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Sacred'Journeys,'Diasporic'Lives:''Sociality'and'the'Religious'Imagination'
among'Filipinos'in'the'Middle'East.'
Mark'Johnson,'Claudia'Liebelt,'Deirdre'McKay,'Alicia'Pingol'and'Pnina'Werbner'
The$Philippines$is$one$of$the$leading$labour$exporting$countries$in$the$world,$and$Filipino$
migrant$workers$have$been$widely$dispersed$to$localities$in$the$Middle$East,$Europe,$East$
and$Southeast$Asia$and$North$America.$$There$is$now$a$substantial$body$of$work$on$this$vast$
migratory$movement,$much$of$it$focused$on$and$contributing$to$understanding$the$
predicament$of$female$domestic$workers$(Constable$2007,$Parreñas$2003,$Stasiulis$and$
Bakan$2005,$Tyner$2004).$$$This$essay$moves$beyond$the$focus$on$inequalities$associated$
with$Filipino$migrant$labour,$to$attend$to$the$ways$that$those$migrants$transcend$their$
isolation$in$work$contexts$by$seeking$sociality$with$fellow$Filipinos$in$religious$
congregations.$We$ask:$how$does$religion$figure$in$the$social$life$and$imaginings$of$diasporic$
Filipinos,$their$moral$imaginings$and$inscriptions$of$faith$on$sacred$landscapes?$$This$is$
particularly$significant$for$Christian$or$Muslim$migrants$moving$to$countries$that$are$also$
historically$places$of$pilgrimage$holy$to$Christianity$or$Islam.$$Hence,$our$research$focused$
on$these$migrants’$experiences$in$the$Holy$Land,$the$birthplace$of$Christianity,$and$Saudi$
Arabia,$the$birthplace$of$Islam.$$$
Filipinos$are$one$of$the$largest$groups$of$migrants$in$the$Middle$East$(numbering$some$1.5$
million),$making$the$region$home$to$the$largest$population$of$overseas$Filipinos$outside$of$
North$America.$$While$there$is$much$that$might$be$said$about$the$differences$among$
Filipinos$and$their$varied$experiences$living$and$working$in$different$Middle$East$countries,$
our$aim$is$to$highlight$how$attention$to$religion$and$sociality$enables$us$to$reconceptualize$
the$experiences$and$agency$of$lone$Filipino$women$(and$men)$within$this$diaspora.$$1$$
Overseas'Filipino'Workers'and'transnational'relations'of'reproduction'
Filipino$migrants,$women$in$particular,$have$popularly$figured$as$‘maids$to$order’:$$people$
who$leave$the$poverty$of$their$home$country$to$work$as$domestic$servants$in$another$
country$in$pursuit$of$a$better$standard$of$living$for$themselves$and$their$families.$$The$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
1$First$hand$empirical$research$among$Filipinos$living$and$working$in$the$Middle$East$is$
scarce.$$Research$for$this$project$was$funded$by$the$AHRC$(UK)$Diaspora,$Migration$and$
Identity$programme$and$was$carried$out$by$a$team$of$researchers$based$at$the$Universities$
of$Keele$and$Hull$under$the$direction$of$Pnina$Werbner$and$Mark$Johnson.$$$The$majority$of$
the$ethnographic$research$was$carried$out$by$the$projects’$post‐doctoral$fellows:$$Claudia$
Liebelt$(Keele)$among$Christian$Filipino$migrants$and$their$families$in$Israel$and$the$
Philippines,$and$Alicia$Pingol$(Hull)$among$Muslim$Filipino$migrants$and$their$families$in$
Saudi$Arabia$and$the$Philippines.$$Mark$Johnson$(Hull)$carried$out$additional$ethnographic$
research$on$Muslim$Filipino$migrants$who$have$worked$in$the$Middle$East$while$Deirdre$
McKay$(Keele)$is$conducting$research$with$Christian$Filipino$care$workers$who$have$moved$
