ArticlePublisher preview available

Identification With the Aggressor and Inward and Outward Aggression in Abuse Survivors

SAGE Publications Inc
Journal of Interpersonal Violence
Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract and Figures

Childhood abuse survivors may display both inward and outward aggression manifested in self-injurious behavior (SIB) and violent acts toward others. Scrutinizing the literature reveals that the relational dynamics between victims and their perpetrators might be involved in these phenomena. Yet, research on this subject matter has been sparse. Filling this gap, this study investigated the contribution of the singular bonds between victims and their perpetrators, known as identification with the aggressor, in explaining survivors’ aggression. The study was conducted among 306 Israeli college/university students who reported a history of childhood abuse. Results revealed that levels of adopting the perpetrator’s experience, identifying with the perpetrator’s aggression, and replacing one’s agency with that of the perpetrator were significantly associated with survivors’ inward and outward aggression. Moreover, profile type—that is, having high versus low levels of identification with the aggressor—was implicated in participants’ SIBs, urge to harm others, and violent acts toward others, above and beyond the effects of gender and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. The present findings suggest that identification with the aggressor might make survivors prone to the re-enactment of past abusive dynamics, which, in turn, could eventuate in aggression toward themselves and others.
This content is subject to copyright.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520938516
Journal of Interpersonal Violence
© The Author(s) 2020
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0886260520938516
journals.sagepub.com/home/jiv
Original Research
Identification With the
Aggressor and Inward
and Outward Aggression
in Abuse Survivors
Yael Lahav, PhD,1 Santiago Allende, MS,2
Anat Talmon, PhD,3 Karni Ginzburg, PhD,1
and David Spiegel, MD3
Abstract
Childhood abuse survivors may display both inward and outward aggression
manifested in self-injurious behavior (SIB) and violent acts toward others.
Scrutinizing the literature reveals that the relational dynamics between
victims and their perpetrators might be involved in these phenomena. Yet,
research on this subject matter has been sparse. Filling this gap, this study
investigated the contribution of the singular bonds between victims and
their perpetrators, known as identification with the aggressor, in explaining
survivors’ aggression. The study was conducted among 306 Israeli college/
university students who reported a history of childhood abuse. Results
revealed that levels of adopting the perpetrator’s experience, identifying
with the perpetrator’s aggression, and replacing one’s agency with that of
the perpetrator were significantly associated with survivors’ inward and
outward aggression. Moreover, profile type—that is, having high versus low
levels of identification with the aggressor—was implicated in participants’
SIBs, urge to harm others, and violent acts toward others, above and beyond
1Tel Aviv University, Israel
2Palo Alto University, CA, USA
3Stanford University, CA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Yael Lahav, Department of Occupational Therapy, The Stanley Steyer School of Health
Professions, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, P.O.B. 39040, Ramat Aviv, Tel-
Aviv 69978, Israel.
Email: yaellah1@tauex.tau.ac.il
938516JIVXXX10.1177/0886260520938516Journal of Interpersonal ViolenceLahav et al.
research-article2020
2022, Vol. 37(5-6) 2705 –2728
... One aspect to consider is that bullies may be victims of unfavorable life situations, such as having experienced domestic violence in their childhood or facing psychological problems and emotional deficiencies [44,45]. These factors can influence their behavior, since exposure to violence can normalize it and the lack of positive role models can lead to the repetition of aggressive patterns [46]. In addition, problems such as untreated mental disorders and substance abuse can aggravate the tendency to violence, while socioeconomic factors such as poverty and chronic stress can increase frustration and aggression [47]. ...
... The students who execute this type of action against their peers, according to teachers' perceptions, are young people with a high level of self-esteem, dominant, aggressive, and have little empathy, ideas that are associated with other previous studies [27,[41][42][43]. It would be interesting to address the different causes that may have caused these students to become aggressors, since it is estimated that the fact of having lived through different unfavorable circumstances may influence these young people to repeat aggressive patterns [44][45][46][47]. On the other hand, teachers indicate that students who are victims of bullying are characterized by not having many friends, presenting poor social skills, low self-esteem, and possessing anxiety problems, aspects that are also reflected in other research [39,40]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Bullying is a social problem that usually increases during adolescence and can have serious consequences on the wellbeing of students. One of the members of the educational community that is most present in these situations is the teachers. This qualitative research aims to know the teachers' perceptions about bullying among adolescents within the school environment. It was possible to deepen the experiences of 20 teachers by conducting semistructured interviews with open-ended questions. The results obtained indicate that education professionals have been bystanders to episodes of bullying among their students and that they opt for mediation between both parties (bully and victim) as an intervention measure. Teachers believe that bullied students tend to be young people with low self-esteem, introverted and sad. On the contrary, bullies are shown to be leaders with social support, egocentric, and with low empathy. The need to know the different perceptions and strategies used by teachers in situations of bullying among their students is discussed, with the intention of promoting resources and programs that can help them in this type of situation.
