018;Tagliafico et al., 2020). Surveys of public sentiment found that support for drones was high (>85%), predominantly due to the fact they have minimal impact on fauna or the environment (Stokes et al., 2020). Yet, certain limitations of drones can reduce their effectiveness for detecting sharks, particularly their inability to operate during rain or when wind speeds are >20 knots, and their limited potential for detecting sharks in deeper and more turbid water. ...
This report presents the results of the Queensland SharkSmart Drone Trial, which ran from Sept 2020 - Oct 2021. The results include the number of shark sightings, the influence of environmental and operational factors on the ability of drones to detect sharks and a comparison of shark sightings vs catch in shark control nets and drumlines. The report includes recommendations for the future use of drones for shark monitoring at Queensland beaches.
... Otro tipo de muestreo asociado con el monitoreo del agua se ha hecho en algunas playas. Por medio de drones se han monitoreado áreas específ icas en las cuales puedan existir tiburones; de esta forma, se especif ican áreas y se conserva la vida marina y la protección del ser humano [15]. ...
En Colombia, el uso de vehículos aéreos no tripulados (drones) se ha limitado a actividades básicas como visitas preliminares a las áreas o a la obtención de ortofotomosaicos y modelos digitales de elevación; pero se ha planteado la necesidad de expandir su uso. En este artículo se presenta la apropiación de esta tecnología por parte de algunas consultoras ambientales en la determinación de la línea base ambiental, a partir de los resultados derivados de una consulta a diferentes compañías consultoras que se especializan en la conformación y evaluación de planes ambientales dirigidos a entidades territoriales como requisito en el diseño de obras civiles. Los resultados arrojan que el mayor uso de drones se da en estudios de impacto ambiental (31,3 %) y en planes de manejo ambiental (25 %). Por otra parte, los resultados evidenciaron que el 71,4 % de las empresas encuestadas desconocen las posibilidades de mejoras al modelo más comercial de drones tanto en la variedad de sensores y aditamentos como de software que permita una transmisión de datos más rápida o una mejor resolución de las imágenes. En este sentido, este trabajo señala algunos casos específicos en las temáticas de estudio de las compañías encuestadas, con el fin de generar interés en potenciar sus drones.
... Monitoring by dint of UAVs has become a more relevant aspect, as UAVs' abilities exceed human physical possibilities to collect and process information; UAVs can operate in critical situations and can collect quantitative and qualitative data with sensors. Examples of successful applications can include simple domestic tasks [1], border control [2], and coast patrol [3], among several other examples that could be mentioned. In addition, UAVs can work in conditions unsuitable for a human, such as emergencies [4]. ...
Unmanned aerial vehicles have large prospects for organizing territory monitoring. To integrate them into this sphere, it is necessary to improve their high functionality and safety. Computer vision is one of the vital monitoring aspects. In this paper, we developed and validated a methodology for terrain classification. The overall classification procedure consists of the following steps: (1) pre-processing, (2) feature extraction, and (3) classification. For the pre-processing stage, a clustering method based on particle swarm optimization was elaborated, which helps to extract object patterns from the image. Feature extraction is conducted via Gray-Level Co-Occurrence Matrix calculation, and the output of the matrix is turned into the input for a feed-forward neural network classification stage. The developed computer vision system showed 88.7% accuracy on the selected test set. These results can provide high quality territory monitoring; prospectively, we plan to establish a self-positioning system based on computer vision.
... off-road vehicle, see; Schlacher et al., 2013) or dogs (Williams et al., 2009), and within small areas such as enclosed waterways or marine reserves to improve further compliance capabilities. Currently, the use of drones is generally supported by the public if the outcomes are perceived as positive (Aydin, 2019;Stokes et al., 2020). Becker et al., 2020) or to improve the resolution of satellite data (Dash et al., 2018;Gray et al., 2018;Zou et al., 2018). ...
... Seasonal beach visitors highly differ in age; meanwhile, the majority of Algarve beachgoers were more senior in comparison to the results of Stokes et al. (2020). Nevertheless, off-peak season beach visitors were tourists mostly from abroad (85%). ...
Recently coastal tourism has increased dashingly; however, it has negatively affected environmental, social and cultural sustainability. Algarve is the most visited tourist attraction in Portugal with a large number of beautiful beaches. Due to negative tourism impacts and climate change, coastal tourism management tools need to be assessed and implemented. Most beach areas have the dual mandate of conserving natural resources and providing opportunities for recreation and tourism. This paper aims to develop a methodology for sustainable beach management. An urban, rural, resort and remote beach type were chosen as case studies. The proposed methodology for assessing beach quality and effective beach management consisted of three parts: initially, SWOT analysis was performed, where overcrowding, coastal urbanization, ecosystem degradation and coastal erosion due to sea level rising emerged as main future threats. Beach quality evaluation was assessed using the Bath Area Registration and Evaluation (BARE) method. Face-to-face interviews were conducted to get the beach visitor's opinions. An Importance-performance (I-P) analysis has been applied to identify the service quality gap and the most appropriate actions to improve beach management. For most of the beach attributes, satisfaction exceeded importance, and hence no management attention was needed. Exceptions were the condition of litter facilities, public toilets, showers and associated footpaths, the use of renewable energy, and the presence of litter in sand and vegetation health. For these, satisfaction was lower than importance, suggesting management attention is needed. The combined methodology allowed to identify beach management priorities resulting in enhanced visitors' experiences and protecting the natural environment.
... Other approaches include the usage of sound to deter approaching sharks [6] and camouflage [7]. Another widely discussed strategy is the usage of surveillance drones [8] for the early detection of sharks to enable the pro-active evacuation of endangered ocean users. Drones seem particularly promising on patrolled beaches, but are unlikely to be widely adapted in remote locations. ...
The number of shark attacks resulting in fatalities and severe injuries has increased steadily over recent years. This is mainly attributed to a growing population participating in ocean sports such as swimming, diving, and surfing. To mitigate the severity of shark attacks, the current study presents a novel fibre-reinforced composite for bite protection. This material is intended for integration into neoprene wetsuits, e.g., in the form of protective pads. A suitable material must be able to withstand significant bite forces, which are concentrated within a small contact area at the tips of the shark teeth. At the same time, the material should not hinder the complex motion sequences of aquatic sports. To this end, a novel fibre-reinforced composite was created by integrating Kevlar fibres into an elastic matrix. Uni-axial testing using shark teeth replicas was conducted on a specially designed test rig to quantify the effectiveness of the novel protective material.
This review presents a systematic and holistic approach to managing and mitigating beach accidents, emphasizing the intricate balance between human safety, environmental stewardship, and the economic vitality of coastal destinations. This study underlines the importance of classifying beach accidents by severity and type to tailor response strategies and allocate resources efficiently while also considering the multifaceted impacts of incidents on physical, psychological, economic, environmental, and social dimensions. This review also highlights the complex interplay of environmental conditions, human behaviors, technological advancements, and management strategies in ensuring beach safety. It introduces comprehensive risk assessment models that integrate multidisciplinary expertise to quantify hazards, improve safety protocols, and reduce accidents. Additionally, it outlines a beach accident management strategy that combines preventive measures, immediate responses, post incident analysis, and continuous monitoring to safeguard public safety and preserve the ecological and recreational value of beach areas. This study calls for proactive safety measures, enhanced infrastructure, and community education to maintain safe, enjoyable, and sustainable beach environments, recognizing the challenges posed by inadequate resources, insufficient data, and the need to balance safety with environmental conservation.