on$from$the$Middle$East$to$work$in$the$UK.$$$
substantial$body$of$research$on$this$topic$contextualizes$and$complicates$that$popular$
stereotype$describing$and$theorizing$key$features$of$this$major$form$of$population$
movement$in$the$late$20th$and$early$21st$centuries.$First,$this$literature$situates$Filipino$
migrants$within$capitalist‐dominated$labour$flows$and$distributions$of$global$economic$
power.$The$analysis$highlights$the$growing$dependence$of$the$Philippines$(and$other$
developing$Southern$States)$on$migrants’$remittances,$arguing$that$the$state$creates$and$
then$super‐exploits$a$feminised$and$unskilled$migrant$workforce$(Parreñas$2003,$Pertierra$
1992,$Stasiulis$and$Bakan$2005,$Weekly$2004,$c.f.$Gibson,$Law$and$McKay$2001).$$Second,$it$
explores$critically$the$complex$bureaucratic$structures$and$discursive$practices$that$have$
evolved$within$and$across$sending$and$receiving$states$to$ensure$the$production$of$such$
compliant$and$self‐disciplining$subjects.$By$documenting$the$assemblage$of$discourses$and$
bureaucracies$governing$domestic$worker$migration,$this$literature$has$explained$how$the$
circumstances$of$their$labour$migration$tend$to$negate$workers’$individual$rights$and$curtail$
their$capacity$to$act$collectively$to$change$their$working$conditions.$$Though$attentive$to$the$
way$that$Filipinos$resist$their$oppression$through$‘hidden$transcripts’,$these$Foucault‐
inspired$Feminist$critiques$also$emphasize$the$way$that$everyday$acts$of$resistance$are$
nonetheless$circumscribed$by$the$internalization$of$the$regulatory$ideals$of$the$good$
‘foreign’/’national’$worker$(Constable$1997,$Parreñas$2003,$Tyner$2004).$$Third,$this$
literature$describes$how$broader$structures$of$race,$gender$and$class$are$reproduced$in$
everyday$working$practices$and$intimate$spaces$of$the$employer’s$household.$It$explores$
how$the$incorporation$of$Filipino$domestic$workers$into$a$global$system$of$reproductive$
labour$and$care‐work$causes$migrant$women$from$relatively$poor$countries$to$assume$the$
domestic$and$emotional$labour$of$middle$class$women$in$more$affluent$countries.$Migrants’$
own$children,$in$turn,$are$left$in$the$care$of$husbands,$grandmothers$and$other$relatives$at$
home,$in$the$Philippines,$a$pattern$often$reproduced$from$one$generation$to$another,$with$
daughters$following$their$mothers$into$overseas$migration$(Bakan$1995,$Bakan$and$Stasiulis$
1997,$Barber$1997,$Constable$1997,$Parrenas$2005,$Pingol$2002;$for$a$recent$critique$of$the$
‘care$chain’$literature$from$the$perspective$of$Filipino$migrants$see$McKay$2007).$$$
This$dominant$focus$on$work$and$labour$is$undoubtedly$useful$for$an$understanding$
of$Filipino$migrants$as$a$‘labour$diaspora’,$but$it$is$far$from$sufficient$as$a$full$account$of$
Filipino$migrant$lives.$$A$richly$textured$ethnographic$analysis$of$a$Filipino$diaspora$that$
gives$voice$to$migrant$creativity$and$sociality$beyond$the$workplace$‐$without$ignoring$
suffering$within$it$‐$remains$largely$missing$from$the$literature.$Moreover,$the$focus$on$
migrants’$work$conditions$tends$to$ignore$the$fact$that$‐$despite$being$denied$citizenship$–$
many$Filipinos$become$long‐term$residents$in$many$countries$of$destination.$During$their$
extended$stay$they$develop$complex$cultural$practices$and$networks$of$sociality.$While$