... Our results further documented the unique contribution of IWA in understanding ambivalent acknowledgment. In line with previous studies among abuse survivors (Lahav, Allende, et al., 2020), the current analyses revealed two IWA profiles among participants, reflecting high versus low IWA scores. Additionally, in our final regression model, which included IWA profile type and CSA features, we found that IWA profile type had a significant effect on explaining ambivalent acknowledgment. ...
... These individuals often display a poor psychosocial profile, including reactive aggression, anxiety, and depressive symptoms [18,19]. In cases of childhood abuse, victims who identify with aggressors exhibit both inward (self-injurious behaviour) and outward aggression (violent acts toward others) [20]. In school settings, defiant victims often engage in reciprocal aggressive relationships, acting as both perpetrators and victims of aggression [21]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background/Objectives: The primary factors influencing victimisation in bullying have recently become a topic of debate in the psychological literature. This research sought to explore the association between self-criticism (as captured in terms of inadequate self, hated self, and reassured self) and bullying victimisation, also addressing the moderating effects of gender. Methods: This study relies on a cross-sectional research design, enrolling a sample of 328 adolescents (Mage = 14.93; SDage = 0.81; 162 females, 49.4%). Participants completed a short questionnaire about their age, gender, and family’s socio-economic status. They also answered questions from the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale and the Florence Bullying and Victimisation Scales. Results: Statistical analysis indicated gender moderated only the interplay between hated self and bullying victimisation. Conclusions: Through a multidimensional approach, these findings provided further insight into the primary factors of self to the phenomenon of bullying victimisation, also yielding further evidence about the key role of gender during a critical developmental stage, such as adolescence. Limitations, implications, and future research directions are discussed.
... Ferenczi (1933) and Freud (1936) were the first to write about the phenomenon of trauma-related aggression, called "identification with the aggressor. " Identifying with the aggressor is a wide-ranging, multifaceted process which goes beyond behavioral mimicking of the attacker's aggression, Lahav et al. (2022). Ferenczi's theory reveals four main aspects: losing one's agency and replacing it with that of the aggressor or perpetrator; becoming hypersensitive to the perpetrator; adopting the perpetrator's experience concerning the abuse, and identifying with the perpetrator's aggression (Lahav et al., 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
As women in the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) are increasingly placed in supportive and combat roles in active war zones, they routinely encounter and participate in violent acts. This study focusses on the centrality of gendered inequality and oppression as a factor that shapes not only women’s experience in the military but also their responses in cases of excessive violence. The goal of this study was to explore the ways women veterans of combat or combat-support units conceptualize their stance regarding violent acts which they either committed or witnessed in war zones. Using a qualitative approach, we analyzed the retrospective testimonies of 58 Israeli women veterans from the archives of an NGO that documents veteran combatants exposure to excessive violence. Most women explained their violent acts as inherent to the military system and culture, which in our analysis was categorized as examples of either internalized gender oppression or as identification with the aggressor. A smaller number of women described their attempts to protest, as they took a moral stance rooted in a feminine perspective. The three explanations revealed through the analysis of the testimonies reflect the inner tension experienced by many women in the military, as they navigate between two extreme positions, either as victims of male dominance, or as aggressors that are part of a powerful military system. In this study, gendered inequality provides a framework for analyzing the data. Thus, this study contributes to the theoretical knowledge and methodological approaches concerning violent situations in combat areas, focusing on the various ways in which women veterans subjectively and retroactively conceptualize their participation in and responses to violent acts.