Drones enable the monitoring for sharks in real-time, enhancing the safety of ocean users with minimal impact on marine life. Yet, the effectiveness of drones for detecting sharks (especially potentially dangerous sharks; i.e., white shark, tiger shark, bull shark) has not yet been tested at Queensland beaches. To determine effectiveness, it is necessary to understand how environmental and operational factors affect the ability of drones to detect sharks. To assess this, we utilised data from the Queensland SharkSmart drone trial, which operated at five southeast Queensland beaches for 12 months in 2020–2021. The trial conducted 3369 flights, covering 1348 km and sighting 174 sharks (48 of which were >2 m in length). Of these, eight bull sharks and one white shark were detected, leading to four beach evacuations. The shark sighting rate was 3% when averaged across all beaches, with North Stradbroke Island (NSI) having the highest sighting rate (17.9%) and Coolum North the lowest (0%). Drone pilots were able to differentiate between key shark species, including white, bull and whaler sharks, and estimate total length of the sharks. Statistical analysis indicated that location, the sighting of other fauna, season and flight number (proxy for time of day) influenced the probability of sighting sharks.
The present work proposes a method for continuous localization of a moving acoustic source based on energy measurements in the application of detecting/preventing wildfires. The main focus is on the case in which the acoustic sensors are located on a drone, i.e., when they are also in motion. This localization setting is more challenging than the classical one in which the sensors are typically static (anchors) or have slow dynamics compared with the source. The proposed solution consists of an extended Kalman filter (EKF) that deals with non-linearities and singularities in the acoustic observation model, as well as the dynamic trajectory of the sensors. Performed simulations corroborate its feasibility in different noisy environments and illustrate its superiority over techniques that do not consider process states’ prior knowledge.
Drone usage is increasing and drone-wildlife interactions are likely to increase in frequency and occurrence. These interactions can have adverse consequences for drones (e.g., damage or loss due to aggressive wildlife behaviour) and/or for wildlife (e.g., injury, disturbance). This study aims to understand how drone pilots perceive the acceptability of candidate management solutions, which could form possible codes of conduct. Commercial, conservation and recreational pilots (n = 285) were surveyed. Pilots considered 11 of 13 candidate management solutions to manage drone-wildlife interactions as acceptable (83.3 % of all responses reflected greater acceptability than unacceptability), however, this support was associated with underlying values and beliefs, indexed by the Wildlife Value Orientations (WVO) and Inclusion of Nature in Self (INS) scales. Specifically, the higher a pilot scored on the social affiliation dimension of WVO, the more they supported a range of measures to avoid deleterious impacts on wildlife. Pilots with stronger Appropriate Use beliefs were less supportive of “planning and operational protocols” to reduce impacts. Pilots reporting no connection to nature (INS scale), were less supportive of planning and operational protocols to accommodate wildlife compared with pilots reporting some connection to nature, but the analysis was unbalanced. The broad level of support for most management among most pilots suggests pilots in our sample may be amenable to codes of conduct which minimise deleterious drone-wildlife interactions.
Online evidence suggests that there has been an increase in interest of using unmanned aerial vehicles or drones during land-based marine recreational fishing. In the absence of reliable monitoring programs, this study used unconventional publicly available online monitoring methodologies to estimate the growing interest, global extent, catch composition and governance of this practice. Results indicated a 357% spike in interest during 2016 primarily in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. From an ecological perspective, many species targeted by drone fishers are vulnerable to overexploitation, while released fishes may experience heightened stress and mortality. From a social perspective, the ethics of drone fishing are being increasingly questioned by many recreational anglers and we forecast the potential for increased conflict with other beach users. In terms of governance, no resource use legislation specifically directed at recreational drone fishing was found. These findings suggest that drone fishing warrants prioritised research and management consideration.
In Australian and New Zealand waters, current knowledge on white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) movement ecology is based on individual tracking studies using relatively small numbers of tags. These studies describe a species that occupies highly variable and complex habitats. However, uncertainty remains as to whether the proposed movement patterns are representative of the wider population. Here, we tagged 103 immature Australasian white sharks (147–350 cm fork length) with both acoustic and satellite transmitters to expand our current knowledge of population linkages, spatiotemporal dynamics and coastal habitats. Eighty-three sharks provided useable data. Based on individual tracking periods of up to 5 years and a total of 2,865 days of tracking data, we were able to characterise complex movement patterns over ~45° of latitude and ~72° of longitude and distinguish regular/recurrent patterns from occasional/exceptional migration events. Shark movements ranged from Papua New Guinea to sub-Antarctic waters and to Western Australia, highlighting connectivity across their entire Australasian range. Results over the 12-year study period yielded a comprehensive characterisation of the movement ecology of immature Australasian white sharks across multiple spatial scales and substantially expanded the body of knowledge available for population assessment and management.
Many large coastal sharks are vulnerable to population declines, however, conflict with human activities often results in unselective culls. Successfully and non-destructively, addressing human-wildlife conflicts requires understanding of animal behavior. However, knowledge about white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) behavior near surf zones, where shark bites usually occur, is still limited. We used drones to obtain high-resolution tracks of 108 white sharks directly off coastal beaches on the east coast of Australia. White sharks ranged from 1.9 to 4.0 m (total length) and typically swam parallel to the beach line at an average speed of 0.82 m s −1 (∼3.0 km h −1), with behavior being characteristic of energy conserving motion and foraging. Notably the presence of schools of fish increased mean swim speeds of sharks by 0.33 m s −1 and caused tracks to be more convoluted. White sharks were also observed to swim straighter and faster with time either side of midday, increasing predicted mean swim speeds by 0.11 m s −1 , and net travel velocities by 0.25 m s −1. White sharks also displayed inquisitive behavior toward various potential food and non-food items. We demonstrate that white sharks display largely predictable track trajectories and slow movement speeds along coastal beaches, which has utility in further developing non-destructive shark mitigation strategies. Whilst some of the behavior observed might support the exploratory bite hypothesis, there is likely an increased risk of a shark bite to bathers during situations where there are large shark-attracting food sources present.
Few phrases evoke more negative emotion, or generate more media coverage, than ‘shark attack’ despite the few deaths that have been attributed to shark bite. Typically, tabloids are considered to provide more sensational coverage than broadsheets. We investigated how sharks and shark–human interactions were portrayed in four major Australian newspapers during a period of a record number of shark attacks in Australian waters. There was strong focus on human risk from sharks, and over-reportage of negative aspects. Thirty incidents were recorded: two fatal, 20 injury, and eight ‘near-miss’. Of 309 ‘shark’ articles surveyed, 24% mentioned fatalities (65% occurred prior to the study, some decades earlier). Injury was reported in 40% of articles, and “near-miss” in 33% (89% related to an incident in South Africa involving an Australian surfing celebrity). The tabloid, Telegraph, published substantially more shark-related articles and photographs than other newspapers. There was otherwise no consistent pattern of difference between genre or newspapers.
Globally, the frequency of shark bites is rising, resulting in an increasing demand for shark deterrents and measures to lessen the impact of shark bites on humans. Most existing shark protection measures are designed to reduce the probability of a bite, but fabrics that minimise injuries when a shark bite occurs can also be used as mitigation devices. Here, we assessed the ability of the Ocean Guardian Scuba7 and Kevlar material to reduce the likelihood of blacktip reef sharks, Carcharhinus melanopterus, from feeding, and to minimise injuries from shark bites. Sharks were enticed to consume a small piece of local reef fish (bait) placed between the two Scuba7 electrodes with the deterrents randomly being turned on or kept off. In the second experiment, the bait was attached to a small pouch made of either standard neoprene or neoprene with a protective layer of Kevlar around it. The Scuba7 reduced the proportion of baits being taken by 67%, (from 100% during control trials to 33%). Sharks also took more time to take the bait when the device was active (165 ± 20.40 s vs. 38.9 ± 3.35 s), approached at a greater distance (80.98 ± 1.72 cm vs. 38.88 ± 3.20 cm) and made a greater number of approaches per trial (19.38 ± 2.29 vs. 3.62 ± 0.53) than when the Scuba7 was inactive. The sizes of punctures from shark bites were significantly smaller on neoprene with Kevlar compared to standard neoprene (3.64 ± 0.26 mm vs. 5.88 ± 0.29 mm). The number of punctures was also fewer when Kevlar was used (14.92 ± 3.16 vs. 74.1 ± 12.44). Overall, the Ocean Guardian Scuba7 and Kevlar reduced the impact of blacktip reef shark bites. These findings may help consumers make informed decisions when purchasing shark deterring and protective products.
