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Food additive emulsifiers: a review of their role in foods, legislation and classifications, presence in food supply, dietary exposure, and safety assessment
Abstract
Food additive intakes have increased with the increase in "ultra-processed" food consumption. Food additive emulsifiers have received particular research attention in recent years due to preliminary evidence of adverse gastrointestinal and metabolic health effects. In this review, the use of emulsifiers as food additives is discussed, and the current estimations of exposure to, and safety of, emulsifiers are critically assessed. Food additive emulsifier research is complicated by heterogeneity in additives considered to be emulsifiers and labelling of them on foods globally. Major limitations exist in estimating food additive emulsifier exposure, relating predominantly to a lack of available food occurrence and concentration data. Development of brand-specific food additive emulsifier databases are crucial to accurately estimating emulsifier exposure. Current research on the health effects of food additive emulsifiers are limited to in vitro and murine studies and small, acute studies in humans, and future research should focus on controlled human trials of longer duration.
... Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic moieties exist in emulsifiers therefore they are known to decrease the interfacial tension between the oil and water phases, obstructing suspended droplets inside the emulsion from enduring the procedures. The emulsifiers consist of different chemical structures [29]. Although, emulsifiers are majorly categorized in three types: former is low-molecular-weight emulsifiers, then amphiphilic biopolymers and thirdly colloidal or solid particles [30]. ...
... This technique increases the stability and aid to control the release of dyes, antioxidants, flavorings, enzymes, nutrients, microorganisms and preservatives. The encapsulation of dyes focuses on protection of compounds from heat, light, oxidation and moisture, by increasing the stability and shelf life during processing [29]. The size of particle is varied during the process of microencapsulation, which can range from one micrometer to few millimeters. ...
... Various methods have been employed to produce microparticles. Those methods are classified into physical methods (freezedrying, spray chilling, spray drying, co-crystallization, extrusion, multi-hole centrifugal extrusion and fluidized bed coating), chemical methods (molecular incorporation by interfacial and complexation polymerization) and physiochemical methods (emulsion system, coacervation, liposome formation and organic phase separation) [29]. Out of the microencapsulation techniques, spray drying is the most extensively used technique. ...
... They give food items shape, flow, stability, and eating characteristics in addition to controlling moisture [66,67]. The concentration of the active compound, temperature, degree of dispersion, dissolution, electrical charge, prior thermal and mechanical treatment, presence or absence of other lyophilic colloids, and the presence of electrolytes and non-electrolytes are some of the variables that affect the rheological properties of thickeners in any given solution [68,69]. The molecular interactions among macromolecules inside the organized matrix have an impact on them. ...
... The dispersion of fat droplets in a water continuous phase, such as mayonnaise or milk, is referred to as an oil-inwater emulsion. On the other hand, fat and water combine to produce a water-in-oil emulsion, which is what happens in butter and vinaigrettes [68,105]. Ultimately, multilayer emulsions come in two varieties. ...
... The de-oiled lecithin is granular, whereas the majority of lecithin comes in flakes, rich in polyunsaturated fats, and cholesterol-free. It is a popular emulsifier in w/o and o/w emulsions, possessing a broad HLB range of 3.5-6.5[68,[119][120][121]. ...
Food incorporates a diverse array of nutrients, some of which are deliberately added for functional purposes, while others occur naturally in certain food items. When these compounds are present in processed foods, they are categorized as “food additives.” Regulatory oversight stipulates that each food additive must demonstrate a beneficial and justifiable function to validate its inclusion. Food additives are commonly utilized to achieve desirable objectives, including improved food preservation, elevated nutritional value, augmentation of functional attributes, facilitation of processing, and heightened consumer appeal. Regulatory frameworks strictly prohibit the use of food additives to deceive consumers or conceal food damage or deterioration. Moreover, the application of food additives is proscribed in circumstances where cost-effective, high-quality production methods can yield equivalent outcomes. Furthermore, the burgeoning awareness of the health benefits offered by specific dietary constituents has led to the commercial introduction of a wide spectrum of innovative food additives. Notably, many food additives have natural counterparts, and the commercial production of novel compounds utilizing natural resources continues to expand. This chapter furnishes an integrated perspective on the functionalities of food additives, centering on an exploration of their function and chemical properties within the realm of food.
... This is unsurprising as emulsifying agents are added to many Ultra Processed Foods (UPFs), with one of the main food categories reported to be breads and other baked goods. 1 Emulsifiers are used in baked goods to strengthen the dough, increase volume, improve texture, and extend shelf life. 35 However, there are some inconsistencies across studies about the most common emulsifiers reported in baked goods. For example, lecithin was most found in "cereal-based products and dishes" (34%), "confectionary and cereal/nut/seed bars," (25%) and "special dietary food" (that is shake and bar meal replacements, protein shakes, nutrition supplements; 10%) in this study. ...
... 20 The inconsistencies may be due to differences in the food supply and the variability of emulsifiers used across countries and manufactures. 35 Thus, this makes it challenging to generalize findings across different countries. ...
... This will affect the internal validity, as there may be considerable variation in the type and presence of emulsifiers used in food products across manufacturers. 35 Fourth, insufficient detail is present for homemade and takeaway meals, and thus presence of emulsifiers cannot be confidently confirmed in these foods. In these cases, products were determined to have "no exposure," and thus findings are likely to underestimate emulsifier exposure. ...
Background
Emulsifiers are implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Few studies have examined emulsifier intake in people with existing IBD. We aimed to describe the frequency of exposure to 6 selected emulsifiers in a contemporary cohort of people with IBD and compare intake with healthy controls (HCs).
Methods
Baseline food records from participants in an Australian prospective cohort study examining the microbiome of IBD patients and HCs were analyzed. Exposure to inflammatory emulsifiers polysorbate-80 (P80); carboxymethylcellulose (CMC); carrageenan; xanthan gum (XG); lecithin (soy and sunflower) and mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (MDGs) were determined by examining ingredient lists. Frequency of emulsifier exposure between groups (IBD vs HC, Crohn’s disease [CD] vs ulcerative colitis [UC], IBD children vs adults, active disease vs remission) was examined after controlling for confounders.
Results
Records from 367 participants were analyzed (n = 176 IBD, of which there were 101 CD, 75 UC, and 191 HC patients). In total, 5022 unique food items were examined, with 18% containing 1 or more emulsifier of interest. Inflammatory bowel disease participants had significantly higher total daily emulsifier exposure compared with HCs (2.7 ± 1.8 vs 2.3 ± 1.6, P = .02). In IBD participants, emulsifiers with the highest daily exposure were MDGs (1.2 ± 0.93), lecithin (0.85 ± 0.93), and XG (0.38 ± 0.42). There were no recorded exposures to P80.
Conclusions
Inflammatory bowel disease participants were exposed to more emulsifiers than HCs. Intake of inflammatory emulsifiers were low or nonexistent, suggesting their presence in the food supply are not as common as frequently stated.
... Emulsifiers might be implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease and metabolic syndrome. Food additive emulsifiers can reduce the interfacial tension between the oil and water phases and incorporate physical force to form a stable emulsion 9 . Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and polysorbate 80 (P80) induce intestinal inflammation and metabolic syndrome by thinning of the intestinal mucus layer and altering gut microbiota composition, increasing the gut epithelial permeability and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels 10 . ...
... However, not all emulsifiers are acknowledged by every organization (Supplementary Fig. 1a, b). The discrepancies among emulsifier classifications create a challenge for international translation of emulsifier research resulting in differing definitions of a low-emulsifier diet across countries 9 . Presently, dietary exposure evaluations for emulsifiers that are commonly used in the population are lacking. ...
Dietary emulsifiers are linked to various diseases. The recent discovery of the role of gut microbiota–host interactions on health and disease warrants the safety reassessment of dietary emulsifiers through the lens of gut microbiota. Lecithin, sucrose fatty acid esters, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and mono- and diglycerides (MDG) emulsifiers are common dietary emulsifiers with high exposure levels in the population. This study demonstrates that sucrose fatty acid esters and carboxymethylcellulose induce hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia in a mouse model. Lecithin, sucrose fatty acid esters, and CMC disrupt glucose homeostasis in the in vitro insulin-resistance model. MDG impairs circulating lipid and glucose metabolism. All emulsifiers change the intestinal microbiota diversity and induce gut microbiota dysbiosis. Lecithin, sucrose fatty acid esters, and CMC do not impact mucus–bacterial interactions, whereas MDG tends to cause bacterial encroachment into the inner mucus layer and enhance inflammation potential by raising circulating lipopolysaccharide. Our findings demonstrate the safety concerns associated with using dietary emulsifiers, suggesting that they could lead to metabolic syndromes.
