Review on use of macro algae (seaweed) in fish nutrition

Abstract

Currently, the search is on for alternative sources of feed ingredients, the main reasons being escalated cost and uncertainty of constant supply of common feed ingredients. The importance of algae as a potential substitute protein source for cultured fish feeding has been documented in recent years. Seaweeds are receiving consideration for their high protein value, essential amino acid content, vitamins and trace metals in fish feeding. As well as marine macro algae could be a potential low-cost source of protein for fish. Moreover, the economic comparison of feed cost indicated that increasing level of fresh and dried gut weed in alternative feeding treatments, commercial feed used for fish growth was reduced leading to significantly reduction of feed cost. Use macro algae (seaweed) in fish diets may improves growth parameters, feed efficiency, physiological activity, carcass quality, disease resistance and reduced stress response. This review describes effects of use macro algae (seaweed) in diets on growth performance of fish.

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Journal of Zoological Research | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | April 2020
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jzr.v2i2.2054
Journal of Zoological Research
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REVIEW
Review on Using of Macro Algae (seaweeds) in Fish Nutrition
Hamed H.E. Saleh*
Aquaculture Division, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), El-Fayoum, Egypt
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history
Received: 24 June 2020
Accepted: 17 July 2020
Published Online: 30 July 2020
Currently, the search is on for alternative sources of feed ingredients,
the main reasons being the increasing cost and uncertainty about the
continuous supply of common feed ingredients especially fishmeal
and soybean meal. The importance of macro algae or seaweeds as a
potential substitute protein source for sh nutrition cultured has been
documented in recent years. Macro algae are receiving consideration
for their essential amino acid content and high protein value, trace met-
als and vitamins in sh nutrition. In addition, macro algae or seaweeds
could be a potential low cost source of protein for shes. Furthermore,
the economic comparison of feed cost revealed that the increase in the
level of dried and fresh seaweeds in alternative feeding treatments, and
commercial diets used for fish growth have decreased which led to a
significant decrease in the cost of feed. From the results of previous
studies, using of macro algae (seaweeds) in fish diets may improves
growth performance, feed efficiency, physiological activity, carcass
quality, disease resistance and reduced stress response. This review
describes effects of using of macro algae (seaweeds) in diets on growth
performance of sh.
Keywords:
Feed ingredients
Common feed ingredients
Seaweeds
Macro algae
Fish nutrition
feed cost
*Corresponding Author:
Hamed H.E. Saleh,
Aquaculture Division, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), El-Fayoum, Egypt;
Email: hhsaleh90@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Aquafeed accounts for about 50-80 percent of
aquaculture production cost and therefore, its use
has to be carefully considered and managed. Nu-
tritionally balanced sh diets generally contain sh meal,
soybean meal, wheat bran and yellow corn. Currently, the
search is on for alternative sources of feed ingredients, the
main reasons being the increasing cost and uncertainty
about the continuous supply of common feed ingredients.
The importance of macro algae or seaweeds as a potential
substitute protein source for fish nutrition cultured has
been documented in recent years [1]. The annual global
aquaculture production of macro algae or seaweeds was
145 tonnes (including; brown, green and red seaweeds
and different aquatic plants) in 2007 [2]. Global production
has been dominated by marine macro algae or seaweeds,
grown in both marine water and brackish water. Macro
algae are receiving consideration for their essential ami-
no acid content and high protein value, trace metals and
vitamins in fish nutrition [1]. In addition, macro algae or
seaweeds could be a potential low cost source of protein
for fishes [3]. Furthermore, the economic comparison of
feed cost revealed that the increase in the level of dried
and fresh seaweeds in alternative feeding treatments, and
commercial diets used for fish growth have decreased
which led to a signicant decrease in the cost of feed.

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Journal of Zoological Research | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | April 2020
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jzr.v2i2.2054
Macro algae (seaweeds) are plantlike organisms that
generally live attached to rocks or other solid substra-
ta in coastal areas. Seaweeds belong to three different
groups, empirically distinguished on the basis of thallus
color: green algae (phylum; Chlorophyta, classes; Chlo-
rophyceae, Bryopsidophyceae, Prasinophyceae, Dasy-
cladophyceae and Ulvophyceae), brown algae (phylum;
Heterokontophyta (also known as the Ochrophyta) class;
Phaeophyceae) and red algae (phylum; Rhodophyta).
About 8000 species of macro algae (seaweeds) along the
world’s coast live and they may extend as deep as 270 m
[4]. A total of 350 species of red seaweeds, 90 species of
brown seaweeds and 25 species of green seaweeds are
found in the world sea area that are commercially import-
ant because of their protein, amino acids and mineral con-
tents [5].