Context
A series of unprovoked shark attacks on New South Wales (Australia) beaches between 2013 and 2015 triggered an investigation of new and emerging technologies for protecting bathers. Traditionally, bather protection has included several methods for shark capture, detection and/or deterrence but has often relied on environmentally damaging techniques. Heightened environmental awareness, including the important role of sharks in the marine ecosystem, demands new techniques for protection from shark attack. Recent advances in drone-related technologies have enabled the possibility of real-time shark detection and alerting.
Aim
To determine the reliability of drones to detect shark analogues in the water across a range of environmental conditions experienced on New South Wales beaches.
Methods
A standard multirotor drone (DJI Inspire 1) was used to detect shark analogues as a proxy during flights at 0900, 1200 and 1500 hours over a 3-week period. The 27 flights encompassed a range of environmental conditions, including wind speed (2–30.0 km h⁻¹), turbidity (0.4–6.4 m), cloud cover (0–100%), glare (0–100%), seas (0.4–1.4 m), swells (1.4–2.5 m) and sea state (Beaufort Scale 1–5 Bf).
Key results
Detection rates of the shark analogues over the 27 flights were significantly higher for the independent observer conducting post-flight video analysis (50%) than for the drone pilot (38%) (Wald P = 0.04). Water depth and turbidity significantly impaired detection of analogues (Wald P = 0.04). Specifically, at a set depth of 2 m below the water surface, very few analogues were seen by the observer or pilot when water turbidity reduced visibility to less than 1.5 m. Similarly, when water visibility was greater than 1.5 m, the detection rate was negatively related to water depth.
Conclusions
The present study demonstrates that drones can fly under most environmental conditions and would be a cost-effective bather protection tool for a range of user groups.
Implications
The most effective use of drones would occur during light winds and in shallow clear water. Although poor water visibility may restrict detection, sharks spend large amounts of time near the surface, therefore providing a practical tool for detection in most conditions.
Increases in the number of shark bites, along with increased media attention on shark-human interactions has led to growing interest in preventing injuries from shark bites through the use of personal mitigation measures. The leading cause of fatality from shark bite victims is blood loss; thus reducing haemorrhaging may provide additional time for a shark bite victim to be attended to by emergency services. Despite previous shark-proof suits being bulky and cumbersome, new technological advances in fabric has allowed the development of lightweight alternatives that can be incorporated onto traditional wetsuits. The ability for these fabrics to withstand shark bites has not been scientifically tested. In this report, we compared two types of recently developed protective fabrics that incorporated ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fibre onto neoprene (SharkStop and ActionTX) and compared them to standard neoprene alternatives. We tested nine different fabric variants using three different tests, laboratory-based puncture and laceration tests, along with field-based trials involving white sharks Carcharodon carcharias. Field-based trials consisted of measuring C. carcharias bite force and quantifying damages to the new fabrics following a bite from 3–4 m total length C. carcharias. We found that SharkStop and ActionTX fabric variants were more resistant to puncture, laceration, and bites from C. carcharias. More force was required to puncture the new fabrics compared to control fabrics (laboratory-based tests), and cuts made to the new fabrics were smaller and shallower than those on standard neoprene for both types of test, i.e. laboratory and field tests. Our results showed that UHMWPE fibre increased the resistance of neoprene to shark bites. Although the use of UHMWPE fibre (e.g. SharkStop and ActionTX) may therefore reduce blood loss resulting from a shark bite, research is needed to assess if the reduction in damages to the fabrics extends to human tissues and decreased injuries.
Empirical evaluations of how overexploited marine fishes respond to capture stress (physiologically and behaviourally) have become increasingly important for informed fisheries management. These types of studies are, however, lacking for many protected species. Here, we conducted a novel study on the physiology of juvenile white sharks Carcharodon carcharias (139-325 cm fork length), a globally protected and ecologically important predator, in response to a standard fishery interaction using shark-management-alert-in-real-time (SMART) drumlines as part of a bather protection program. Specifically, we assessed the influence of short-term capture duration (average: ~30 min; range: 10-75 min) and other biological (size) and environmental (temperature) variables on blood plasma amino acids and fatty acids, which play essential roles as energy substrates as well as in maintaining physiological functions. None of the assessed amino acids or fatty acids were affected by capture duration, but some were influenced by shark size and water temperature. Our results support the notion that white shark physiology is robust to capture at short capture durations, which has important implications for the fate of released individuals.
As most people will never encounter sharks in the wild, the media's portrayal of these animals is a key contributing factor to public perception of these species. Facebook is a common way for people to engage with news in Australia. Therefore, content and thematic analysis was conducted on a novel dataset comprising of 2,643 Facebook posts made by Australian news and current affairs media outlets during 2016. To allow for an understanding of the general public's reaction to the media coverage, 40,373 public Facebook user's comments were also analyzed. Shark‐related posts were common, with 87% of all the news‐related Facebook pages analyzed having published at least one post related to sharks and only 49 days had no published shark‐related posts. Shark and human interactions were overwhelmingly the most common theme in the Facebook posts with 45.6% falling into this category and none of these posts labelled the interactions using the Australian Shark Attack File categorization. A common theme emerging from the user comments was that the ocean is dangerous (n = 2,493), suggesting that people may perceive the risk of shark attacks to be high. Because human behaviors negatively impact shark populations, social science research, including media analyses, is an important tool for understanding perceptions of sharks and may guide strategies that could support conservation efforts, including suggestions for how the media should report shark and human interactions.
Drumlines incorporating SMART (Shark-Management-Alert-in-Real-Time) technology are a new tool used in several bather protection programmes globally. In New South Wales (NSW), Australia, the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) is a target species for SMART drumlines because they are often involved in attacks on humans. To understand white shark sensitivity to capture and to establish protocols around acceptable timeframes for responding to alerts, 47 juvenile and subadult white sharks were caught on SMART drumlines at five locations off the east coast of Australia. There was no at-vessel mortality during the sampling period. After capture, blood was sampled from each shark to assess its acute physiological status. Of the 18 metabolites investigated, only lactate and aspartate aminotransferase exhibited significant positive relationships with the capture duration on SMART drumlines. These results indicate that the capture process is relatively benign and that the current response times used here are appropriate to minimize long-term negative impacts on released white sharks. Where white sharks are likely to interact negatively with beachgoers, SMART drumlines can therefore be a useful addition to bather protection programmes that also aim to minimize harm to captured animals. Other shark species captured on SMART drumlines should also be investigated to gain broader understanding of potential physiological consequences of using this new technology.
Human–wildlife conflict (HWC), is currently one of the most pressing conservation challenges. We restrict ourselves here to wildlife behaviour that is perceived to negatively impact social, economic or cultural aspects of human life or to negatively impact species of conservation concern. HWC often involves wild animals consuming anthropogenic resources, such as crops or livestock, either out of necessity (loss of habitat and natural prey) or as consequence of opportunistic behaviour. A variety of interventions are undertaken to reduce HWC, differing in practicability, costs and social acceptance. One such non-lethal intervention is animal conditioning, a technique to reduce conflict by modifying the behaviour of ‘problem’ animals long-term. Conditioning changes associations animals have with resources or behaviours. Both via ‘punishment’ of unwanted behaviour and ‘rewarding’ of alternative behaviour, researchers aim to make expression of unwanted behaviour relatively less desirable to animals. Despite the potential, however, studies testing conditioning interventions have reported seemingly contradictory outcomes. To facilitate reduction of HWC via conditioning, we thus need to better understand if and when conditioning interventions are indeed effective. With this systematic map we intend to make the global evidence base for conditioning of free-ranging vertebrates more accessible to practitioners, to identify potential evidence clusters and effect modifiers for a subsequent systematic review and to highlight evidence gaps for future research. We will compile evidence, including grey literature, from bibliographic databases, online search engines, specialist sites and expert contacts. Where possible, a Boolean-style full search string will be used, including Intervention and Outcome search terms. Searches will be conducted in English. Search comprehensiveness will be evaluated with an a priori list of benchmark articles. We will base inclusion of articles on presence of quantitative data, subject identity, comparator and outcome. Inclusion consistency checks will be performed with 10% of the titles, abstracts and full texts. We will assess validity of the literature base on basis of study design and sample size. Finally, we will develop a searchable literature database and an interactive evidence atlas along with a narrative synthesis of the evidence.