... Concentrating at the interface between water and oil, the emulsifiers reduce the surface or interfacial tension, thereby making the emulsions more stable. They stabilize multiple processed foods products such as margarine, shortening, ice cream, and salad dressing [38], playing a role in improving food appearance, delivery, texture, and mouthfeel; disguising flavors; and achieving palatable low-fat foods [39]. Often, they are referred as surfactants, an abbreviation of surface-active agents. ...
... It is largely driven by diglycerides and derivatives, lecithin, polysorbates, stearoyl lactylates, polyglycerol esters (PGE), polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), and various sucrose esters. Notably, many other synthetics as well as natural emulsifiers are gaining momentum constantly [38,39]. According to news reports, the global food emulsifiers market reached a value of USD 3 billion in 2020. ...
... Food Composition Databases (FCDBs) provide data on the content of commercial products. The main ingredients used to manufacture commercial drinks and foods are preservatives [1,2], sweeteners [3], color additives [1], nutrients [4], emulsifiers [5], binders [5], flavors and color [6], flavor enhancers [6], and many others. Flavors and flavor enhancers are added to most processed foods and drinks to provide a representative olfactory and taste sensory image [6]. ...
... Food Composition Databases (FCDBs) provide data on the content of commercial products. The main ingredients used to manufacture commercial drinks and foods are preservatives [1,2], sweeteners [3], color additives [1], nutrients [4], emulsifiers [5], binders [5], flavors and color [6], flavor enhancers [6], and many others. Flavors and flavor enhancers are added to most processed foods and drinks to provide a representative olfactory and taste sensory image [6]. ...
Understanding the volatile flavor compounds present in commercial beverages is crucial for the food and beverage industries as these compounds significantly influence product perception and consumer acceptability. This paper aims to comprehensively analyze the composition of volatile organic compounds in various commercial beverages using targeted gas chromatographic–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) approaches. The study employs a screening method based on the Headspace-GC/MS technique to efficiently extract and identify volatile organic compounds found in commercial beverages. This methodology provides a rapid and reliable system for assessing the volatile profile of these beverages. The analysis reveals the presence of a total of 40 volatile organic compounds, including esters, terpenes/terpenoids, alkenes, aldehydes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and alcohols. Medium-chain esters were found to dominate the volatile profile of the beverages, suggesting a significant contribution to their fragrance and taste. This study offers valuable insights into the volatile profile of commercial beverages, creating awareness among consumers about the flavor components present in these products. By understanding the volatile composition, consumers can make informed choices regarding their beverage consumption. The comprehensive analysis provided by this research serves as a foundation for further studies related to flavor characterization and optimization in commercial beverages.
... Most UPF contain food additives, which have been proposed as one of the main possible explanations for the deleterious impact of UPF on health [14]. Among the most commonly used food additives, those with emulsifying and thickening properties (referred to as "emulsifiers" thereafter) are added to UPF to improve texture and lengthen shelf-life [15]. At the molecular level, emulsifiers possess both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties, which is particularly useful to stabilise food preparations that contain lipids. ...
... As a consequence, they can be found in thousands of daily-used processed food items (e.g., chocolate, pastries, but also ready-to-eat fruit, vegetable or legume preparations) [16]. The number of authorised emulsifiers varies in the food chain globally, depending upon local definitions and regulations used, but can range from �60 in the European Union (EU) to �170 in the United States (US) [15]. Although there is no available estimation of emulsifier use among all food additives used in foods worldwide, a recent descriptive study from the French prospective cohort NutriNet-Santé estimated that 7 of the 10 most consumed food additives among French adults were classified as emulsifiers (i.e., total modified starches, lecithins, xanthan gum, pectins, mono-and diglycerides of fatty acids (FAs), carrageenan, and guar gum) [17]. ...
Background
Emulsifiers are widely used food additives in industrially processed foods to improve texture and enhance shelf-life. Experimental research suggests deleterious effects of emulsifiers on the intestinal microbiota and the metabolome, leading to chronic inflammation and increasing susceptibility to carcinogenesis. However, human epidemiological evidence investigating their association with cancer is nonexistent. This study aimed to assess associations between food additive emulsifiers and cancer risk in a large population-based prospective cohort.
Methods and findings
This study included 92,000 adults of the French NutriNet-Santé cohort without prevalent cancer at enrolment (44.5 y [SD: 14.5], 78.8% female, 2009 to 2021). They were followed for an average of 6.7 years [SD: 2.2]. Food additive emulsifier intakes were estimated for participants who provided at least 3 repeated 24-h dietary records linked to comprehensive, brand-specific food composition databases on food additives. Multivariable Cox regressions were conducted to estimate associations between emulsifiers and cancer incidence. Overall, 2,604 incident cancer cases were diagnosed during follow-up (including 750 breast, 322 prostate, and 207 colorectal cancers). Higher intakes of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (FAs) (E471) were associated with higher risks of overall cancer (HR high vs. low category = 1.15; 95% CI [1.04, 1.27], p-trend = 0.01), breast cancer (HR = 1.24; 95% CI [1.03, 1.51], p-trend = 0.04), and prostate cancer (HR = 1.46; 95% CI [1.09, 1.97], p-trend = 0.02). In addition, associations with breast cancer risk were observed for higher intakes of total carrageenans (E407 and E407a) (HR = 1.32; 95% CI [1.09, 1.60], p-trend = 0.009) and carrageenan (E407) (HR = 1.28; 95% CI [1.06, 1.56], p-trend = 0.01). No association was detected between any of the emulsifiers and colorectal cancer risk. Several associations with other emulsifiers were observed but were not robust throughout sensitivity analyses. Main limitations include possible exposure measurement errors in emulsifiers intake and potential residual confounding linked to the observational design.
Conclusions
In this large prospective cohort, we observed associations between higher intakes of carrageenans and mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids with overall, breast and prostate cancer risk. These results need replication in other populations. They provide new epidemiological evidence on the role of emulsifiers in cancer risk.
Trial registration
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03335644.
... daily used household products (11). Furthermore, PEGs and many PEG derivatives have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Codex Alimentarius Commission to be used safely in food industry as emulsifiers (12). Accordingly, they are commonly used in bread, chocolates, and dessert productions (12). ...
... Furthermore, PEGs and many PEG derivatives have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Codex Alimentarius Commission to be used safely in food industry as emulsifiers (12). Accordingly, they are commonly used in bread, chocolates, and dessert productions (12). However, the optimistic features and the abundant applications of PEGs and PEG derivatives are counteracted by PEG immunogenicity, PEG nonbiodegradability, and cellular vacuolization (10,13). ...
... Caramels have long been used as substitutes for synthetic colorants, but also for their antioxidant properties in industries and particularly in beverage manufacture and baking [27]. With regard to emulsifiers, our results are similar to those of Cox et al. (2021), who reveal that the two emulsifiers commonly used in the EU food supply are lecithin (E322), found in 14% of foods, and mono-and di-glycerides of fatty acids (E471), present in 7% of foods [28]. According to the same study, over 100 emulsifying agents are known to be added to foods worldwide [28]. ...
... With regard to emulsifiers, our results are similar to those of Cox et al. (2021), who reveal that the two emulsifiers commonly used in the EU food supply are lecithin (E322), found in 14% of foods, and mono-and di-glycerides of fatty acids (E471), present in 7% of foods [28]. According to the same study, over 100 emulsifying agents are known to be added to foods worldwide [28]. Furthermore, at the technological level, lecithin performs a dozen functions, notably as an emulsifier, wetting agent, viscosity reducer, mold release agent and crystallization control agent. ...
... They are frequently preferred in processed foods to increase nutritional value and durability and change color and flavor (Lindsay, 2007). According to the findings of many scientific studies, food additives have raised adverse effects on metabolism (Cox et al., 2021). These negative effects have caused the public's interest in the content of the food (Carocho et al., 2015). ...
Tartrazine is commonly preferred as a coloring agent in non-alcoholic beverages, fruit juices, jellies, cereals, and soups. This study aims to investigate the effects of tartrazine exposure on anti-angiogenesis and the oxidant-antioxidant balance. Three different tartrazine dose, a bevacizumab, and an empty pellet used to evaluate anti-angiogenic effects on the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model. Fluid samples were collected for measurements of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total oxidant status (TOS), from which the oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated. The control group and 10-6 M tartrazine group had no anti-angiogenic impact, but the bevacizumab group had a strong anti-angiogenic effect. Furthermore, the 10-4 M and 10-5 M tartrazine groups had a weak anti-angiogenic effect. The levels of TOS increase with tartrazine consumption. TAC values were highest in the 10-6 M tartrazine group and lowest in the 10-5 M tartrazine group. Moreover, OSI values have increased in the 10-4 M tartrazine group, 10-5 M tartrazine group, and 10-6 M tartrazine group compared to control group. This study demonstrates that tartrazine exposure leads to dose-dependent increases in oxidative stress and, in parallel, exhibits dose-dependent anti-angiogenic effects. For this reason, it is recommended to be careful when consuming products containing tartrazine.