The aim of this review was, to evaluate the overall
effects of using of macro algae (seaweeds) in sh diets on
growth rates, survival rate, feed efciency, body chemical
composition and blood indices of shes.
2. Importance of Macro Algae (Seaweeds) in
Fish Nutrition
Marine macro algae (seaweeds) have been used for
healthy feed supplement providing necessary amino acids,
fatty acids, bene cial polysaccharides, antioxidants, min-
erals and vitamins [7,8]. They prefer as food by herbivorous
fishes since their stomach have low pH levels and spe-
cialize guts required for the digestion of plant materials
[9]. Moreover, they improve the im mune system, antiviral,
antimicrobial, improved gut function and stress resistance
serves as an alternative for sh meal, and they would help
to take the pressure off wild sh stocks [10]. There is lim-
ited evidence that herbivorous and omnivorous sh were
more effective at digesting and utilizing seaweed in diet.
Macro algal polysaccharides play vital role in feeding
process since they have direct impact on the efciency of
nutrient assimi lation in sh gut since polysaccharide can
affect digestibility [11]. Alginate extracted from Ascophyl-
lum nodosum etimulated lyso zyme activity of Salmo salar
[12]. Besides the nutritional value, seaweed contain bioac-
tive compounds which exhibited antimicro bial, antiviral,
antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotec tive so
improved the immune response and stress resistance and
act as scavenger to reactive oxygen species “ROS” [13].
Fucoidan from Sargassum wightii increased immunologi-
cal parameters such as phagocytic activity, total leucocyte
count and respiratory burst activity of Pangasianodon hy-
pophthalmus [14].
Inclusion of agar from red seaweed enhanced the sur-
vival rate of Aeromonas hydrophila. Interestingly, seaweed
act as the major market for astaxanthin so act as pigmen-
tation source in aquaculture [15]. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid
equipped with two asymmetric carbon located at the 3
and 3΄ position of the benzenoid rings on either end of
the molecule. In 1987, the United States Food and Drug
Ad ministration approved the use of astaxanthin as a feed
additive for aquaculture and subsequently in 1999 astaxan-
thin where be approved as a nutraceutical. It was the most
important carotenoid in rainbow trouts and salmons [16].
3. Chemical Composition of Macro Algae
(seaweeds)
The protein content of macro algae or seaweeds varies
with different species and seasonal period. In general, the
protein content of brown seaweeds is low (3 - 5% of the
dry weight (DW)) compared to that of the red or green
seaweeds (10 - 47% DW). The content of crude protein,
crud lipid, ber and ash in green seaweeds meals from 7 -
29%, 0.5 - 4%, 3 - 6% and from 13 - 36%, respectively [17,
18]. Macro algae contain low amounts of lipids (1 to 3%),
medium/high amounts of proteins (10 to 47%) and high
amounts of carbohydrates (up to 60%) with a variable
content of mineral ash (7–38%) [19]. The high carbohydrate
content includes a large variety of easily-soluble polysac-
charides, such as mannitol, laminarin, fucoidan or alginate
in brown types; mannans, starch and sulphated galactans
in red types and Ulvan in green types [20]. Other non car-
bohydrate products obtained from macro algae include
proteins, lipids, terpenoids, and phenols and minerals such
as phosphorus, potash and iodine useful for animal nutri-
tion and human [21]. Chemical composition of some macro
algae (seaweeds) are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of some macro algae or
seaweed (moisture (M), crude protein (CP), ether extract
(EE), crude ber (CF) and nitrogen free extract (NFE)) (%,
on dry matter basis)
Species M CP EE CF Ash NFE References
Green algae
M. genu-
exa 88.57 17.63 1.71 -- 36.83 43.83 [22]
M. genu-
exa 88.80 11.78 1.48 -- 53.58 33.16 [22]
E. intesti-
nalis 85.19 15.81 1.35 -- 48.48 34.35 [22]
E. axusa 77.83 25.64 2.16 4.59 28.75 38.86 [23]
E. axusa 78.60 25.03 1.74 4.61 30.19 38.43 [24]
U. lactuca -- 20.33 3.21 9.87 17.98 48.34 [25]
U. fasciata 76.10 27 0.57 9.81 20.06 42.56 [24]
U. fasciata 88.77 20.66 2.44 -- 45.09 31.82 [22]

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Journal of Zoological Research | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | April 2020
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C. glomer-
ata 89.57 8.81 3.09 -- 21.42 66.67 [22]
C. laete-
virens 90.44 14.63 3.64 -- 12.82 68.92 [22]
Red algae
P. capilla-
cea -- 18.92 2.74 12.02 20.95 44.99 [25]
H. cornuta 87.31 11.69 3.61 -- 38.79 45.91 [22]
G. cortica-
ta 94.58 16.41 2.14 -- 15.93 65.52 [22]
G. cortica-
ta 84.08 11.72 1.71 -- 10.32 76.26 [22]
Notes: M., Mougeotia; E., Enteromorpha; U., Ulva; C., Cladophora; P.,
Petrocladia; H., Hypnea; G., Gracilaria.