Article
Background: Childhood abuse (CA) is a risk factor for trauma-related disorders including post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD). This severe form of interpersonal trauma may result in “identification with the aggressor” (IWA), in which the individual may take on the beliefs, perspectives, and behaviors of the perpetrator. Although previous evidence suggests that IWA may be particularly related to CPTSD as compared to PTSD, there has been no study that investigated this hypothesis. Objective: The current study explored the relations between IWA and PTSD and CPTSD symptoms, and the contribution of IWA to the excess probability of PTSD and CPTSD classifications, as compared to no classification. Participants and setting: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 320 Israeli adult CA survivors aged 21–63 (M = 42.04, SD = 10.81). Methods: An online survey was completed by a convenience sample of adult CA survivors. Results: Replacing one's agency with that of the perpetrator as part of IWA had a significant effect on both PTSD and CPTSD symptoms (ES = 0.36 and 0.24, respectively), and served as a risk factor for both PTSD and CPTSD classifications. Moreover, analysis of the models' predicted values rקveals that the predicted probability of CPTSD classification was 3 to 5 times higher than on the probability of PTSD classifications, for low to high values of the replacing one's agency scale, respectively. Conclusions: The current findings suggest that IWA may describe some of the deep and long- lasting detriments of CA on self, and may contribute to the development of CPTSD symptoms.
Chapter
Full-text available
This chapter explores the relationship between Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and violent behavior. PTSD is often linked to increased risk of violence, including self-directed, interpersonal, and collective violence. The chapter examines the biological, psychological, and environmental factors contributing to this association, highlighting the neurobiological mechanisms and cognitive processes involved. It also discusses the challenges in assessing and diagnosing PTSD-related violence and reviews various treatment approaches, including psychopharmacological interventions and trauma-focused therapies. By providing a comprehensive overview of current research and clinical practices, this chapter aims to enhance the understanding and management of violence in individuals with PTSD, emphasizing the importance of integrated and innovative approaches.
Article
Full-text available
This article provides an overview of the psychological dynamics associated with torture and examines its consequences on the victims. Initially, we investigate the psychological processes driving torturers to engage in extreme violence and brutality. Central to this exploration are the concepts of dehumanization and desensitization, which allow torturers to emotionally distance themselves from their victims and enact their aggressive behaviors. We elucidate how dehumanization and desensitization are often associated with the presence of a disordered personality, such as psychopathy, antisocial personality disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder. Subsequently, we delve into the complex interplay of survival and defense mechanisms utilized by victims during the traumatic experience of torture. We examine how victims may form a traumatic bond with their tormentors as a coping mechanism for their physical and psychological suffering-a bond that may persist even after their release. This bond may manifest as a heteronomous will, in which victims continue to adhere to the torturer's demands even after liberation, resulting in a deconstruction of their identity and a profound sensation of existing as "living dead." This enduring bound can profoundly impact victims' emotions, behaviors, and relationships, contributing to the onset of severe clinical conditions, with evidence showing increased prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, and somatic symptoms among survivors. Finally, we evaluate therapeutic interventions that have demonstrated effectiveness in treating individuals who have endured torture. Drawing from a diverse range of therapeutic approaches, such as psychodynamic psychotherapy, trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy, narrative exposure therapy, and the wraparound approach, clinicians can address the multifaceted psychological needs of torture survivors. Through empathetic and respectful therapeutic interventions, torture victims can receive the necessary support to navigate through the processing of their traumatic experiences. Consequently, they can regain a sense of agency and restore their self-esteem, thereby progressing along the trajectory towards achieving healing and recovery.
Article
Full-text available
Complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) is a term representing the psychopathological implications of exposure to chronic, inter‐personal trauma. These include the main symptoms of PTSD, as well as changes in identity, emotion regulation, and inter‐personal relationships. Self‐harm and dissociation (i.e., disintegration of mental processes) are also quite common in CPTSD. Considering this complex and often severe clinical picture, mental health professionals often find it difficult to effectively treat CPTSD. In this paper, we present an integrative approach to the treatment of CPTSD based on a combination of techniques from several psychotherapy approaches. The case described here illustrates the need for therapeutic flexibility and eclecticism when treating individuals exposed to chronic trauma. We show the advantages of flexible therapeutic attunement, which enables the therapist to respond to the changing need of the patient, as well as her fluid clinical picture and symptom manifestation. The case also illustrates how interventions taken from psychodynamic therapy, Dialectical behavior therapy, and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing may be applicable in various stages of treatment, alleviating the patient's distress in several psychological and physical domains.