... Conversely, patients with extensive fibrosis should be prioritized due to a considerable increase in both liver-associated and extrahepatic mortality. 7 The European Medicines Agency and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have acknowledged a significant improvement in liver histologic parameters as surrogate markers for long-term outcomes. This improvement is compared between the competing treatments and has led to a "conditional approval". ...
... Alum, also known as potassium aluminum sulfate, is a hydrated double sulfate salt with the chemical formula KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O [19,20]. It is commonly used in water purification [21], the food industry [22], medicine [23], and catalyst [24], but its potential as an energy storage material has been relatively unexplored. Over the years, researchers have synthesized and explored alum for different applications. ...
This study explores the electrochemical, thermal, and structural properties of alum as a potential material for energy storage devices, particularly capacitors and pseudocapacitors. Alum, a cost-effective and abundant material, was characterized using several advanced techniques, including thermogravimetric analysis, dynamic light scattering, and zeta-potential measurements, which provided valuable insights into its thermal stability, particle size distribution, and surface charge. Surface area analysis through the BET method revealed a specific surface area of 12.6 m²/g, highlighting the material’s porous nature. Electrochemical investigations through cyclic voltammetry demonstrated capacitive behavior with potential pseudocapacitive contributions, evidenced by observable redox peaks at scan rates ranging from 20 to 120 mV/s. The highest specific capacitance recorded was 9.48 F/g at a scan rate of 20 mV/s. Galvanostatic charge–discharge measurements confirmed charge–discharge characteristics aligned with capacitor behavior, showing a decrease in specific capacitance with increasing current density. This work underscores the potential of alum as a promising low-cost alternative for supercapacitor applications, particularly for low-power energy storage devices. With further optimization of its electrochemical performance and long-term cycling stability, alum could offer a sustainable solution for the development of efficient energy storage technologies. This study contributes to the growing international interest in sustainable materials for energy storage, addressing a significant gap in research and offering new avenues for future exploration in supercapacitor and pseudocapacitor technologies. The work aligns with global efforts to innovate cost-effective and environmentally friendly energy solutions, highlighting alum’s role in advancing the field of energy storage by providing a novel, yet accessible material with high potential for widespread application.
... This study also aims to inform consumers about the impact of additives on flour and its products and to add the right amount of additives to the kneading process. The hypothesis that the addition of additives in appropriate doses has a positive effect on flour and its products is elaborated, while there is no negative impact on the health of the consumers if used by the standard and regulations for the use of food additives (Cox, et al., 2021). ...
This paper aims to evaluate the physicochemical properties and investigate rheological analyzes with the Farinograph of wheat flours without additives and with several different additives. The rheological aspects of dough samples made from flour of three varieties of wheat and their combination with Fungal α-Amylase and Glycolipase-Xylanase were investigated by rheological methods using the Farinograph and Dynamic Rheology device. The results from the Farinograph showed that the best rheological qualities of the dough produced from different types of flour with additive mixture have the test from the wheat variety Rakon (T 400S), while the test from the wheat variety Novosadska Rana (T 400) and Zvezdana (T500) have lower rheological quality. Comparing the results obtained from Physico-chemical analyzes, we notice that the protein and gluten content has the highest values in the Hungarian variety Rakon. It is worth noting that the capacity for water absorption is increased in all types of mixtures, while the stability of the dough, as one of the important indicators of the Farinograph, has different values after mixing different types of flour with additives. These results are useful for bakery manufacturers to develop new products by mixing flour with additives to produce bread with high gluten content. The addition of Fungal α-Amylase and Glycolipase-Xylanase additives can have a strong effect on dough rheology, by increasing the nutritional value of bakery products.
... Approval of the use of these substances depends on several tests, such as toxicological ones. 255 Consequently, this might apply to the wide range of innovative colloidal particles developed and reported in patents. ...
When two immiscible liquids are mixed, they naturally stay in separate phases. This is because these liquids, due to their molecular properties, cannot spontaneously blend into a uniform mixture. Over the years, research has been focused on achieving long term stability in emulsions and significant progress has been made. But in the food industry, emphasis on sustainability has led to increased interest in methods that can achieve emulsion stability through green practices. This includes use of biopolymers and biodegradable materials, innovations to reduce food waste and food conservation. Emulsions have also been used in many innovative applications such as coatings, films, 3D printing inks, encapsulation systems and fat replacers. This review aims to briefly introduce different types of emulsions, their physical instabilities, recent innovations and how they align with sustainability and regulatory requirements.
... Mono and diglycerides of fatty acids (E471) is permitted to be added to starches to quantum satis by the European Food Safety Authority, 9 which may inhibit starch retrogradation, 10 as well as overcome bread staling by creating emulsified complexes with amylose, ensuring a soft crumb structure with an extended shelf life. 11,12 Qi et al. 13 investigated the complexation interaction of palmitic acid and its common esters with starch and found that hydrophilic groups in lipids significantly affected the formation, structure and physicochemical properties of starch-lipid complexes. Glyceryl monopalmitate (GMP), one of the major components in commercial E471, can form complexes with starches and shows compounding ability with both amylose and amylopectin. ...
BACKGROUND
Starch‐based food is easy to retrograde during cold storage after gelatinization, which leads to quality fission and a relatively short shelf life. Some lipids can effectively enhance the storage stability of starch gels by the formation of starch–lipid complexes. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of glyceryl monopalmitate (GMP) on gelatinization, rheological and retrogradation properties of Japonica rice starch (JS) at different conditions and to analyze the correlation between the physical‐chemical properties and structural characteristics of the JS–GMP complex.
RESULTS
The addition of GMP to JS could retard the process of starch gelatinization through forming JS–GMP complexes. The resulting JS–GMP pastes were typical pseudoplastic fluids with shear thinning, and their solid‐like properties were prominent (tan δ < 1). In addition, the retrogradation of JS–GMP complex was more inhibited during storage at −18 than at 4 °C. The added amount of GMP was negatively and highly associated with the minimum viscosity, consistency coefficient, hardness and elasticity, whereas it was positively and highly correlated with the breakdown value, fluid characteristic index and relative crystallinity. The relative crystallinity of JS was affected by GMP in an approximate dose‐dependent manner.
CONCLUSION
The addition of GMP can influence the gelatinization properties, rheological properties and retrogradation characteristics of JS, and the formation of JS–GMP complex could improve the quality and storage stability of starch gel, which provides ideas for the quality control of starch‐based food. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
... This blend has been selected to obtain the desired taste and texture characteristics. Emulsifiers are also used to stabilize emulsions at O/W or W/O interfaces [34]. The overall lipid class composition of the blend shows 87.4 ± 2.4% TAG, 0.4 ± 0.1% DAG, 1.1 ± 1.1% MAG, and 11.1 ± 3.4% polar lipids. ...
To meet the expectations of European consumers, who prioritize agro-environmental factors and local resources, the substitution of fats (palm, coconut, shea) and achieving a balanced fatty acid profile in spreadable fats are gaining more attention. The crystallization at 4 °C of a lipid blend composed of rapeseed oil, anhydrous dairy fats, and emulsifiers was studied using a multi-scale approach (DSC and X-ray diffraction techniques) to understand the emergence of polymorphic structures. Although the addition of PUFA from rapeseed oil reduces the atherogenicity and thrombogenicity indices in the blend, controlling the cooling kinetics influences the shapes (needles and spherulites) and sizes of the crystalline structures (small crystals form at a cooling rate of 1 °C min−1, while larger crystals form at higher rates of 5 and 10 °C min−1). The crystallization behavior revealed differences in polymorphic forms at 4 °C in the blend, with a transition to different forms occurring more rapidly compared to dairy fat (stop-and-return method). The study shows crystalline coexistence (α, β′, and β) in a 2L lamellar structure, with the β′ form being predominant. This structure is ideal for formulating a spreadable product, offering good spreadability (SFC < 32% at 10 °C), mouthfeel, and nutritional benefits compared to butter.
... Stearic acids are necessary emulsifiers, emollients, and lubricants that can soften skin and prevent the emulsion from separating into two distinct phases. It is the reason for its recommendation by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an additive and emulsifier in the formulation of skincare products [45]. In our previous study, cocoplum seed oil was used as an alternative oil in the formulation of cosmetics emulsion. ...