Beaches are economically and socially important to coastal regions. The intensive use of beaches requires active management to mitigate impacts to natural habitats and users. Understanding the patterns of beach use can assist in developing management actions designed to promote sustainable use. We assessed whether remotely piloted aerial systems (commonly known as drones) are an appropriate tool for quantifying beach use, and if beach activities are influenced by environmental conditions. Novel drone-based methods were used to quantify beach use. Drone flights recorded 2 km of beach, capturing video footage of the beach from the dune to water interface and the breaker zone. Flights were undertaken during three school holiday periods at four popular beaches in New South Wales, Australia. These videos were later analysed in the laboratory to categorise beach users. Of the total users sampled, 45.0% were sunbathing, 22.8% swimming, 21.2% walking, 10.6% surfing, and less than 0.5% were fishing. Participation in walking, surfing and fishing was similar throughout the sampling periods. However, sunbathing and swimming significantly increased during the austral spring and summer sampling periods. Usage patterns varied significantly among beaches, and during the different sampling periods, suggesting that adaptive management strategies targeted to specific areas are the most appropriate way to protect beach habitats and users. Furthermore, we demonstrate that drones are an effective assessment tool to improve coastal management decisions.
Shark attacks are a global phenomenon that attracts widespread attention and publicity, often with negative outcomes for shark populations. Despite the widespread perceptions of shark attacks, trends in human water activities and shark populations are both dynamic, resulting in variable rates of shark attacks over space and time. Understanding variable trends in shark attacks may contribute to a better understanding of risk, and a more tempered response in the wake of an attack. We found that global shark attack rates are low, yet variable across global regions and over decades. Countries with low populations were found to have the highest rates of attack, while countries with high populations (U.S.A., Australia, South Africa) tended to have overall low attack rates, but also much more interannual variability. From the 1960s to the present, those countries with the highest populations also tended to be the places where attack rates have increased. Ultimately, shark attack risk is also driven by local conditions (e.g., time of day, species present); however, a global scale understanding of attack rates helps place risk into perspective and may contribute to a more scientifically-grounded discussion of sharks, and their management and conservation.
Overexploitation of large apex marine predators is widespread in the world’s oceans, yet the timing and extent of declines are poorly understood. Here we reconstruct a unique fisheries-independent dataset from a shark control programme spanning 1760 km of the Australian coastline over the past 55 years. We report substantial declines (74–92%) of catch per unit effort of hammerhead (Sphyrnidae), whaler (Carcharhinidae), tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). Following onset of the program in the 1960s, catch rates in new installations in subsequent decades occurred at a substantially lower rate, indicating regional depletion of shark populations over the past half a century. Concurrent declines in body size and the probability of encountering mature individuals suggests that apex shark populations are more vulnerable to exploitation than previously thought. Ongoing declines and lack of recovery of vulnerable and protected shark species are a cause for concern.
Much of the history of the human–shark relationship has been based on fear. For centuries, the goal has been to kill sharks that come near boats or beaches. Yet, there is a growing trend of more positive feelings toward local shark populations. In this article, we demonstrate that feelings of pride toward sharks can serve as an opposing force to fear, and can moderate the way fear affects support for policies to kill sharks. This study reports on two surveys of pride toward sharks from Eastern and Western Australia. These highlight a new and emerging story for people and sharks. We argue that the combination of shifts in the understanding of sharks’ motives during human–shark interactions and higher levels of pride support a new political dynamic in which the public prefers nonlethal responses to shark bites in support of a burgeoning “save the sharks” movement.
Predators shape ecosystem structure and function through their direct and indirect effects on prey, which permeate through ecological communities. Predators are often perceived as competitors or threats to human values or well-being. This conflict has persisted for centuries, often resulting in predator removal (i.e. killing) via targeted culling, trapping, poisoning, and/or public hunts. Predator removal persists as a management strategy but requires scientific evaluation to assess the impacts of these actions, and to develop a way forward in a world where human-predator conflict may intensify due to predator reintroduction and rewilding, alongside an expanding human population. We reviewed literature investigating predator removal and focused on identifying instances of successes and failures. We found that predator removal was generally intended to protect domestic animals from depredation, to preserve prey species, or to mitigate risks of direct human conflict, corresponding to being conducted in farmland, wild land, or urban areas. Because of the different motivations for predator removal, there was no consistent definition of what success entailed so we developed one with which to assess studies we reviewed. Research tended to be retrospective and correlative and there were few controlled experimental approaches that evaluated whether predator removal met our definition of success, making formal meta-analysis impossible. Predator removal appeared to only be effective for the short-term, failing in the absence of sustained predator suppression. This means predator removal was typically an ineffective and costly approach to conflicts between humans and predators. Management must consider the role of the predator within the ecosystem and the potential consequences of removal on competitors and prey. Simulations or models can be generated to predict responses prior to removing predators. We also suggest that alternatives to predator removal be further developed and researched. Ultimately, humans must coexist with predators and learning how best to do so may resolve many conflicts.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly used in marine wildlife research. As technological developments rapidly advance the versatility and functionality of affordable UAVs, their potential as a marine aerial survey tool is quickly gaining attention. Currently, there is significant interest in whether cost-effective UAVs can outperform manned aircraft in aerial surveys of marine fauna at sea, although few empirical studies have compared relative sampling efficiency, accuracy and precision. Civil aviation restrictions, and subsequent available civilian technologies, make it unlikely that UAVs will currently be more effective than manned aircraft for large area marine surveys. UAVs do, however, have the capacity to fill a niche for intensive smaller spatial scale sampling and for undertaking aerial surveys in isolated locations. Improvements in UAV sensor resolutions and alternative sensor types, such as multispectral cameras, may increase area coverage, reduce perception error, and increase water penetration for sightability. Additionally, the further development of auto-detection software will rapidly improve image processing and further reduce human observer error inherent in manned aerial surveys. As UAV technologies and associated methodology is further developed and becomes more affordable, these aircraft will be increasingly adopted as a marine aerial survey tool in place of traditional methods using manned aircraft. © International Council for the Exploration of the Sea 2017. All rights reserved.
Full-text available at: http://rdcu.be/ErWC
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Large-mammal populations are ecological linchpins1, and their worldwide decline2 and extinction3 disrupts many ecosystem functions and services4. Reversing this trend requires understanding the determinants of population decline, to predict when and where collapses will occur and to guide effective, cost-efficient conservation and restoration policies2,5. Many correlates of large-mammal declines are known, including slow life histories, overhunting, and habitat destruction2,6,7. However, persistent uncertainty about the effects of one widespread factor—armed conflict—complicates conservation-planning and priority-setting efforts5,8. Case studies reveal that conflict can have either positive or negative local impacts on wildlife8–10, but the direction and magnitude of its net effect over large spatiotemporal scales have not previously been quantified5. Here we show that conflict frequency predicts the occurrence and severity of population declines among wild large herbivores in African protected areas from 1946–2010. Conflict was extensive during this interval, occurring in 71% of protected areas, and conflict frequency was the single most important predictor of wildlife population trends among the variables analyzed. Population trajectories were stable (λ≈1.0) in peacetime, fell significantly below replacement with only slight increases in conflict frequency (≥1 conflict-year every 2–5 decades), and were almost-invariably negative in high-conflict sites, both in the full 65-year dataset and in an analysis restricted to recent decades (1989–2010). Yet total population collapse was infrequent, indicating that war-torn faunas can often recover. Human population density was also correlated (positively) with wildlife population trajectories in recent years; however, we found no significant effect in either interval of species’ body mass, protected-area size, conflict intensity (i.e., human fatalities), drought frequency, presence of extractable mineral resources, or various metrics of development and governance. Our results suggest that sustained conservation activity in conflict zones—and rapid interventions following ceasefires—may help to save many at-risk populations and species.