4. Effect of Using of Macro Algae or Seaweeds
in Diets on Growth Performance of Fish
Recently, there are many researches have been carried out
on the use of seaweeds as ingredient for aquafeed for dif-
ferent sh spe cies. For example but not limited to.
Khalafalla and El-Hais [25] studied the effect of red
algae (Pterocladia capillacea) and green algae (Ulva lac-
tuca) at three levels (0.0, 2.5 and 5%) on blood indices,
growth rates, feed efciency and carcass composition of
Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings. The results showed
that, no signicant effect were obtained for liver enzymes
activity and serum total protein, globulin and albumin.
Values of the growth rates and feed efciency were sig-
nificantly higher with Nile tilapia fed on diets (2.5 and
5%) for both red and green algae supplementation. Fish
fed diet (5%) of green algae (Ulva lactuca) had accept-
able growth rates compared to other diets. Nile tilapia fed
supplemented diets had insignicant effect with slight in-
creases and decreases for carcass lipids and protein. Also,
Garcia-Casal et al. [26] reported that the better growth and
nutrient utilization were using 5% U. rigida dietary sup-
plementation for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). In
addition, Guroy et al. [27] observed that the weight gain
value was higher for Oreochromis niloticus fed on diets
supplemented with different levels of Ulva meal (5 to
10%). The incorporation 5% of green seaweed (Ulva lac-
tuca) in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) feeds promot-
ed growth, diet uti lization, immune response [28]. Siddik
et al. [29] found that, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
fed alternative 1 day commercial diet and 1 consecutive
day dried or fresh seaweeds (Enteromorpha sp.) showed
similar feed efficiency to fish feed the commercial diet.
These results revealed that seaweeds can be used 1 day
after using 1 day commercial diet without affecting feed
efciency of Nile tilapia.
Saleh [23] studied the effect of use fresh macro algae or
seaweeds (Enteromorpha flaxuse) with or without artifi-
cial diet on growth rates, survival percentage and feed ef-
ciency of hybrid red tilapia juvenile. Red tilapia juvenile
were fed on three feeds (articial feed only, fresh macro
algae only and 50% articial feed with 50% fresh macro
algae. The highest final weight and specific growth rate
of sh were recorded with fed on articial feed alone and
fresh algae alone. But, sh fed on articial feed alone led
to higher nal length, total weight gain and daily growth
rate. The best feed conversion ratio was recorded with
red tilapia fed on articial feed alone. Red tilapia juvenile
were not acceptance of feeding on fresh algae with feed-
ing on articial feed, this may be the reason for the lower
growth in this treatment. Survival percentage was within
the range 86–90%, with insignificant differences among
treatments. Also, El-Tawil [30] reported that the specific
growth rate improved signicantly with increasing green
seaweeds (Ulva sp.) level in the diet up to 15% of red ti-
lapia (Oreochromis sp.). And increasing green seaweeds
(Ulva sp.) level beyond 15% had insignicant differences
on growth. Supplementation of Ulva sp. to the prepared
red tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) diet had a positive effect
on feed conversion ratio except red tilapia fed the diet
containing 25% Ulva sp. level with the poorest feed con-
version ratio value [30]. Moreover, Costa et al. [31] observed
that the dried and fresh brown seaweed can be used as a
feed to substitute commercial diets for sh juveniles such
as red tilapia (Oreochromis sp.), spotted scat (Scatophagus
argus) and giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy).
In the other studies, Yousif et al. [32] showed that, rab-
bitsh (Siganus canaliculatus) were fed a diet with addi-
tion of a known weight of fresh green algae (Enteromorpha
sp.) placed in plastic baskets at the bottom of the rearing
tanks was the best in feed conversion ratio than the other
treatments. Moreover, Abdel-Aziz and Ragab [24] who re-
ported that, the green seaweed (Ulva and Enteromorpha)
exhibited a positive effect on growth parameters of rabbit-
sh (Sig anus rivulatus) fry and reduce of the feed cost as
half of the feeding rate with ar ticial diet, but replacement
of articial diet with fresh seaweeds had negative conse-
quences on growth parameters of Sig anus rivulatus fry.