migrants’$affective$and$emotional$lives$and$motivations$are$no$doubt$inflected$by$highly$
constraining$regimes$of$economic,$institutional$and$disciplinary$power,$they$are$neither$
reducible$to,$nor$exhausted$by$them.$$Even$when$they$face$continuous$predicaments$in$
their$work$contexts,$Filipinos$nevertheless$find$ways$of$creating$spaces$for$socialising$and$
celebration$that$deny$their$image$as$culturally$impoverished$‘docile$bodies’.$$$
Beyond'‘Maids'to'Order’:''spiritual'sojourns'in'sacred'places.$
Addressing$these$gaps$in$the$literature$on$Filipino$diaspora,$our$project$has$explored$
migrants’$emotional$and$intellectual$engagement$with$the$social$and$symbolic$geographies$
of$host$countries.$$$Work$in$the$Middle$East$is$often$viewed$as$a$stepping$stone,$and$second$
best,$to$work$in$a$‘Western’$country$such$as$the$USA,$Canada$or$the$UK$(Johnson$1998,$
Liebelt$2008a).$$However,$for$Muslim$and$Christian$Filipinos,$living$and$working$at$the$holy$
centres$or$homelands$of$their$respective$faiths$may$mitigate$the$hardships$of$living$in$exile$
and$the$difficult$working$conditions.$$Filipino$migrants$in$many$parts$of$the$world$talk$about$
the$sacrifices$they$make$in$order$to$support$their$families$and$loved$ones$back$home.$That$
sacrifice$may$take$on$an$altogether$more$religious$dimension$when$‐$as$some$Muslim$
Filipino$workers$do$‐$they$talk$about$their$labour$in$sacred$places,$such$as$Makkah$or$
Madinah,$as$work$whose$reward$is$deemed$not$only$or$primarily$to$come$in$this$life$but$in$
the$life$hereafter.$$So$too,$Christian$Filipinos$describe$their$work$in$Israel$as$enabling$them$
to$come$into$metonymic$contact$with$the$holy$land$and$its$sacred$sites,$and$portray$the$
challenge$of$caring$for$the$elderly$as$part$and$parcel$of$their$ministry$of$spreading$the$
gospel$(Liebelt$2008a).$$
For$migrants,$religion$is$not$simply$about$the$rewards$of$the$afterlife.$Their$varied$religious$
engagements$and$familiarity$with$a$sacred$landscape$may$increase$their$cultural$capital$at$
home.$$Undertaking$the$hajj$or$umrah)exemplifies$this$point.$$Whereas$before,$undertaking$
the$hajj$was$impossible$for$all$but$the$most$affluent$of$Muslim$Filipinos,$one$of$the$positive$
benefits$of$working$in$the$Middle$East,$for$women$as$well$as$men,$is$that$many$have$been$
able$to$fulfil$this$final$pillar$of$Islam.$In$the$process,$they$have$also$increased$both$their$own$
and$their$families$social$standing$and$prestige.$$The$significance$of$the$hajj$for$Muslim$
Filipino$workers$is$attested$to$by$the$fact$that$some$respondents$reported$walking$out$on$
employers$who$prevented$them$from$going$on$pilgrimage.2$But$equally,$there$are$other$
examples$of$employers$who$not$only$allowed$but$positively$encouraged$and$sometimes$
assisted$their$employees$in$making$the$hajj.$
Christian$Filipinos$similarly$can$gain$respect$and$prestige$from$people$at$home$who$
acknowledge$them$as$pilgrims$in$their$journeys$to$‘the$Holy$Land’.$Working$as$caregivers$in$
private$homes,$Filipinos$not$only$learn$Hebrew,$but$get$an$intimate$picture$of$Jewish$culture$
and$religion,$especially$appreciated$as$knowledge$of$Christian$roots$among$evangelical$
Christians.$Catholic$lay$groups$and$independent$evangelical$churches,$formed$by$female$
Filipino$domestic$workers,$organise$Catholic$Block$Rosary$Crusades$in$Tel$Aviv,$pilgrimages$