This article reports on new research that finds certain messages reduce fear of sharks, key to promoting conservation minded responses to shark bites. Here it is argued that the sophistication in public feelings toward these highly emotional events has allowed new actors to mobilize and given rise to the 'Save the Sharks' movement. In a unique experiment coupling randomly assigned intent-based priming messages with exposure to sharks in a 'shark tunnel', a potential path to reduce public fear of sharks and alter policy preferences is investigated. Priming for the absence of intent yielded significant fear extinction effects, providing a viable means of increasing support for non-lethal policy options following shark bite incidents. High levels of pride and low levels of blame for bite incidents are also found. In all, this article provides a step towards improving our understanding of fear and fear reduction in public policy.
As new industries emerge in rural areas, land use change can have important implications for affected communities. In-turn, social responses to developments can have important implications for industry. The idea that communities may, or may not, approve of landuse change has been conceptualised in the literature on ‘social license to operate’. While a principle focus of the social license literature has been on ways to strengthen relationships between community and industry, literature relating to social resistance movements has focused principally on the processes by which communities oppose developments. Reporting empirical data arising from an election survey, this paper seeks to draw together these two bodies of literature to understand how two rural communities responded to the development of the coal seam gas industry in the Northern Rivers region of New South Wales, Australia. Perceptions of local benefit provision, against the contextual backdrop of rural economies and local perceptions of sustainability, proved pivotal for the legitimacy of the CSG industry. Instead of CSG companies achieving a social license to operate, a social resistance movement gained broad community support and resulted in social license withdrawal. This paper explores the drivers of social license withdrawal and the dynamics leading to the local success of a resistance movement, proposing a new diamond model of social license to operate. The social license diamond model can be used by policy makers to better understand the progression of community responses to industrial developments, from social license approval to withdrawal and beyond.
This article reports on the first comparative surveys in two separate locations to measure public attitudes toward sharks following shark bite incidents. This study focuses directly on the communities affected by the shark bites, both in Australia – the town of Ballina in the State of New South Wales (N = 500) and the city of Perth in Western Australia (N = 600) – and reports on their attitudes and policy preferences relating to sharks immediately after serious shark bite incidents in 2015 and 2016. In both communities we find that a large majority of respondents prefer non-lethal policies; most respondents believe shark bite incidents to be accidental rather than intentional; while fear of sharks correlates with support for lethal policies, this association is powerfully mediated by perceptions of intentionality. These findings have implications for international wildlife management, particularly regarding predator species in need of conservation. Conservation is based on the public acceptability of a species and if intentionality can mediate fear effects and promote policies that protect the species this is a step forward for conservation management globally.
Significance
The strong focus on species extinctions, a critical aspect of the contemporary pulse of biological extinction, leads to a common misimpression that Earth’s biota is not immediately threatened, just slowly entering an episode of major biodiversity loss. This view overlooks the current trends of population declines and extinctions. Using a sample of 27,600 terrestrial vertebrate species, and a more detailed analysis of 177 mammal species, we show the extremely high degree of population decay in vertebrates, even in common “species of low concern.” Dwindling population sizes and range shrinkages amount to a massive anthropogenic erosion of biodiversity and of the ecosystem services essential to civilization. This “biological annihilation” underlines the seriousness for humanity of Earth’s ongoing sixth mass extinction event.
Common strategies to protect swimmers from unprovoked shark bite incidents on coastal beaches are controversial. We surveyed beach users on two Sydney beaches to gauge their knowledge and attitudes to current and topical shark bite mitigation strategies. Most interviewees (>55%) were aware that shark nets were deployed on each beach, and gave relatively strong (>60%) support for their use. In contrast, beach users were overwhelming against (>80%) the general culling of sharks, and also opposed (>70%) the strategy of catching and killing sharks following a shark bite incident. There was little difference between genders in their attitudes to each strategy, but the oldest age category (51+) surveyed was generally most supportive of the lethal strategies. The results demonstrated the dichotomies in public attitudes to the different mitigation strategies, particularly passive versus active culling, and highlighted the need for greater public education for the development of socially acceptable solutions to shark hazards.
Tropical deforestation continues to be a major driver of biodiversity loss and greenhouse gas emissions. Remote sensing technology is increasingly used to assess changes in forest cover, species distributions and carbon stocks. However, satellite and airborne sensors can be prohibitively costly and inaccessible for researchers in developing countries. Here, we describe the development and use of an inexpensive (<$2,000) unmanned aerial vehicle for surveying and mapping forests and biodiversity (referred to as ‘Conservation Drone’ hereafter). Our prototype drone is able to fly pre-programmed missions autonomously for a total flight time of ~25 minutes and over a distance of ~15 km. Non-technical operators can program each mission by defining waypoints along a flight path using an open-source software. This drone can record videos at up to 1080 pixel resolution (high definition), and acquire aerial photographs of <10 cm pixel resolution. Aerial photographs can be stitched together to produce real-time geo-referenced land use/cover maps of surveyed areas. We evaluate the performance of this prototype Conservation Drone based on a series of test flights in Aras Napal, Sumatra, Indonesia. We discuss the further development of Conservation Drone 2.0, which will have a bigger payload and longer range. Initial tests suggest a flight time of ~50 minutes and a range of ~25 km. Finally, we highlight the potential of this system for environmental and conservation applications, which include near real-time mapping of local land cover, monitoring of illegal forest activities, and surveying of large animal species.
Drones are unmanned aircraft controlled remotely or operated autonomously. While the extant literature suggests that drones can in principle invade people’s privacy, little is known about how people actually think about drones. Drawing from a series of in-depth interviews conducted in the United States, we provide a novel and rich account of people’s privacy perceptions of drones for civilian uses both in general and under specific usage scenarios. Our informants raised both physical and information privacy issues against government, organization and individual use of drones. Informants’ reasoning about the acceptance of drone use was in part based on whether the drone is operating in a public or private space. However, our informants differed significantly in their definitions of public and private spaces. While our informants’ privacy concerns such as surveillance, data collection and sharing have been raised for other tracking technologies such as camera phones and closed-circuit television (CCTV), our interviews highlight two heightened issues of drones: (1) powerful yet inconspicuous data collection, (2) hidden and inaccessible drone controllers. These two aspects of drones render some of people’s existing privacy practices futile (e.g., notice recording and ask controllers to stop or delete the recording). Some informants demanded notifications of drones near them and expected drone controllers asking for their explicit permissions before recording. We discuss implications for future privacy-enhancing drone designs.
Large carnivores inhabiting human-dominated landscapes often interact with people and their properties, leading to conflict scenarios that can mislead carnivore management and, ultimately, jeopardize conservation. In northwest Spain, brown bears Ursus arctos are strictly protected, whereas sympatric wolves Canis lupus are subject to lethal control. We explored ecological, economic and societal components of conflict scenarios involving large carnivores and damages to human properties. We analyzed the relation between complaints of depredations by bears and wolves on beehives and livestock, respectively, and bear and wolf abundance, livestock heads, number of culled wolves, amount of paid compensations, and media coverage. We also evaluated the efficiency of wolf culling to reduce depredations on livestock. Bear damages to beehives correlated positively to the number of female bears with cubs of the year. Complaints of wolf predation on livestock were unrelated to livestock numbers; instead, they correlated positively to the number of wild ungulates harvested during the previous season, the number of wolf packs, and to wolves culled during the previous season. Compensations for wolf complaints were fivefold higher than for bears, but media coverage of wolf damages was thirtyfold higher. Media coverage of wolf damages was unrelated to the actual costs of wolf damages, but the amount of news correlated positively to wolf culling. However, wolf culling was followed by an increase in compensated damages. Our results show that culling of the wolf population failed in its goal of reducing damages, and suggest that management decisions are at least partly mediated by press coverage. We suggest that our results provide insight to similar scenarios, where several species of large carnivores share the landscape with humans, and management may be reactive to perceived conflicts.