Chapter
In an attuned caregiving relationship, the child develops the ability to meet the ongoing demands of experiences with a range of emotions. They are socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions, as well as the ability to delay reactions as needed. When these opportunities are limited or absent, the child will develop coping strategies within the context of their traumatic experiences. These management behaviors are the child’s attempt to gain some mastery over their own sense of safety and security. However, the strategies are used with limited adaptability or flexibility to varying surroundings and situations. This impedes the child in positive social engagement and learning.
Article
Full-text available
Identifying with the aggressor is a process wherein victims of abuse, particularly during childhood, take on their perpetrator’s experience. The victim defers to the perpetrator and adopts the perpetrator’s experience, learns the perpetrator’s desires and needs, and gratifies them. Although the clinical and theoretical literature suggests that identification with the aggressor occurs in the aftermath of abuse and has negative long-term implications, to date this concept has not been empirically investigated. To facilitate an exploration of this subject, the current study evaluated the psychometric properties of a new measure: the Identification With the Aggressor Scale (IAS). The study was conducted among convenience samples of students using online surveys. In Study 1, the IAS was administered to 318 students. In Study 2, the IAS, and a battery of questionnaires assessing features of abuse, dissociation, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and posttraumatic guilt were administered to a convenience sample of 368 students. Four reliable IAS factors emerged from Study 1: Adopting the perpetrator’s experience concerning the abuse, identifying with the perpetrator’s aggression, replacing one’s agency with that of the perpetrator, and becoming hypersensitive to the perpetrator. In Study 2, a confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the scale’s underlying factor structure. A history of childhood abuse, recurrence and severity of abuse, and the perpetrator being a parental figure were all associated with higher IAS scores. In addition, IAS scores were correlated with dissociation, PTSD symptoms, and posttraumatic guilt. The present findings indicate that the IAS has good psychometric properties, making it useful as an assessment tool in future research.
Article
This study of college undergraduates (N = 873) examined three hypotheses regarding associations between childhood sexual abuse and lifetime aggression: 1) childhood sexual abuse was expected to account for unshared variance in the lifetime aggression indicators after controlling for the potential effects of parental physical abuse, sibling physical abuse, exposure to intimate partner violence, peer bullying, and respondent age; 2) childhood sexual abuse associations were expected to be relatively stronger among the women than the men; 3) childhood sexual abuse links to lifetime aggression were expected to vary as a function of age of victimization (adolescent < childhood < dual-age victims). Aggression histories varied widely with over 20% reporting prior injuries inflicted on others (3.2% > five injuries). Sexual abuse links to aggression tended to be stronger (p < .001) for the women than the men, and rates of aggression were higher when sexual abuse recurred across both childhood and adolescence. Partial support was found for all three hypotheses.
Article
Background: Over the past several years there has been considerable interest in the relation between emotion dysregulation and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), particularly given that rates of NSSI have been increasing and NSSI is a critical risk factor for suicidal behavior. To date, however, no synthesis of empirical findings exists. Methods: The present study presents a comprehensive meta-analytic review of the literature on the association between NSSI and emotion dysregulation. A total of 48 publications, including 49 independent samples, were included in this analysis. Results: Overall, a significant association was found between emotion dysregulation and NSSI (pooled OR = 3.03 [95% CI = 2.56-3.59]). This association was reduced but remained significant (OR = 2.40 [95% CI = 2.01-2.86]) after adjustment for publication bias. Emotion dysregulation subscales most strongly associated with NSSI included limited access to regulation strategies, non-acceptance of emotional responses, impulse control difficulties, and difficulties engaging goal-directed behavior. Lack of emotional awareness/clarity and cognitive aspects of dysregulation yielded weaker, yet significant, positive associations with NSSI. Conclusions: Findings support the notion that greater emotion dysregulation is associated with higher risk for NSSI among individuals across settings, regardless of age or sex. Furthermore, findings reveal facets of dysregulation that may have unique implications for NSSI. This meta-analysis highlights the importance of better understanding emotion dysregulation as a treatment target for preventing NSSI.