to$Holy$Sites$in$the$Galilee,$Jerusalem$or$Bethlehem,$and$frequently$engage$in$long‐distance$
philanthropy.$As$with$zamzam$water$from$Makkah,$the$films$and$pictures$taken$and$the$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
2$$See$Werbner$(1999)$for$a$similar$response$among$Pakistani$migrants$to$the$Gulf.$$$$$
devotional$items$acquired$during$pilgrimages$travel$back$to$the$Philippines,$supporting$
migrants’$claims$that$their$sacred$journeys$have$enhanced$their$spiritual$knowledge$and$
potency.$$
Migrants,$by$establishing$religious$congregations$in$their$places$of$settlement,$create$
community$away$from$home.$$This$is$a$salient$feature$of$migration$often$ignored$in$studies$
of$overseas$Filipinos,$not$all$of$whom$are$religious.$For$those$who$are,$religion$fills$their$lives$
with$social$events,$from$congregational$meetings$and$prayers$to$the$joyful$celebration$of$
ritual$festivals$like$Christmas$or$Eid‐el$Fitr.$$Some$of$these$festivals$may$take$place$in$
churches$or$mosques,$others$in$homes$where$Eid$celebrations,$for$example,$bring$together$
migrant$co‐workers$and$employers$along$with$their$extended$families.$This$regular$and$
recurrent$sharing$of$religious$events$provides$opportunities$for$migrant$workers$who$may$
otherwise$live$relatively$isolated$lives$during$the$week$to$celebrate$in$the$company$of$co‐
religionists$and$fellow$Filipinos,$to$gossip,$joke$and$chat$while$providing$advice$and$mutual$
aid.$$Importantly,$these$ritual$events$can$enjoy$broader$social$sanction$in$the$host$societies.$
Filipino$migrants$are$well$known$for$meeting$and$socializing$in$the$more$secular$contexts$of$
public$parks$and$shopping$malls.$One$of$the$best$documented$examples$of$these$is$the$
Sunday$gathering$of$Filipino$domestic$workers$in$Hong$Kong$(Constable$1997,$McKay$2005).$
Here,$Filipinos,$largely$engaged$in$domestic$work,$routinely$colonize$the$space$of$the$central$
business$district$after$attending$church.$On$the$streets,$in$the$parks,$and$along$the$
pavements,$they$meet,$share$food$and$exchange$news$and$goods$with$fellow$migrants$from$
the$same$village,$town$or$province$in$the$Philippines.$$Their$village$gatherings$recreate$and$
extend$a$sense$of$ethnic$affiliation$and$village$material$and$cultural$economy$in$a$translocal$
space$(McKay$2005).$These$gatherings$are$also$sites$of$political$agency$where$migrants$form$
‘home‐town$associations’$that$engage$in$philanthropy$and$political$action$at$home$and$
support$internal$migration$within$the$Philippines$(McKay$2005,$McKay$and$Brady$2005.)$$$
In$the$Middle$East,$Filipino$migrants$similarly$recreate$the$conviviality$of$home$and$ethnicity$
in$various$ways.$$In$Tel$Aviv,$they$colonise$the$Central$Bus$Station$for$karaoke,$shopping,$
self‐decoration,$clubbing$and$get‐togethers.$$Elsewhere$in$the$Middle$East$where$public$
gatherings$are$more$circumscribed,$informal$and$mixed$groups$of$Muslim$and$Christian$
Filipinos$hire$private$venues$and$congregate$in$makeshift$parks$(designated$kamsa‐kamsa$
because$of$the$five$Riyal$charge),$recreating$‘fiestas’$in$desert$locales.$$Here,$religious$events$
and$congregations,$like$the$more$secular$social$occasions$and$modes$of$exchange$in$Hong$
Kong,$may$help$to$create$and$enhance$a$sense$of$a$shared$home$place$in$diaspora$by$