This paper is concerned with nature conservation by automatically monitoring animal distribution and animal abundance. Typically , such conservation tasks are performed manually on foot or after an aerial recording from a manned aircraft. Such manual approaches are expensive, slow and labor intensive. In this paper, we investigate the combination of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or " drones ") with automatic object recognition techniques as a viable solution to manual animal surveying. Since no controlled data is available, we record our own animal conservation dataset with a quadcopter drone. We evaluate two nature conservation tasks: i) animal detection ii) animal counting using three state-of-the-art generic object recognition methods that are particularly well-suited for on-board detection. Results show that object detection techniques for human-scale photographs do not directly translate to a drone perspective, but that lightweight automatic object detection techniques are promising for nature conservation tasks.
Aerial imagery is the most effective method National Marine Fisheries Service
(NMFS) uses to assess abundance of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus). These images are traditionally captured from occupied aircraft, but the long distances between airfields along
the 1900 km Aleutian Island chain, inclement weather during the survey season, and dangerous
winds at sites adjacent to cliffs severely limit flying opportunities. Because of the pressing
need for current trend information for a population in persistent decline we turned to a
small unoccupied aircraft system (UAS), an APH-22 hexacopter. Our primary objective was
to supplement traditional aerial surveys during the annual abundance survey. The second
objective was to test whether the resolution of images captured with the hexacopter was
adequate for sighting permanently marked individuals. From June to July 2014, NMFS biologists
based on a research vessel assessed sites from Attu Island to the Delarof Islands (n = 23),
surveying sites from land (n = 12) and with the hexacopter (n = 11). Simultaneously, traditional
aerial surveys were conducted east of the Delarof Islands (n = 172). This combined approach
enabled us to conduct the most complete survey of adult, juvenile, and newborn Steller sea
lions in the Aleutian Islands since the 1970s. Images collected also allowed for us to identify
alpha-numeric permanent marks on individuals as small as juveniles. With this successful
implementation of UAS, NMFS plans to use the hexacopter to supplement future surveys.
In 2013-14 the Western Australian Government deployed drum lines to catch and kill sharks perceived to be a threat to public safety. This policy decision sparked considerable controversy and debate which played out in the media. There have been limited studies examining the role of media discourses in the development of shark management policies. This study shows that media reporting reflected the unidirectional correlation between the public and policy makers; while there appeared to be a correlation between public pressure and the decision to deploy drum lines, there was no association between the culling program and public support. The reflective role the media played in the drum line debate was evident in their use of prescriptive and emotive language about human-shark incidents, and the use of two opposing frames; anthropocentric and conservation. Combined, these results suggest that the public policy makers need to rethink their approach to developing shark hazard mitigation programs through ongoing, meaningful engagement with the general public, scientists and stake holders, if they wish to garner public support.
Unmanned aerial vehicles, or 'drones', appear to offer a flexible, accurate and affordable solution to some of the technical challenges of nature conservation monitoring and law enforcement. However, little attention has been given to their possible social impacts. In this paper, I review the possible social impacts of using drones for conservation, including on safety, privacy, psychological wellbeing, data security and the wider understanding of conservation problems. I argue that negative social impacts are probable under some circumstances and should be of concern for conservation for two reasons: (1) because conservation should follow good ethical practice; and (2) because negative social impacts could undermine conservation effectiveness in the long term. The paper concludes with a call for empirical research to establish whether the identified social risks of drones occur in reality and how they could be mitigated, and for self-regulation of drone use by the conservation sector to ensure good ethical practice and minimise the risk of unintended consequences.
Conventional aircraft have been used for photogrammetry studies of free-ranging whales, but are often not practical in remote regions or not affordable. Here we report on the use of a small, unmanned hexacopter (APH-22; Aerial Imaging Solutions) as an alternative method for collecting photographs to measure killer whales (Orcinus orca) at sea. We deployed and retrieved the hexacopter by hand during 60 flights (average duration 13.2 min, max 15.7 min) from the upper deck of an 8.2 m boat, utilizing the aircraft's vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) capability. The hexacopter was quiet and stable in flight, and therefore could be flown at relatively low altitudes without disturbing whales. The payload was a Micro Four-Thirds system camera that was used to obtain 18920 still images from an altitude of 35–40 m above the whales. Tests indicated a ground-resolved distance of <1.4 cm across the full extent of a flat and undistorted field of view, and an onboard pressure altimeter enabled measurements in pixels to be scaled to true size with an average accuracy of 5 cm. As a result, the images were sharp enough to differentiate individual whales using natural markings (77 whales in total) and preliminary estimates resolved differences in whale lengths ranging from 2.6 to 5.8 m. This first application at sea demonstrated the APH-22 hexacopter to be a safe and cost-effective platform for collecting photogrammetry images to fill key scientific data gaps about whales, and we anticipate this utility will extend to studies of other wildlife species.
Conservation drones are remote-controlled devices capable of collecting information from difficult-to-access places while minimizing disturbance. Although drones are increasingly used in many research disciplines, their application to wildlife research remains to be explored in depth. This paper reports on the use of Phantom 2 Vision+ for monitoring areas in two national parks in South Korea. The first research area was conducted in Chiaksan National Park, and the second in Taeanhaean National Park. The aim of this research is to introduce ecologists and researchers alike to conservation drones and to show how these new tools have are fundamentally helping in the development of natural sciences. We also obtained photographs and videos of monitoring areas within our test site. © 2015 The Ecological Society of Korea. All rights are reserved.
Killing sharks is a popular strategy for reducing risk for beach-goers and ocean-users. But the effectiveness of kill-based strategies is debated and the ecological and economic costs are high. In Western Australia the state government introduced new policy in 2012 in response to shark-related fatalities, to track, catch and destroy sharks deemed to pose an ‘imminent threat’ to beach-goers. This paper reports on a survey of Western Australia-based ocean-users, and pursues two aims: to develop an understanding of the experiences of ocean-users in encountering sharks; and to learn about the attitudes of ocean-users towards shark hazard management. The research finds that people encounter sharks often, without harm, and that most ocean-users adapt their practices in order to reduce personal risk. The majority of ocean-users oppose the kill-based elements of the new policy, and kill-based shark hazard management strategies more broadly. Rather, ocean-users strongly support further research and education focusing on shark behaviour and shark deterrents, and approaches that enable people to understand and accept risks associated with ocean use. These findings present opportunity to refocus debates about shark hazard management on non-lethal strategies in concert with better educating publics so they can make informed decisions about their ocean-based activities.
The McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica are a unique yet threatened polar biome. Cyanobacterial mats form a large part of the standing biomass in the McMurdo Dry Valleys and are therefore an indicator of ecosystem productivity and health. They are, however, patchily distributed, and this has hampered spatial ecology studies due to the logistical challenges of ground-based field sampling. Here, we report the application of remote sensing using a fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and GIS spatial mapping to identify cyanobacterial mats, estimate their extent and discriminate between different mat types. Using the Spalding Pond area of Taylor Valley as a test site, we were able to identify mats on soil surfaces within the hyporheic zone, as well as benthic mats below the water surface. The mapping also clearly identified the footprint of campsites and walking trails on soils, and we highlight the potential of this technique in monitoring human impact in this fragile ecosystem.
Aerial surveys of large marine wildlife in nearshore areas can support management actions to ensure conservation of this megafauna. While most aerial surveys of marine wildlife have been carried out using manned aircraft, unmanned aerial systems (commonly known as drones) are being increasingly used. Here, we compare the relative accuracy and precision of marine wildlife surveys from a multirotor drone and a manned helicopter for the first time. At two locations on the east coast of Australia, we simultaneously surveyed sharks (including white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias), dolphins, rays, and sea turtles in nearshore coastal areas using a multirotor drone (DJI Inspire I) and a helicopter (Robinson 44 Clipper II) over 26 separate flights. Sampling included the real-time quantification of marine wildlife by an observer in the helicopter and the pilot of the drone. The video feed from the drone was then later re-sampled in the laboratory. Of the three methods, post-hoc analysis of drone video footage is likely to provide the most accurate and precise estimates of marine wildlife in nearshore areas. When real-time data are required (e.g., for shark-risk mitigation), manned helicopters (over larger stretches of coast) and drones (across localised beaches) will both be useful.