Seed oil has been used as an alternative cooking oil due to its bioactive components and nutritional properties, which benefit human health. The cocoplum, a genus of Chrysobalanus icaco L, is a seed rich in oil containing dietary fatty acids to prevent oxidative damage, blood lipid, and cardiovascular diseases. This study aimed to provide information on the physicochemical parameters, percentage (%) composition of fatty acids present, functional groups assignment, and phytochemistry of cocoplum seed oil. The physicochemical analysis was investigated, and the result of parameters such as the density (0.9583 g/cm3 ), moisture content (7.4%), refractive index (1.479 at 40 o C), acid value (5.34 mg KOH/g), saponification value (194.1 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (ranging from 3.02 to 6.50, 5.02 to8.95 and 6.02 to 10.05 when the oil was exposed to contact air, temperature, and combination of contact air/temperature during the storage period) and iodine value (5.219 g) were obtained. The Origin Pro 2019 statistical software was used for data analysis. The oil sample extracted from the cocoplum has a golden yellow color with a pleasant odor. The oil sample has a pH of 7.23, which is safe for human consumption. The phytochemistry screening revealed that cocoplum seed oil contains flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenes, quinones, cardiac glycosides, and betacyanin, which improve the human heart and reduce blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The FTIR of the cocoplum seed oil indicated the presence of aldehydes, aliphatic hydrocarbons, and esters. The GC-FID instrument determining the % composition of fatty acids revealed that seed oil has four primary abundant fatty acids. They include stearic (24.99%), oleic (20.5%), linoleic (13.1%), and palmitic (5.99%). These compounds are vital in preventing the human body from chronic diseases and other oxidative damage. Therefore, it can be concluded that cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco L) seed oil can be recommended as the best dietary oil due to its therapeutic properties, nutritional value, affordability, and safety.
... Recently, recent studies have suggested that some emulsifiers (e.g. carrageenan, polysorbate 80, carboxymethylcellulose) may have adverse effects on human health, such as gastrointestinal diseases and metabolic syndrome conditions [61,62]. To this end, food without the use of artificial additives has attracted considerable attention by consumers over recent years. ...
Background
Defatted melon seed, a major by-product from melon oil processing chain, is scarcely utilsed. However, it has high potential value and can be used as novel ingredient in food products production. In line with zero waste policy and food sustainability, exploring and utilisation of this oil processing by-product can reduce food waste, and is key to moving towards a more sustainable food system. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the nutritional profile and functional properties of three varieties of defatted melon seeds (Galia, Cantaloupe, and Honeydew), and then compare them with defatted pumpkin seeds (as control group).
Results
In this study, three varieties of melon seeds (Galia, Cantaloupe, and Honeydew) and pumpkin seeds (as control group) were defatted using Soxhlet extraction with petroleum ether; subsequently, their functional properties and nutritional components were assessed. The defatted melon seeds contained high level of protein (51.1–54.2%, w/w), dietary fibre (29.4–33.2%, w/w), potassium (1181.0–2373.1 mg/100 g), and GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid, 1.4–4.3 mmol/kg), whereas in terms of anti-nutritional compounds, they contained a relatively high amount of phytic acid (5.0%—5.8%, w/w). They also exhibited good in water/oil absorption capacity and emulsifying capacity. The phenolics were mainly free phenolics (FP) fraction (75%–77%), followed by the conjugated phenolics (CP) fraction (15%–16%), and the bound phenolics (BP) fraction (about 8%); the antioxidant capacity of each fraction followed the same sequence (FP > CP > BP).
Conclusion
Considering the nutritional composition, functional properties, and the presence of potentially bioactive compounds, defatted melon seeds have considerable potential to be used as a functional food ingredient for the reformulation of foods.
Graphical Abstract
... Окремо класифікуються емульгатори з низькою молекулярною масою, амфіфільні біополімери, колоїдні (тверді) частинки (для емульсій Пікерінга) 113 114 ; до цього виду емульгаторів належать лецетини, моногліцериди, дигліцериди, полісорбати. До амфіфільних біополімерів відносяться рослинні й тваринні білки, фосфоліпіди, поліцукриди [145]. ...
... Our HED contained 41 different emulsifiers and thickeners in a range of food categories. This is particularly relevant to the preclinical data on emulsifiers that have described the deleterious effects of only a handful of individual emulsifiers and have not examined the potential interaction between additives and other nutrients and their digestibility in the context of food matrixes [29]. ...
Background: The aims of this study were to develop and evaluate a high/low-emulsifier diet and compare emulsifier content with preclinical studies that have associated Crohn’s disease with emulsifiers. Methods: Supermarkets were audited with a seven-day high- (HED) and low-emulsifier diet (LED) meal plan developed. The emulsifier content of food was sought from food manufacturers, compared to acceptable daily intake (ADI), and doses were provided in trials. Nutritional composition analysis was completed. Healthy adults ate these diets for seven days in a randomized single-blinded cross-over feeding study to assess palatability, tolerability, satiety, food variety, dietary adherence, blinding and the ease of following the meal plan via visual analogue scale. Results: A database of 1680 foods was created. There was no difference in nutritional content between the HED and LED, except HED had a higher ultra-processed food content (p < 0.001). The HED contained 41 emulsifiers, with 53% of the products able to be quantified for emulsifiers (2.8 g/d), which did not exceed the ADI, was similar to that in observational studies, and was exceeded by doses used in experimental studies. In ten participants, diets were rated similarly in palatability—HED mean 62 (5% CI 37–86) mm vs. LED 68 (54–82) mm—in tolerability—HED 41 (20–61) mm vs. LED 55 (37–73) mm—and in satiety HED 57 (32–81) mm vs. LED 49 (24–73) mm. The combined diets were easy to follow (82 (67–97) mm) with good variety (65 (47–81)) and excellent adherence. Conclusion: Nutritionally well-matched HED and LED were successfully developed, palatable and well tolerated.
... Lipids such as soy lecithin (a natural mixture of phospholipids) and mono/diacylglycerols (subtypes of glycerolipids) are the most used emulsifiers by the food industry. In addition, most synthetic emulsifiers are derivatives of fatty acids or monoacylglycerols (e.g., polysorbates, sorbitan esters, sucrose esters, succinic esters, propylene glycol esters, etc) [6]. A fundamental understanding of the interaction and action of amphiphilic lipids in oil and water at the molecular, colloidal, and functional scale is highly relevant for advanced food applications, as illustrated in Figure 2. Linking molecular information and structure to nutritional outcomes can eventually lead to a less empirical and more mechanistically driven understanding of these processes. ...
... This material was shown to be effective in extending the shelf life of fruits and vegetables. This coating material is made up of many different components, including mono-and di-glycerides, monosucrose fatty acid esters (also known as SFAE), and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Cox et al., 2021). The original purpose for which SFAE was developed was 232 that of an emulsifier. ...
Edible coatings are used to keep the quality of food high, but they can also permanently attach active substances to the food surface. Because nanoemulsions have smaller droplets, lipophilic active substances are more likely to dissolve, stay stable, and have biological activity when added to food. As part of recent developments in keeping the quality and safety of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables,
this chapter talks about the use of nano-based coatings to carry functional compounds such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, and texture enhancers, as well as to make the quality of the food much better
... In adults with Type 2 Diabetes, higher intake of glutamate was associated with a higher risk of CVD incidence, CVD mortality, and total mortality [13]. Emulsifiers are detergent-like molecules that are incorporated into many processed foods in order to improve texture and extend shelf life [18]. In mice, relatively low concentrations of two commonly used emulsifiers, carboxymethylcellulose and polysorbate-80, induces microbial dysbiosis and low-grade inflammation promoting metabolic syndrome [15]. ...
Cardiovascular disease is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among non-communicable diseases worldwide. Evidence shows that a healthy dietary pattern positively influences many risk factors of cardiometabolic health, stroke, and heart disease, supported by the effectiveness of healthy diet and lifestyles for the prevention of CVD. High quality and safety of foods are prerequisites to ensuring food security and beneficial effects. Contaminants can be present in foods mainly because of contamination from environmental sources (water, air, or soil pollution), or artificially introduced by the human. Moreover, the cross-contamination or formation during food processing, food packaging, presence or contamination by natural toxins, or use of unapproved food additives and adulterants. Numerous studies reported the association between food contaminants and cardiovascular risk by demonstrating that (1) the cross-contamination or artificial sweeteners, additives, and adulterants in food processing can be the cause of the risk for major adverse cardiovascular events and (2) environmental factors, such as heavy metals and chemical products can be also significant contributors to food contamination with a negative impact on cardiovascular systems. Furthermore, oxidative stress can be a common mechanism that mediates food contamination-associated CVDs as substantiated by studies showing impaired oxidative stress biomarkers after exposure to food contaminants.This narrative review summarizes the data suggesting how food contaminants may elicit artery injury and proposing oxidative stress as a mediator of cardiovascular damage.