Article
Several studies have demonstrated a vicious cycle of violence, in which experiences of childhood maltreatment (CM) transition into later perpetration of aggressive acts. But evidence for the presence of this cycle in adult women is mixed. The aim of this meta-analysis is to investigate the strength of associations and the mechanisms underlying a cycle of violence in women. Databases were searched for terms related to female aggression, violence, delinquency, antisocial behavior, or offending in addition to exposure to traumatic experiences, abuse, or maltreatment during childhood. Only peer-reviewed studies were included that investigated associations between any type of CM and different acts of aggression. Multi-level meta-analyses were applied, as well as meta-regressions, all based on Cohen's d . K = 34 studies were identified. The overall association between exposure to CM was in the positive but small range (Cohen's d = 0.30). There was no significant difference between specific types of abuse and/or neglect. However, associations were smaller for the perpetration of sexual aggression and violent crime compared with other acts of aggression. These findings underline the long-lasting and devastating impact of CM, including types of maltreatment that were long assumed to be less severe. Due to the limited number of available studies, interactions between types of CM and aggression could not be modeled, thus compromising their probable interacting contribution to the cycle of violence. Early interventions targeting families and women at risk are critical in order to prevent ongoing cycles of violence.
Article
Utilizing a sample of 400 homeless street youth, the study draws on the social schematic theory of crime to examine if childhood trauma (physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse) is linked to the development of a criminogenic knowledge structure (CKS) that mediates its relationship with violence. Results indicate childhood trauma is directly associated with the CKS. They also show that it is indirectly related through violent peers. The CKS in turn is directly linked to violence as are childhood trauma and violent peers. The CKS also mediates the relationship childhood trauma and violent peers have with violence. Violent peers likewise mediate the association between childhood trauma and violence. The link between childhood trauma and violence is also serially mediated through violent peers and the CKS. Findings suggest the social schematic theory offers a valuable explanation for the link between childhood trauma and violence.
Article
Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) poses a risk for sexual revictimization. Additionally, according to theory CSA may lead to identification with the aggressor, expressed by adopting the perpetrator’s experience concerning the abuse; identifying with the perpetrator’s aggression; replacing one’s agency with that of the perpetrator; and becoming hyper-sensitive to the perpetrator. Although clinical impressions suggest that identification with the aggressor underlies reenactment of trauma, this linkage between identification with the aggressor and sexual revictimization remains largely uninvestigated. This study assessed (a) the relationship between identification with the aggressor (total score and four subscales) and sexual revictimization; (b) the unique associations between identification with the aggressor (total score and four subscales) and sexual revictimization, above and beyond chronicity of abuse and PTSD symptoms. Participants were Israeli women students who reported a history of CSA (n = 174). Analyses indicated significant correlations between two subscales of identification with the aggressor – replacing one’s agency with that of the perpetrator and becoming hyper-sensitive to the perpetrator – and sexual revictimization. These subscales of identification with the aggressor were associated with sexual revictimization, above and beyond the effects of chronicity of the abuse and PTSD symptoms. Nevertheless, these associations were in opposite directions – while replacing one’s agency with that of the perpetrator was related with higher occurrence of sexual revictimization, becoming hyper-sensitive to the perpetrator was related with lower levels of revictimization. These results imply that identification with the aggressor may serve as a multifaceted phenomenon in the context of sexual revictimization, comprised of both adaptive and maladaptive aspects.
Article
This study sought to enhance knowledge of the link between child sexual abuse (CSA) and long-term criminality by investigating gender-specific effects and the role of index sexual abuse characteristics, revictimization, and serious mental health problems. An Australian sample of 2,759 documented cases of sexual abuse and 2,677 community controls were linked to statewide police records and public mental health service databases, with a follow-up period of 13–44 years. Four key findings emerged from the analysis: (1) CSA victims were more likely than controls to engage in all types of criminal behaviors including violent, sexual, and other offending; (2) gender moderated the relationship between CSA and criminal offending, with stronger associations found among females for general and violent offending, and among males for sexual offending; (3) certain features of the index sexual abuse (i.e., developmental period, number of perpetrators, relation to perpetrator), further victimization experiences, and the development of serious mental health problems were all associated with an increased likelihood of criminal behavior among CSA victims; (4) CSA victims who engaged in criminal offending were more likely to present with cumulative risks than victims not engaging in criminal offending. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.