fostering$close$links$with$particular$places$in$the$Philippines.$$Thus,$for$example,$a$pilgrimage$
group$in$Tel$Aviv‐Jaffa$donates$money$for$building$a$chapel$to$a$specific$congregation$in$
South$Cotabato$in$the$Southern$Philippines,$while$in$Jeddah,$a$group$of$Christian$Filipino$
converts$to$Islam$(referred$to$as$‘reverts’$or$balik)Islam)$sends$money$to$support$the$
building$of$a$mosque$in$their$home$town$in$Luzon.$$
Shared$religious$practice$also$draws$in$co‐religionists$from$other$countries$and$from$other$
parts$of$the$Philippines$in$ways$that$transcend$ethnic$and$village$localities.$Worshiping$
together$simultaneously$creates$and$consolidates$a$wider$sense$of$shared$national$
affiliation$and$of$belonging$to$a$global$community$of$believers.$$Muslim$Filipinos,$for$
example,$both$claim$what$they$regard$as$their$rightful$place$among$the$universal$
community$of$the$faithful,$but$also$routinely$contrast$themselves$as$Muslim$Filipinos$to$
Arab$Muslims.$$For$Muslim$Filipinos$that$distinction$is$often$articulated$in$religious$terms:$$
Arabs$may$have$been$blessed$by$being$the$ones$to$whom$the$Prophet$and$Qu’ran$were$
sent,$and$hence$may$have$more$in$the$way$of$religious$knowledge$and$be$better$informed$
about$appropriate$religious$conduct$and$ritual$practice.$$However,$what$Muslim$Filipinos$
lack$in$the$way$of$head$knowledge$they$more$than$made$up$for$in$terms$of$a$purity$and$
steadfastness$of$heart.$$Just$as$evangelical$Christian$Filipinos$regarded$themselves$as$
missionaries$and$evangelists$in$the$Holy$Land,$some$Muslim$Filipinos$saw$themselves$as$
performing$da’wah,)calling$non‐believers$to$revert$and$return$to$Islam$(balik)Islam),$and$
fellow$believers,$among$them$Arab$Muslims,$to$renew$their$faith$and$examine$their$heart.$$$$$$$$
The$idea$of$membership$in$a$universal$community$of$believers$is$important$in$establishing$a$
language$of$shared$ethics$across$divisions$of$status$and$power.$$This$is$especially$so$in$
situations$for$lone$migrant$workers$who$have$little$recourse$to$employment$and$citizen$or$
residential$rights$and$little$or$nothing$in$the$form$of$collective$representation.$$$For$such$
people,$religion$may$be$an$important$means$of$making$and$pressing$moral$claims$both$on$
fellow$workers$$‐$to$socialize,$to$exchange,$to$share$‐$and$on$employers,$even$if$it$is$only$to$
persuade$them$to$allow$their$employees$to$participate$in,$if$not$take$time$off$work$for$
shared$religious$events.$For$some$migrant$workers,$religion$was$the$primary$language$for$
talking$about$and$defending$one’s$sense$of$self$and$personhood.$Religion$offered$a$means$
of$expressing$social$agency$in$those$diasporic$situations$where$they$might$otherwise$be$
forced$to$comply$with$and$bear$the$everyday$humiliations$of$subordination$and$difficult$
working$conditions$in$exchange$for$a$relatively$small$sum$of$money$to$send$home.$$$$$
Migrants$engaged$religion$to$express$their$agency$in$a$variety$of$ways.$Muslim$Filipinos$had$
recourse$to$a$form$of$lamentation$where$emotional$outpouring$in$the$form$of$cries,$tears$
and$sobs$in$‘public’$spaces$within$the$home$or$work$place$are$accompanied$by$the$pointed$
and$vocal$recitation$of$Qu’ranic$versus$in$the$presence$of$their$Arab$employers.$$Filipino$
domestic$workers$caring$for$elderly$Jews$have$learned$about$and$drawn$parallels$between$