... However, several studies also demonstrate that these associations are not entirely explained by nutrient content [13][14][15][16][17][18]. The additives commonly present in UPFs, which are classified as xenobiotics, can cause alterations in the microbiota that lead to inflammatory responses [19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. Additionally, high levels of processing can alter the structural matrix of foods [2,26,27] and produce toxic compounds [28][29][30]-which, evidence indicates, can result in UPFs being poorly satiating and hyperglycemic [31][32][33][34][35][36]. ...
High levels of food processing can have detrimental health effects independent of nutrient content. Experts and advocates have proposed adding information about food processing status to front-of-package labeling schemes, which currently exclusively focus on nutrient content. How consumers would perceive “ultraprocessed” labels has not yet been examined. To address this gap, we conducted a within-subjects online experiment with a convenience sample of 600 US adults. Participants viewed a product under three labeling conditions (control, “ultraprocessed” label, and “ultraprocessed” plus “high in sugar” label) in random order for a single product. The “ultraprocessed” label led participants to report thinking more about the risks of eating the product and discouraging them from wanting to buy the product more than the control, despite not grabbing more attention than the control. The “ultraprocessed” plus “high in sugar” labels grabbed more attention, led participants to think more about the risks of eating the product, and discouraged them from wanting to buy the product more than the “ultraprocessed” label alone. “Ultraprocessed” labels may constitute promising messages that could work in tandem with nutrient labels, and further research should examine how they would influence consumers’ actual intentions and behaviors.
... UPFs are becoming a dominant part of dietary intake, especially among children and adolescents [23]. The consumption of UPFs has been linked to adverse health outcomes, including GI, metabolic and psychiatric issues [24]. Despite this evidence, the impact of UPFs on individuals with EDs is not yet fully understood, nor has the potential correlation between UPF consumption, DGBIs and psychopathological symptoms in EDs been explored. ...
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a severe eating disorder primarily affecting children and adolescents. Disorders of the gut–brain interaction (DGBIs) have gained recognition as significant symptoms in individuals with AN. However, limited studies have explored GI symptoms in pediatric populations with AN using age-specific diagnostic tools. This study aims to investigate the prevalence of DGBIs, their associated psychopathological aspects and their potential correlations with ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption among pediatric AN patients. The study included AN patients who were under the care of a specialized multidisciplinary team. We assessed DGBI-related symptoms using the Rome IV Pediatric Diagnostic Questionnaire on Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders (R4PDQ) and conducted psychological evaluations. Dietary intake and UPF consumption were evaluated. Among 56 AN patients, we observed a lower prevalence of DGBIs (functional constipation: 61%; functional dyspepsia: 54%; irritable bowel syndrome: 25%) compared to the existing literature. The psychological assessments revealed high rates of depression (72%) and anxiety (70%). UPF consumption was inversely related to depression levels (p = 0.01) but positively correlated with functional constipation (p = 0.046). This study highlights the importance of using age-specific diagnostic tools and emphasizes the crucial role of a specialized multidisciplinary team in the treatment of AN.
... 19 Emulsifiers can be used as food additives, where surfaceactive properties of the emulsifier promote droplet dispersion, which, in turn, increases the stability of the emulsion, the shelflife, and the textural properties of the product. 37 Protein hydrolysate's potential as an emulsifier was assessed by measuring the EAI and ESI at different pH values. The emulsifying activity of protein hydrolysate was between 320 and 1450 m 2 /g, with the highest acitivity at pH 7 and the lowest at pH 9 ( Figure 3). ...
... A study by Srour et al. [16] revealed that consuming 100 g/day of UPFs was consistently associated with T2D risk, even after adjusting for the absolute quantity of unprocessed food consumed. Research has demonstrated that UPFs elicit a higher glycemic response but lower satiety potential than their less-processed alternatives, therefore increasing the risk of T2D [17]. In the fat and oil group, palm oil was the most widely used cooking oil in Jakarta. ...
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES
This study aimed to assess the current mean daily intake of 10 food groups, analyze the sociodemographic factors associated with food consumption, and determine the associations between food consumption/dietary intake and the prevalence rates of obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and hypertension (HTN) in Jakarta, Indonesia.
SUBJECTS/METHODS
A total of 600 participants aged 20–85 yrs were included in this cross-sectional study. Food consumption and dietary habits were assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. To determine the association between food consumption/dietary habits and the abovementioned diseases, logistic regression analysis was performed.
RESULTS
The average vegetable and fruit intake was lower, while sugar and salt consumption were higher than that recommended by Indonesia’s national dietary guidelines. A high intake of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) was associated with young age, men, “single” status, a high education level, and employment with a high monthly income. Obesity and T2D were positively correlated with high intakes of cereals and tubers, UPFs, sugars, fats, and oils. Conversely, an inverse association was found between legume, vegetable, and fruit consumption and obesity risk. An inverse correlation was also observed between vegetable consumption and T2D risk. Moreover, a high salt intake was inversely correlated with fruit consumption in terms of HTN risk. Non-indulgence in habitual late-night snacking and refrainment from consuming more than one dish at each meal were also negatively related to the prevalence of obesity, T2D, and HTN. Inverse correlations were also observed between the prevalence rates of T2D and HTN and abstaining from adding sugar to beverages.
CONCLUSION
Foods high in fat, sugar, and sodium were strongly associated with the risks of obesity, T2D, and HTN. Additionally, poor eating habits were also associated with disease development.
... 44 Some naturally derived or chemically synthesized substances are often added to foods to improve certain physicochemical properties, such as extending shelf life, flavor modification, and stability enhancement. 45,46 However, excessive addition of such additives can increase harm to humans. In response to this, China has formulated GB 2760-2014 for food additive limit requirements and is proposing new requirements, which have called for public comments since September 2022. ...
This paper discusses the framework of China's food safety standards and provides a brief overview of the problems and developmental characteristics of food safety in China. The composition and characteristics of China's food safety standards are revealed by an analysis of the changes in China's general food standards, an overview of the characteristics of the hygiene requirements in the production and operation process, and an introduction to food product and test method standards. In conclusion, Chinese food safety standards are still being improved, but they must also be effectively implemented and followed up in real time in order to continuously improve the quality of food and reduce food safety incidents. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
... Food additives (FAs) are intentionally added to foods to perform technological functions such as flavor, sweetness, and preservation. Definitions and safety usage standarts of FAs described by international and regional organizations (The Codex General Standard for FAs (GSFA, Codex STAN 192-19952, JECFA-International, EFSA-EU, FDA-USA, FSANZ-Australia and New Zealand) (Chazelas et al., 2021;Cox et al., 2021). Despite all the regulations, it is difficult to estimate how much FAs consumers consume in their daily lives because manufacturers do not accurately and regularly report the amounts of FAs they use. ...
Since the 1960s, more than 350,000 new chemicals have been introduced into the lives of humans and domestic animals. Many of them have become part of modern life and some are affecting nature as pollutants. Yet, our comprehension of their potential health risks for both humans and animals remains partial. The “epithelial barrier theory” suggests that genetic predisposition and exposure to diverse factors damaging the epithelial barriers contribute to the emergence of allergic and autoimmune conditions. Impaired epithelial barriers, microbial dysbiosis, and tissue inflammation have been observed in a high number of mucosal inflammatory, autoimmune and neuropsychiatric diseases, many of which showed increased prevalence in the last decades. Pets, especially cats and dogs, share living spaces with humans and are exposed to household cleaners, personal care products, air pollutants, and microplastics. The utilisation of cosmetic products and food additives for pets is on the rise, unfortunately, accompanied by less rigorous safety regulations than those governing human products. In this review, we explore the implications of disruptions in epithelial barriers on the well‐being of companion animals, drawing comparisons with humans, and endeavour to elucidate the spectrum of diseases that afflict them. In addition, future research areas with the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental well‐being are highlighted in line with the “One Health” concept.
Background
Newly industrialized countries like Thailand have been influenced by globalization, westernization, and urbanization over the last decades, leading to changes in dietary habits as well as food production. Consequences of these changes include rising non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and environmental degradation, which are defined as the leading global challenges today. The objectives of this study are to identify Thailand's dietary changes, considering health and sustainability aspects, and to determine correlations between these changes and NCD cases as well as environmental impacts (GHG emissions, land-, nitrogen-, phosphorus-use). In this way, diet-related adjustments can be identified to promote planetary and human health.