Moreover, Shude et al. [33] indicated that incorporation of
dried seaweeds (Gracilaria lemaneiformis) in rabbitfish
(Siganus canaliculatus) juvenile diet is feasible. In ad-
dition, Xu et al. [34] recommend a level of less than 33%
dried (Gracilaria lemaneiformis) in the Siganus canalicu-
latus diet.
In the study of Kotnala et al. [35] investigated the
growth performance of Indian major carp (Catla catla)
over a period through formulated feeds consisting of three
seaweeds, namely Padina tetrastomatica, Chlorodesmis
fastigiata and Stoechospermum marginatum. The results
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Journal of Zoological Research | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | April 2020
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demonstrated that seaweeds, such as P. tetrastomatica and
C. fastigiata, could be used in commercially formulated
feed to get better growth of the ngerlings of major carps.
Also, Diler et al. [36] reported that the inclusion of Ulva
rigida meal at 5 - 15% replacing wheat meal in sh diets
improved the growth performance of common carp.
Valente et al. [37] studied the inclusion of three seaweeds
Ulva rigida (UR), Gracilaria bursapastoris (GP) and
Gracilaria cornea (GC) in diets of European sea bass (Di-
centrarchus labrax) juveniles on the growth performance,
feed utilisation and body composition. Six diets were for-
mulated to replace 5% (UR-5, GP-5 and GC-5 diets) and
10% (UR-10, GP-10 and GC-10 diets) sh protein hydro-
lysate by each of the three seaweeds. The results showed
that inclusion of UR and GP up to 10%, can be considered
as new ingredients in sea bass diets, as no negative effect
on growth rates, feed efficiency and body composition.
But, the inclusion of GC should be limited to 5% of the
diet. Also, Wassef et al. [38] reported that the feeding sea
bass at low level (5%) of Ulva sp. or Ptercladia capilla-
cea meal had the better growth, survival rates and feed
efciency among all the dietary groups. The inclusion of
5% red seaweed (Pterocladia capillacea) enhanced some
growth performance parameters of European sea bass (Di-
centrarchus labrax) fry, with an increase in body weight,
and weight gain [38].
Yildirim et al. [2] studied the growth performance of
rainbow trout fed with diets containing seaweeds (Entero-
morpha linza and Ulva lactuca). Fishes were fed on three
diets containing (0.0 as control group, 10% Enteromor-
pha linza meal and 10% Ulva lactuca meal) The results
found that a diet with seaweeds (Enteromorpha linza and
Ulva lactuca) inclusion at 10% levels resulted in weaker
growth and feed efciency compared to the control group
of rainbow trout. Elmorshedy [39] observed that the final
body weight and specic growth rate of gray mullet (Liza
ramada) were higher signicantly with increasing macro
algae level (Ulva sp.) up to 28% in the gray mullet diet.
Patel et al. [1] studied the three experimental diets consist-
ing of seaweed Ulva lactuca at 10%, 20% and 30% with
control diet without seaweed on growth and survival of
Labeo rohita fry. Fish fed with 10% Ulva sp. meal ob-
served an increased survival and growth rates and also a
signicant increase was found in specic growth rate, feed
conversion ratio and protein efciency ratio.
Ulva rigida low-level dietary incorporation has im-
proved growth, feed efficiency, carcass quality, disease
resistance, physiological activity and reduced stress re-
sponse [37, 40]. Siddik et al. [29] found that similar survival
rates of Nile tilapia juvenile fed diets with seaweeds and
without seaweeds. Also, Rahman and Meyer [41] showed
that similar survival rates of Common carp fed diet with
seaweeds and without seaweeds.
On the other hand, Siddik et al. [29] reported that lowest
nal body weight and specic growth rate were showed
in treatments feeding dried and fresh seaweeds (Entero-
morpha sp.) as single feeds in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus). Also, the inclusion of 20-30% different macro
algae (Gracilaria cornea, Ulva lactuca, U. rigida and
Cystoseira barbata) in different species of fish meals
decreased all growth performance and feed utiliza tion pa-
rameters [42].
5. Conclusion
These ndings in this review conrm the positive effects
reported on promoted growth rates and survival percent-
age of shes with the addition of macro algae or seaweeds
in sh diets. Using of macro algae (seaweeds) in sh diets
may improves growth performance and feed efficiency
without adverse effects on liver enzymes activity and
blood indices. And Ulva rigida low-level dietary incorpo-
ration has improved growth, feed efciency, carcass qual-
ity, disease resistance, physiological activity and reduced
stress response. Also, using of macro algae in fish diets
had positive effect on growth performance and reduces of
the feed cost.
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Journal of Zoological Research | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | April 2020
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jzr.v2i2.2054