Jewish$sufferings$and$experiences$of$exile$and$their$own$diaspora$experiences.$This$learning$
enable$one$group$to$declare$to$state$policymakers,$‘We$are$the$Jews$of$today’$(Liebelt$
2008b).$
Religion$shapes$the$expectations$and$experiences$of$particular$places$and$host$societies$for$
both$Christian$and$Muslim$Filipino$migrants.$$While$a$religious$stress$on$self‐sacrifice,$
endurance$and$good$works$can,$paradoxically,$reinforce$and$consolidate$dominant$
discourses$that$produce$docile$and$disciplined$bodies,$religion$can,$at$the$same$time,$
facilitate$social$networks$and$mobilisation$against$exploitation$by$enabling$new$forms$of$
sociality.$Religion$is$thus$an$important$symbolic$resource$for$people$in$the$struggle$for$
recognition$and$rights$both$at$home$and$abroad.$Framing$forms$of$sociality$and$social$action$
within$a$moral$discourse$among$an$imagined$universal$community$of$believers$not$only$
helps$migrants$to$make$longer$sojourns$bearable,$but$also$opens$up$ways$of$negotiating$a$
sense$of$belonging$and$cultural$citizenship$in$host$nations.$$$
Conclusion'
The$centrality$of$religion$in$the$study$of$migration$and$diaspora$is$by$no$means$new.$$
Religion$has$been$a$focus$of$much$recent$research$on$new$diasporas$in$the$West,$and$their$
claims$to$citizenship$(Warner$and$Wittner$1998).$$Our$goal,$however,$is$not$simply$to$extend$
religion$as$the$primary$analytical$lens$through$which$to$understand$the$social$lives$and$
movements$of$another$diaspora,$that$of$Filipino$migrant$workers.$$Rather$the$broader$
analytical$and$political$purpose$of$our$research$has$been$to$frame$the$experience$of$lone$
migrants,$particularly$domestic$workers,$through$an$alternative$discourse$that$does$not$
simply$reduce$them$to$docile$bodies$or$vulnerable$victims.$Instead,$we$highlight$migrants’$
volitional$movements$to$and$creative$engagements$with$places$and$landscapes$that$may$be$
sacred$or$secular$and$sometimes$an$alternating$combination$of$both.$$Filipinos,$we$show,$
like$other$migrant$groups,$also$engage$in$processes$of$community$formation,$networking$
and$moral$obligation.$These$enable$them$to$win$recognition$and$distinction$among$fellow$
migrants$and$those$left$at$home,$to$recreate$a$universe$of$conviviality$and$sociality,$and$to$
re‐centre$their$place$of$work$within$an$imagined$global$ecumene$of$open$boundaries$and$
constant$movement.$$
Further'Reading'
'
Constable,$N.$(2007)$Maid)to)Order)in)Hong)Kong.)Stories)of)Migrant)Worker,)2nd)Edition.))
Ithaca,$Cornell$University$Press.$
$
Liebelt,$C.$(2008)$On$Sentimental$Orientalists,$Christian$Zionists,$and$‘Working$Class$
Cosmopolitans’:$Filipina$Domestic$Workers’$Journeys$to$Israel$and$Beyond,$Critical)Asian)
Studies,$40(4).$
$
McKay,$ D.$ (2007)$ ‘Sending$ Dollars$ Shows$ Feeling’$ –$ Emotions$ and$ Economies$ in$ Filipino$
Migration,$Mobilities$2(2),)175–194.$
$
Parreñas,$R.$S.$(2001)$Servants)of)Globalization:)Women,)Migration)and)Domestic)Work,)
Stanford,$Stanford$University$Press.$
$
Pingol,$Alicia.$(2001)$Remaking)Masculinities,$Quezon$City,$University$of$the$Philippines‐
University$Center$for$Women’s$Studies.$
$
Tyner,$J.$A.$(2004)$Made)in)the)Philippines.)Gendered)discourses)and)the)making)of)migrants,$
London,$Routledge.$
$
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