Methods
In this longitudinal ecological study, relative differences between the average food consumption in Thailand and the reference values of a healthy and sustainable diet, the Planetary Health Diet (PHD), were calculated. Furthermore, a bivariate correlation analysis was conducted, using data, based on Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO's) data, results from the Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD), and PHD's reference values.
Findings
The consumption quantities of meat, eggs, saturated oils, and sugar increased significantly since 1961. The food groups, that have exceeded PHD's upper reference values, include sugar (+452%), red meat (+220%), grains (+143%), saturated oils (+20%) and eggs (+19%), while vegetables (–63%), and unsaturated oils (–61%) have fallen below PHD’s lower limits. Concerning the bivariate correlation analyses, all investigated variables show significant correlations. The most significant correlations were found in NCD cases (r = 0.903, 95% CI 0.804–0.953), nitrogen use (r = 0.872, 95% CI 0.794–0.922), and land use (r = 0.870, 95% CI 0.791–0.921), followed by phosphorus use (r = 0.832, 95% CI 0.733–0.897), and green-house gas (GHG) emissions (r = 0.479, 95% CI 0.15–0.712).
Interpretation
The results show, that the determined differences of unhealthy or unsustainable food groups have increased concurrently with NCD cases and environmental impacts over the last decades in Thailand. A shift towards a reduced intake of sugar, red meat, grains, saturated oils and eggs along with an increase in vegetables and unsaturated oils, might support environmental and human health.
Funding
None.
Encapsulation is a burgeoning technology at the forefront of food science, offering a means to shield diverse food components or functional constituents from detrimental processing conditions by encasing them within polymeric or non-polymeric materials. This encapsulation not only ensures the protection and preservation of bioactive, volatile, and easily degradable compounds against biochemical and thermal deterioration but also serves to mask undesirable flavors and aromas, enhancing overall product quality. The versatility of encapsulation systems stems from the varied properties imparted by the chosen materials and techniques. Polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids are extensively employed as encapsulation wall materials due to their compatibility with a wide range of core food components. The selection of wall materials and encapsulation techniques plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency and efficacy of the encapsulation process. Advancements in technology have led to the development of diverse encapsulation methods, each offering unique advantages and drawbacks. These techniques, with their distinct characteristics, provide food scientists with a toolkit to tailor encapsulation strategies based on the specific requirements of the food product being developed. From the perspective of the food industry, encapsulation serves as a fundamental tool for innovation, enabling the creation of novel food products with enhanced functional properties. By encapsulating bioactive compounds, volatile flavors, or sensitive constituents, food manufacturers can prolong shelf life, improve stability, and enhance nutritional profiles. Furthermore, encapsulation allows for the controlled release of active ingredients, enabling targeted delivery and improving bioavailability in functional foods and supplements. As research in encapsulation technology continues to advance, its role in creating value-added food products with improved sensory attributes, extended shelf life, and enhanced functionality is expected to grow, driving further innovation in the food industry.
Meat processing has a long history and involves a wide and ever-increasing range of chemical and physical processes, resulting in a heterogeneous food category with a wide variability in nutritional value. Despite the known benefits of meat consumption, observational epidemiological studies have shown associations between consumption of red and processed meat - but not white meat - and several non-communicable diseases, with higher relative risks for processed meat compared to unprocessed red meat. This has led global and regional nutrition and health organisations to recommend reducing consumption of unprocessed red meat and avoiding processed meat. A plethora of potentially implicated hazardous compounds present in meat or formed during processing or gastrointestinal digestion have been reported in the literature. However, our mechanistic understanding of the impact of meat consumption on human health is still very incomplete and is complicated by the simultaneous occurrence of multiple hazards and interactions with other food compounds and host factors. This narrative review briefly discusses hazards, risks and their assessment in the context of dietary guidelines. It is argued that more mechanistic studies of the interactive effects of meat products with other foods and food compounds in different dietary contexts are needed to refine and increase the evidence base for dietary guidelines. Importantly, the great diversity in the composition and degree of processing of processed meats should be better understood in terms of their impact on human health in order to develop a more nuanced approach to dietary guidelines for this food category.
Targeting, safety, scalability, and storage stability of vectors are still challenges in the field of nucleic acid delivery for gene therapy. Silica-based nanoparticles have been widely studied as gene carriers, exhibiting key features such as biocompatibility, simplistic synthesis, and enabling easy surface modifications for targeting. However, the ability of the formulation to incorporate DNA is limited, which restricts the number of DNA molecules that can be incorporated into the particle, thereby reducing gene expression. Here we use polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-generated linear DNA molecules to augment the coding sequences of gene-carrying nanoparticles, thereby maximizing nucleic acid loading and minimizing the size of these nanocarriers. This approach results in a remarkable 16-fold increase in protein expression six days post-transfection in cells transfected with particles carrying the linear DNA compared with particles bearing circular plasmid DNA. The study also showed that the use of linear DNA entrapped in DNA@SiO2 resulted in a much more efficient level of gene expression compared to standard transfection reagents. The system developed in this study features simplicity, scalability, and increased transfection efficiency and gene expression over existing approaches, enabled by improved embedment capabilities for linear DNA, compared to conventional methods such as lipids or polymers, which generally show greater transfection efficiency with plasmid DNA. Therefore, this novel methodology can find applications not only in gene therapy but also in research settings for high-throughput gene expression screenings.
This investigation assessed the potential of bacterial cellulose (BC) in two distinct forms, nanocrystals (BC-NC)
and oxidized nanofibrils (BC-NF), as stabilizers for low oil-in-water emulsions (1 % v/v). The research explored
the impact of ionic strength and BC concentration on the physico-chemical characteristics, stability, and rheo-
logical properties of those emulsions. Nanofibrils had diameters ranging from 25 to 146 nm and lengths in the
micrometer range, while nanocrystals varied in length from 133 to 870 nm and in diameter from 20 to 60 nm.
Both BC-NF and BC-NC exhibited high zeta potential values (> 45 mV) and contact angles of 30-31◦, indicating
stability. Both nanocelluloses were effectively used as stabilizers in Pickering emulsions, namely in low-oil
systems, producing small emulsion droplets with sizes between 1.42 and 4.13 μm. Further results revealed
that ionic strength influenced emulsion stability, with both BC-NF and BC-NC preferentially located on the
surfaces of emulsion droplets in the presence of salt, as demonstrated by microscopy images. The presence of BC
at the interface contributed to creating a more robust barrier against coalescence and Ostwald ripening, influ-
encing droplet size and rheological properties. Higher BC concentrations (1 %) increased emulsion stability in the
absence of salt, while at lower BC concentrations (0.5 %), salt concentration was determinant for the long-term
stability of the emulsions. These findings provide valuable insights into the production of Pickering emulsions
using nanocelluloses, highlighting the advantages of bio-based nanomaterials for applications in the food
industry.
In this work, complexes formed by sodium caseinate (NaCn) and xanthan gum (XG) were tested as novel natural stabilizers. They were prepared at pH 4, using a constant concentration of XG (0.4%) and different NaCn concentrations. Then, they were characterized in terms of turbidity, surface tension (ST), and rheology. The acquired results indicated that the ST of NaCn solution and NaCn/XG dispersion decreases with NaCn concentration. In addition, the ST of NaCn/XG is higher than that of NaCn solution indicating interactions between NaCn and XG. In addition, the turbidity of the dispersions increases while ST decreases with NaCn concentration. Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra confirmed the formation of a complex between NaCn and XG through electrostatic interactions. Structural analyses demonstrated that the morphologies of the complex particles are different compared to the pure biopolymer ones. Furthermore, the oil‐in‐water (O/W) emulsions based on NaCn/XG complexes formed into acid conditions were studied. The obtained results showed that the stability, the average diameter of the droplets, and the rheological behavior of the formulated emulsions depend on the NaCn:XG ratio. Emulsion formulated with 0.5:1, 1:1, 1.5:1, 2:1 NaCn:XG ratio presented good creaming stability during 1 month of storage at 25°C. On the other hand, samples formulated with a 1:1 ratio of NaCn/XG exhibited the best stability. Their average diameter (29.026 μm) remained constant during the storage. Emulsions formulated with higher ration PR:PS (2.5:1, 3:1) were unstable and have larger droplets. Also, all formulations showed a shear‐thinning and elastic behavior.