Globally, many gillnet fisheries have excessive discards which can comprise charismatic megafauna threatened with extinction, including numerous elasmobranchs. Very few discarded elasmobranch species have been assessed for their associated fates. Here we describe the immediate mortality of several threatened species discarded from gillnets deployed off eastern Australia to target key carcharhinids and white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias (within an objective of protecting bathers) and causal factors for abundant elasmobranchs. In total, 420 animals comprising at least 22 species were gillnetted with a total immediate mortality of 49 % and group-specific estimates of 100 % for dolphins (n = 8), 100 % for teleosts (n = 16), 86 % for sharks (n = 75), 45 % for turtles (n = 20) and 36 % for rays (n = 301). Among elasmobranchs, species that were obligate ram-ventilating (e.g. great hammerhead, Sphyrna mokarran and common blacktip shark, Carcharhinus limbatus) had greater mortality (>95 %) than those species with spiracles, and likely capable of some stationary respiration (e.g. whitespotted guitar fish, Rhynchobatus australiae, whitespotted eagle ray, Aetobatus ocellatus, Australian cownose ray, Rhinoptera neglecta and to a lesser extent, pygmy devilray, Mobula kuhlii cf. eregoodootenkee) (16–74 % mortality). Mortalities among Australian cownose rays increased across longer soaks. The effect of soak time was further assessed to determine an optimal to maintain gillnet efficiency for target sharks, but minimise the absolute mortality of abundant rays and was estimated at up to three or four fishing nights (72–96 h). Other potential operational modifications, including using light and better retroactive deterrents to reduce turtle and dolphin bycatches and mortality, warrant investigation.
Sharks have historically suffered from a negative image, which has been indirectly fuelling public fear and government decisions to kill sharks, as part of bather protection programmes in various countries. Scientists are arguing, however, that the public opinion of sharks is increasingly positive, and that opposition to lethal shark control and to negative shark framing is growing. Positive attitudes and behaviour towards sharks tend to be influenced by an array of factors, which ought to be considered in studies aimed at effectively steering shark conservation actions. This study used a questionnaire survey of 1138 beach visitors in South Africa, together with structural equation modelling, to investigate human perceptions of sharks, and their influence on outcome variables including attitudes and behaviour towards shark hazard mitigation and shark framing. The results show that basic knowledge and attitudes towards sharks have a significant effect on the outcome variables. Additionally, attitudes towards sharks moderate the effect of perceived risk from sharks on the outcome variables. The results support arguments of public concern for sharks, and provide guidance for strategies aimed at garnering more support for shark conservation.
An increase in shark bites, declining shark populations, and changing social attitudes, has driven an urgent need for non-destructive shark monitoring. While drones may be a useful tool for marine aerial surveillance, their reliability in detecting fauna along coastal beaches has not been established. We developed a drone-based shark surveillance procedure and tested the reliability of field-based fauna detections and classifications against rigorous post-analysis. Perception error rates were examined across faunal groups and environmental parameters. Over 316 shark surveillance flights were conducted over 12 weeks, out of a possible 360, with adverse weather preventing most flights. There were 386 separate sightings made in post-analysis, including 17 sightings of shark, 125 of dolphin, 192 of ray, 19 of turtle, 15 of baitfish school, and a further 18 sightings of other fauna. When examining error rates of field-based detections, there were large differences found between fauna groups, with sharks, dolphins, and baitfish schools having higher probabilities of detection. Some fauna, such as turtles, were also more difficult to classify following a detection than other groups. The number of individuals in a sighting, was found to have significant but relatively subtle effects, whilst no environmental covariates were found to influence the perception error rate of field-based sightings. We conclude that drones are an effective monitoring tool for large marine fauna off coastal beaches, particularly if the seabed can be distinguished and post-analysis is performed on the drone-collected imagery. Where live field-based detections are relied upon, such as for drone-based shark surveillance, the perception error rate might be reduced by machine-learning software assistance, such as neural network algorithms, or by utilising a dedicated ‘observer’ watching a high-resolution glare-free screen.
In response to a spate of shark attacks in Reunion Island in the southwest Indian Ocean since 2011, local authorities developed an experimental shark-control program based on those conducted for decades in Australia and South Africa. In order to greatly reduce, if not eliminate, the impact of such a shark fishing program on bycatch and undersized target shark species, the use of conventional "drumlines" was improved by the addition of an innovative "Catch-A-Live"® system, making the drumlines 'SMART' (Shark Management Alert in Real Time). This is a real-time strike alert system based on an adapted triggering mechanism, which links the fishing line to a GPS buoy connected to the Iridium satellite. This system alerts fishers on duty via a computer-based communication system within just a few minutes, enabling immediate intervention. Off Reunion Island, up to 20 SMART drumlines (SDLs) were deployed along the west and southwest coast in coastal waters to target bull (Carcharhinus leucas) and tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) in trials conducted between 2014 and 2017. During 58,770 h of fishing there were 269 catches of more than 14 species, of which 86.9% were retrieved alive. There were marked differences in survival among species. While the most fragile species were the giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis), scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) and small carcharhinid species, most of the other bycatch species (stingrays Dasyatis sp., giant guitarfish Rhyncobathus djiddensis, and tawny nurse sharks Nebrius ferrugineus) were generally found alive and in a condition suitable for tag and release. Of the target species, 94.8% of all individuals were found alive. These survival rates are far higher than those of other programs using conventional drumlines in KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and Queensland (Australia). There were strong diurnal and lunar catch patterns. This information is invaluable in planning fishing operations to max-imise the catch of the target species, while reducing the chances of killing the bycatch. These results highlight the potential for use of SDLs in research programs aimed at tagging large sharks capable of tripping the trigger, especially in situations where catch rates are so low that it is impractical for the fishing vessel to remain at sea for the duration of each fishing operation.
During 2015, New South Wales (N.S.W), Australia experienced an unprecedented spike in human-shark interactions. These interactions saw the escalation of public anxieties surrounding water safety and the implementation of the state's $16 m Shark Management Strategy. Of the 14 human-shark interactions that occurred in N.S.W, eight were recorded on the state's North Coast. The interactions ignited considerable public debate, which sought to explain the spike in interactions and how to best manage the risk of human-shark interaction. This controversy was documented by the media. This study takes its lead from McCagh et. al (2015) to examine the media's reporting of public and political response to human-shark interactions in N.S.W. Discourse analysis was used to investigate two newspaper's reportage of human-shark interactions on the North Coast. This paper outlines that the discourse used by the media examined was not fear-laden, sensationalized or emotive, which previous studies have emphasized. It highlights the importance of investigating local media as means of investigating public and political response to environmental issues. The W.A shark cull seems to be a turning point in public and political attitudes towards shark management. The N.S.W government did not offer lethal or seemingly knee-jerk policy, but insisted on the investigation of non-lethal, scientifically and conservationally focused management. The N.S.W government appeared to be successful in consulting the local community and delivering policy that reflects the values and interests of the North Coast public. Our research reflects Neff & Wynter's (2018a) suggestion that the ‘save the sharks’ movement has indeed arrived.
Objective::
Shark bites are rare, with intense media exposure. There are no known studies of the psychological impacts of this specific type of traumatic event. This is the first study that describes those directly and indirectly affected, and evaluates the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related risk factors.
Methods::
In total, 124 members of an Australian shark-bite peer-support group were invited to complete an online survey assessing demographic, event, media and psychological factors. Response rate was 48% ( n = 60, 63% male, 44 ± 14 years). Retrospective and current measures of PTSD (PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 [PCL-5]) and suicidality (Suicidal Ideation Attributes Scale [SIDAS-5]) were used.