Juices and juice products have become popular beverages among consumers of all ages because they have excellent taste and nutritional qualities. Various health benefits are associated with juice and juice products, including anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory properties, antioxidant properties, and antimicrobial properties. In addition to raw ingredients, processing techniques, packaging, and storage are all essential to the quality, safety, and nutritional value of juice. This chapter systematically summarizes the findings of significant studies conducted over the past few years on the link between juice and juice products in terms of nutrition, performance, and ensure of safety. Additionally, a number of techniques for making juice from fruits and vegetables were researched with an emphasis on their safety. Additionally, a thorough explanation of how storage and packing relate to the security and preservation of juice and its products’ quality was provided. This work offers fresh insights for future research as well as an update on how technological processing affects the nutrients and functional elements of fruit and vegetable products.
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) and food additives have become ubiquitous components of the modern human diet. There is increasing evidence of an association between diets rich in UPFs and gut disease, including inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer and irritable bowel syndrome. Food additives are added to many UPFs and have themselves been shown to affect gut health. For example, evidence shows that some emulsifiers, sweeteners, colours, and microparticles and nanoparticles have effects on a range of outcomes, including the gut microbiome, intestinal permeability and intestinal inflammation. Broadly speaking, evidence for the effect of UPFs on gut disease comes from observational epidemiological studies, whereas, by contrast, evidence for the effect of food additives comes largely from preclinical studies conducted in vitro or in animal models. Fewer studies have investigated the effect of UPFs or food additives on gut health and disease in human intervention studies. Hence, the aim of this article is to critically review the evidence for the effects of UPF and food additives on gut health and disease and to discuss the clinical application of these findings.
Katkı maddeleri, gıdaya güvenliği, tazeliği, tadı, dokuyu veya görünümü korumak ve geliştirmek amacıyla eklenen maddeler olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Katkı maddelerinin kullanımı, yasal düzenlemelere uygun olması halinde ve belirlenen konsantrasyonda kullanılması durumunda tüketiciler için tehlike oluşturmamaktadır. Fakat gıda katkı maddelerine ilişkin endişeler, son 20 yılda artış göstermiştir. Son yıllarda gıda katkı maddesi olarak kullanılan kimyasallarla ilgili olarak giderek daha fazla çalışma sağlığa olumsuz etkilerini göstermektedir. Aslında sağlık sorunlarını daha iyi tanımlayabilmek için toksisite testleri geliştirilmelidir ve yaşam boyunca maruziyeti incelemek için geniş çaplı ve uzun araştırmalara ihtiyaç vardır. Bu çalışmada son gelişmeler ışığında gıda katkı maddelerinin insan sağlığına etkileri irdelenmektedir.
In recent years, there has been a notable advancement in the field of food science and technology, with a growing emphasis on adopting sustainable practices in food production. This includes a focus on the selection and sourcing of food additives. Food additives are widely acknowledged for their significant contribution to enhancing the overall quality and stability of food products. These additives serve various purposes, such as imparting color, flavor, and texture, as well as preserving the food and enhancing its resistance to transportation and handling. The utilization of additives is deemed acceptable solely when they contribute to enhancing the overall quality and organoleptic characteristics of food while posing no threats to humans’ health. The physicochemical and sensory properties of food products may undergo changes due to various deterioration processes, including microbiological, enzymatic, physical, and chemical factors. These processes can lead to a decline in both the nutritional quality and food safety of the products. In order to safeguard the well-being of consumers, preservatives (antimicrobials, and anti-browning agents), antioxidants from natural sources, natural pigments as food colorants (anthocyanins, carotenoids, betalains, and chlorophyll), and hydrocolloids (carboxymethylcellulose, xanthan, β-glucans) are included in the food. Unfortunately, depending on the dosage, there is a fine line between safe and hazardous. However, regulatory agencies and law enforcement organizations are responsible for overseeing the development of the food industry and have implemented rigorous laws to regulate the licensing and supervision of food additives.
According to the Codex Alimentarius, a food additive is any substance that is incorporated into a food solely for technological or organoleptic purposes during the production of that food. Food additives can be of synthetic or natural origin. Several scientific evidence (in vitro studies and epidemiological studies like the controversial Southampton study published in 2007) have pointed out that several synthetic additives may lead to health issues for consumers. In that sense, the actual consumer searches for “Clean Label” foods with ingredient lists clean of coded additives, which are rejected by the actual consumer, highlighting the need to distinguish synthetic and natural codded additives from the ingredient lists. However, this natural approach must focus on an integrated vision of the replacement of chemical substances from the food ingredients, food contact materials (packaging), and their application on the final product. Hence, natural plant alternatives are hereby presented, analyzing their potential success in replacing common synthetic emulsifiers, colorants, flavorings, inhibitors of quality-degrading enzymes, antimicrobials, and antioxidants. In addition, the need for a complete absence of chemical additive migration to the food is approached through the use of plant-origin bioactive compounds (e.g., plant essential oils) incorporated in active packaging.
Food additives (E-numbers) are allowed in foods, but many consumers have a negative perception of them. The objective was to study the opinion of food experts about the causes and ways to reduce consumer distrust about E-numbers. Thirteen food experts from universities, research institutes, the government, food industry organisations, media, a nutrition information organisation, a consumer association and two other non-governmental organisations (NGOs) were interviewed with a semi-structured topic list, based on a model of risk perception. Interviews were transcribed, coded by an open-coding approach and analysed. Results indicated that, according to food experts, consumer distrust of E-numbers arose from negative communication by traditional media, social media and books. Food experts suggested that the information sources and the reliability of E-number information are important for consumers. Food experts also suggested reducing consumer distrust by avoiding negative label claims and making collective agreements with all parties about honest and transparent communication. According to interviewed food experts, food companies need to explain clearly and honestly why they use E-numbers in food. A nutrition information organisation and the government were often mentioned as appropriate parties to undertake action. The interviews suggested that consumers had no confidence in the food industry.
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient sources added to Food (ANS) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the re-evaluation of pectin (E 440i) and amidated pectin (E 440ii) as food additives. An acceptable daily intake (ADI) ‘not specified’ was allocated by the Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) for E 440i and E 440ii. Pectin and amidated pectin would not be absorbed intact, but extensively fermented by intestinal microbiota in animals and humans; products formed from pectins in the gastrointestinal tract are similar to manufactured pectin-derived acidic oligosaccharides (pAOS). There is no indication of genotoxicity for pectin and amidated pectin, although the available data were limited. No adverse effects were reported in a chronic toxicity study in rats at levels up to 5,000 mg pectin/kg bw per day, the highest dose tested. No treatment-related effects were observed in a dietary one-generation reproductive toxicity study with pAOS in rats at up to 6,200 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day, the highest dose tested. The Panel did not consider E 440i and E 440ii as having allergenic potential. A dose of 36 g/day (equivalent to 515 mg/kg bw per day) for 6 weeks in humans was without adverse effects. Exposure to pectins from their use as food additives ranged up to 442 mg/kg bw per day for toddlers at the 95th percentile (brand-loyal scenario). The Panel concluded that there is no safety concern for the use of pectin (E 440i) and amidated pectin (E 440ii) as food additives for the general population and that there is no need for a numerical ADI.
Pickering emulsion, a kind of emulsion stabilized only by solid particles locating at oil–water interface, has been discovered a century ago, while being extensively studied in recent decades. Substituting solid particles for traditional surfactants, Pickering emulsions are more stable against coalescence and can obtain many useful properties. Besides, they are more biocompatible when solid particles employed are relatively safe in vivo. Pickering emulsions can be applied in a wide range of fields, such as biomedicine, food, fine chemical synthesis, cosmetics, and so on, by properly tuning types and properties of solid emulsifiers. In this article, we give an overview of Pickering emulsions, focusing on some kinds of solid particles commonly serving as emulsifiers, three main types of products from Pickering emulsions, morphology of solid particles and as-prepared materials, as well as applications in different fields.
BACKGROUND: Carrageenan is a very common food additive in Western diets, but predictably causes inflammation in thousands of cell-based and animal experiments.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of carrageenan exposure on the interval to relapse in patients with ulcerative colitis in remission.
METHODS: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, clinical trial was conducted to assess if patients with ulcerative colitis in remission would have a longer interval to relapse if they followed a diet with no carrageenan. All participants were instructed in the no-carrageenan diet and were randomized to either placebo capsules or carrageenan-containing capsules. The carrageenan in the capsules was less than the average daily carrageenan intake from the diet. Relapse was defined as an increase of two or more points on the Simple Clinical Colitis Activity Index (SCCAI) and intensification of treatment for ulcerative colitis. Participants were followed by telephone calls every two weeks until relapse or one year of participation. The occurrence of relapse and inflammatory biomarkers were compared between the two groups.