Results::
Post-event PTSD was prevalent in this sample ( n = 16/59, 27.1%, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [15.4, 38.8]), but less so currently ( n = 2/55, 3.6%, 95% CI = [0.0, 8.7]). In addition, nine ( n = 9/59, 15.3%, 95% CI = [5.8, 24.7]) had subthreshold, but highly symptomatic, syndromes post event. There was no association of PTSD with direct/indirect bite involvement, gender, or prior trauma. Two respondents were at risk of suicidal behaviour. PTSD was commonly reported by those without a partner (odds ratio [OR] = 5.91, 95% CI = [1.52, 22.99], p = 0.01) or with two friends or fewer to rely on (OR = 5.83, 95% CI = [1.62, 21.01], p = 0.01). PTSD was more likely in those with a negative media experience ( n = 34/52, 65.4%, OR = 11.90, 95% CI = [1.42, 100.04], p = 0.02) and 61.5% ( n = 32/52) of respondents reported media coverage lasting months or years. In multivariate modelling, negative media impact, relationship status and friendships were independently associated with PTSD and explained much of the variance in PTSD ( F4,41 = 10.94, p < 0.0001, r2 = 0.52).
Conclusion::
Nearly one-third of members of an Australian shark-bite peer-support group report post-event PTSD, and one-quarter of these were not present at the time of the event. Findings support interventions targeting negative media impact, similar to media reporting guidelines for suicide, and enhancing social support.
This paper provides an overview of unconventional gas developments in Australia and attendant public reactions to them through the lens of the ‘social license’ concept. An analysis of some of the relevant academic literature offers insights into how social license is understood, conceptualised and operationalised across Australian states and territories, surveying a variety of approaches to understand social and health impacts of developments; perceptions of developments, including their perceived legitimacy; and regulatory influences. Case examples
from across Australia highlight the importance of procedural justice in industry-community conflict situations and the heterogeneity of social license outcomes. These insights suggest that social infrastructure can play an important role in social license negotiations. Further research
priorities into the social dimensions of unconventional gas development are identified in the areas of cumulative health and social impacts; governance (and social license) implications in relation to resources; place and people; and better understanding social license in the context
of other States and local contexts, specifically Australia’s First Nations. Both the ways in which a social license evolves over space and time, and how community concerns are responded to by industry and decision makers in different contexts, raises questions for further inquiry, specifically in relation to power asymmetries between industry, government and communities.
Shark management is contested and community support often influences policy. Decision makers are unlikely to be comfortable explaining policy solely based on expert advice, scientific data, or any information, if they feel out of touch with important stakeholder thinking. This study explored community attitudes to shark management and also reasons for preferences. It used Appraisal to analyse comments related to the NSW Shark Management Strategy in Twitter and public Facebook sites over one year, and focus groups with beach and ocean end-users. Most harm mitigation and research strategies were supported, with drones and Clever Buoys the preferred concepts. Mesh nets were widely criticised. The most common reasons given for strategy preferences emphasised the likelihood of harm to sharks and other marine species, cost efficiency, and likelihood that a strategy would generate fear or reassurance. Findings emphasised hope that detection, deterrent and surveillance technologies will improve efficacy of shark harm mitigation in the future. Importantly for policy makers, the findings elaborate simple preference information, revealing multidimensionality in attitudes concerning shark harm mitigation strategies, and explaining associations and thinking. The study highlights the importance of listening to communities and carefully planning and adapting policy communication.
Wildlife management seeks to minimise public controversy for successful application of wildlife control methods. Human dimensions research in wildlife seeks a better understanding of public preferences for effective human–wildlife conflict resolution. In face to face interviews, 630 adults in Greece were asked to rate on a 5-point Likert-like scale their acceptance of 3 management methods, i.e., do nothing, non-lethal control, and lethal control, in the context of 5 human–wildlife conflict scenarios: 1) corvids damage crops; 2) starlings damage crops; 3) starlings foul urban structures; 4) coypus damage crops; and 5) coypus transfer disease. Univariate GLMs determined occupation, hunting membership and their interaction as the stronger predictors of public acceptance, generating 4 stakeholder groups: the general public, farmers, hunters, and farmers-hunters. Differences in acceptance and consensus among stakeholder groups were assessed using the Potential for Conflict Index2 (PCI2). All 4 stakeholder groups agreed that doing nothing was unacceptable and non-lethal control acceptable in all 5 scenarios, with generally high consensus within and between groups. The lethal control method was more controversial and became increasingly more acceptable as the severity of scenarios was increased and between non-native and native species. Lethal control was unacceptable for the general public in all scenarios. Farmers accepted lethal methods in the corvids and starlings scenarios, were neutral in the coypus damage crops scenario, whereas they accepted lethal control when coypus transfer disease. Hunters' opinion was neutral in the corvids, starlings and coypus damage crops and starlings foul urban structures scenarios, but they accepted lethal methods in the coypus transfer disease scenario. Farmers-hunters considered lethal control acceptable in all 5 scenarios. Implications from this study could be used for designing a socio-ecological approach which incorporates wildlife management with public interests. The studied species have a wide distribution, therefore present findings might also prove useful elsewhere.
Human interactions with wildlife are a defining experience of human existence. These interactions can be positive or negative. People compete with wildlife for food and resources, and have eradicated dangerous species; coopted and domesticated valuable species; and applied a wide range of social, behavioral, and technical approaches to reduce negative interactions with wildlife. The scale of conflict is enormous and has led to the extinction and reduction of numerous species and uncountable human deaths and economic losses. Recent advances in our understanding of conflict have led to a growing number of positive conservation and coexistence outcomes. I summarize and synthesize factors that contribute to conflict, approaches that mitigate conflict and encourage coexistence, and emerging trends and debates. Fertile areas for scholarship include scale and complexity, models and scenarios, understanding generalizable patterns, expanding boundaries of what is considered conflict, using new tools and technologies, information sharing and collaboration, and the implications of global change. The time may be ripe to identify a new field, anthrotherology, that brings together scholars and practitioners from different disciplinary perspectives to address human–wildlife conflict and coexistence. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources Volume 41 is October 17, 2016. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
This paper reviews the peer-reviewed scientific literature on interventions aimed to reduce human fear of large
carnivores in human-large carnivore conflicts. Based on psychological theories, a wide definition of fear was
adopted, including fear as an emotion, as a perception and as an attitude. Four major categories of interventions were identified: information and education, exposure to animal and habitat, collaboration and participation, and financial incentives. Each of these categories may have a potential to reduce fear responses. The scientific literature on the effect of interventions addressing human fear of large carnivores is scarce and partly contradictory, which makes it difficult for wildlife managers to rely on current research when designing appropriate interventions.
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This article presents results of a survey of primarily, although not exclusively, European drone industry representatives, regulators and civil society organisations that examined privacy, data protection and ethics with respect to civil drone operations. The article provides snapshot information about the diversity of the drone industry, including information about the types of companies, the types of drones being manufactured and operated, their payloads, capabilities and applications. Using self-reported information from industry representatives, it also demonstrates that these stakeholders do not have a clear understanding of European privacy and data protection law, which can impact their levels of liability and protections for individuals on the ground. With respect to regulators and civil society watchdogs, the results demonstrate that law enforcement, commercial and private (or recreational) drone operators are all thought to be associated with significant privacy, data protection and ethical risks, and that recreational operators are thought to carry the highest risks. However, perceptions of high-risk operators vary among different organisations, raising a potential for regulatory fragmentation. The article concludes with a consideration of the implications of these findings for the regulation of privacy, data protection and ethics for civil drone operations.
Many Australians would concur with the view of the novelist Tim Winton that we have an ‘almost supernatural fear and hatred’ of sharks. Especially in the wake of fatal attacks by great white sharks (on average once or twice per year), the extent of fascination and fear within the population at large is undeniable. This paper rejects the frequently encountered explanation that this is because we have an ‘instinctual’, ‘hard wired’ and ‘primal fear’ of wild animals that can kill people. Its focus instead is on the contemporary cultural interpretations of great whites and their behaviour which come to the fore when fatal attacks take place.