RESULTS: Twelve patients completed study questionnaires. Three patients who received carrageenan-containing capsules relapsed, and none of the patients who received placebo-containing capsules relapsed (p = 0.046, log-rank test). Laboratory tests showed increases in Interleukin-6 (p = 0.02, paired t-test, two-tailed) and fecal calprotectin (p = 0.06; paired t-test, two-tailed) between the beginning and the end of study participation in the carrageenan-exposed group, but not in the placebo-group.
CONCLUSION: Carrageenan intake contributed to earlier relapse in patients with ulcerative colitis in remission. Restriction of dietary carrageenan may benefit patients with ulcerative colitis.
Dietary exposure assessment using food consumption data and ingredient use level is essential for assessing safety of food ingredients. Dietary exposure estimates are compared to safe intake levels, such as Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). ADI is estimated by applying a safety factor to an experimentally determined no-observed-adverse-effect-level of a test substance. Two food ingredients classified as emulsifiers, sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and polysorbate 80 (P80), received attention recently due to their putative adverse effects on gut microbiota. Because no published dietary exposure estimates for commonly used emulsifiers exist for the United States population, the current investigation focused on the estimation of dietary exposure to seven emulsifiers: CMC, P80, lecithin, mono- and diglycerides (MDG), stearoyl lactylates, sucrose esters, and polyglycerol polyricinoleate. Using maximum use levels obtained from publicly available sources, dietary exposures to these emulsifiers were estimated for the United States population (aged 2 years and older) for two time periods (1999-2002 and 2003-2010) using one- and two-day food consumption data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, and 10-14 day food consumption data from NPD Group, Inc. National Eating Trends-Nutrient Intake Database. Our analyses indicated that among the emulsifiers assessed, lecithin and MDG have the highest mean exposures at ~60 and ~80 mg/kg bw/day, respectively, whereas the exposure to CMC is one-half to one-third of lecithin or MDG; and the exposure to P80 is approximately one-half of CMC. The review of available safety information such as ADIs established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, in light of our updated dietary exposure estimates for these seven emulsifiers, did not raise safety concerns at the current specified levels of use. Additionally, by examining two time periods (1999-2002) and (2003-2010), it was concluded that there is no evidence that exposure levels to emulsifiers have substantially increased.
The Scientific Committee (SC) reconfirms that the benchmark dose (BMD) approach is a scientifically more advanced method compared to the NOAEL approach for deriving a Reference Point (RP). Most of the modifications made to the SC guidance of 2009 concern the section providing guidance on how to apply the BMD approach. Model averaging is recommended as the preferred method for calculating the BMD confidence interval, while acknowledging that the respective tools are still under development and may not be easily accessible to all. Therefore, selecting or rejecting models is still considered as a suboptimal alternative. The set of default models to be used for BMD analysis has been reviewed, and the Akaike information criterion (AIC) has been introduced instead of the log-likelihood to characterise the goodness of fit of different mathematical models to a dose–response data set. A flowchart has also been inserted in this update to guide the reader step-by-step when performing a BMD analysis, as well as a chapter on the distributional part of dose–response models and a template for reporting a BMD analysis in a complete and transparent manner. Finally, it is recommended to always report the BMD confidence interval rather than the value of the BMD. The lower bound (BMDL) is needed as a potential RP, and the upper bound (BMDU) is needed for establishing the BMDU/BMDL per ratio reflecting the uncertainty in the BMD estimate. This updated guidance does not call for a general re-evaluation of previous assessments where the NOAEL approach or the BMD approach as described in the 2009 SC guidance was used, in particular when the exposure is clearly smaller (e.g. more than one order of magnitude) than the health-based guidance value. Finally, the SC firmly reiterates to reconsider test guidelines given the expected wide application of the BMD approach.
The intestinal tract is inhabited by a large and diverse community of microbes collectively referred to as the gut microbiota. While the gut microbiota provides important benefits to its host, especially in metabolism and immune development, disturbance of the microbiota-host relationship is associated with numerous chronic inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease and the group of obesity-associated diseases collectively referred to as metabolic syndrome. A primary means by which the intestine is protected from its microbiota is via multi-layered mucus structures that cover the intestinal surface, thereby allowing the vast majority of gut bacteria to be kept at a safe distance from epithelial cells that line the intestine. Thus, agents that disrupt mucus-bacterial interactions might have the potential to promote diseases associated with gut inflammation. Consequently, it has been hypothesized that emulsifiers, detergent-like molecules that are a ubiquitous component of processed foods and that can increase bacterial translocation across epithelia in vitro, might be promoting the increase in inflammatory bowel disease observed since the mid-twentieth century. Here we report that, in mice, relatively low concentrations of two commonly used emulsifiers, namely carboxymethylcellulose and polysorbate-80, induced low-grade inflammation and obesity/metabolic syndrome in wild-type hosts and promoted robust colitis in mice predisposed to this disorder. Emulsifier-induced metabolic syndrome was associated with microbiota encroachment, altered species composition and increased pro-inflammatory potential. Use of germ-free mice and faecal transplants indicated that such changes in microbiota were necessary and sufficient for both low-grade inflammation and metabolic syndrome. These results support the emerging concept that perturbed host-microbiota interactions resulting in low-grade inflammation can promote adiposity and its associated metabolic effects. Moreover, they suggest that the broad use of emulsifying agents might be contributing to an increased societal incidence of obesity/metabolic syndrome and other chronic inflammatory diseases.
Food additives and substances considered “generally recognized as safe” must not be allowed in food unless there is a reasonable certainty in the minds of competent scientists that the substance is not harmful under the intended conditions of use. Scientists determine safety by ensuring that the expected exposure is less than the acceptable daily intake. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provides guidance documents to assist safety assessors in this analysis. A November 2011 workshop sponsored by The Pew Charitable Trusts, the Institute of Food Technologists, and the journal Nature reviewed the agency's exposure assessment approaches. More than 70 experts from government (including FDA), industry, academia, and public interest organizations examined the principles underlying dietary exposure assessments for substances added to human food, and responded to questions about current methods. FDA's approach was seen as serving the agency reasonably well, but participants identified opportunities for improvement. Although reaching a consensus was not a goal, general agreements emerged that FDA should develop a science-based framework to prioritize and reassess prior safety decisions, and conduct more extensive postmarket monitoring. Participants discussed the possibility of harmonizing different approaches to assess dietary exposure. They generally agreed that collaboration, communication, and exchanging scientific information between agencies and stakeholders would help assessors use the most current information to make better decisions. Participants identified data gaps and opportunities to fill the gaps using new tools and technologies. Participants generally agreed on the need to consider all dietary sources in a cumulative dietary exposure assessment.
Carrageenan, a sulfated polysaccharide that is widely used as a food additive, induces inflammatory responses in animal models and human cells. The carrageenan-induced inflammatory cascades involve toll-like receptor (TLR)4- and B-cell leukemia/lymphoma (BCL)10-dependent activation of NF-κB, leading to increased IL-8 production. Translocations involving BCL10 in the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas are associated with constitutive activation of NF-κB. This report presents a mechanism by which carrageenan exposure leads to prolonged activation of both BCL10 and NF-κB in human colonic epithelial cells. Study findings demonstrate that nuclear RelA and RelB bind to an NF-κB binding motif in the BCL10 promoter in human colonic epithelial NCM460 and HT-29 cells. In vitro oligonucleotide binding assay, non-radioactive gel shift assay, and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) indicate binding of RelA and RelB to the BCL10 promoter. Prolonged inflammation follows activation of the BCL10-NFκB inflammatory loop in response to carrageenan, shown by increased BCL10, RelA, and IL-8 for 36 to 48h and increased RelB for 24h following withdrawal of carrageenan after 12h. In contrast, exposure to dextran sulfate sodium, which does not cause inflammation through TLR4 and BCL10 in the colonic epithelial cells, did not provoke prolonged activation of inflammation. The carrageenan-enhanced BCL10 promoter activity was blocked by caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) and MB-132 which inhibit NF-κB activation. These results indicate that NF-κB binding to the BCL10 promoter can lead to prolonged activation of the carrageenan-induced inflammatory cascade by a transcriptional mechanism involving an NF-κB-BCL10 loop.
Crohn's disease is common in developed nations where the typical diet is low in fibre and high in processed food. Primary lesions overlie Peyer's patches and colonic lymphoid follicles where bacterial invasion through M-cells occurs. We have assessed the effect of soluble non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) and food emulsifiers on translocation of Escherichia coli across M-cells.
To assess effects of soluble plant fibres and food emulsifiers on translocation of mucosa-associated E coli isolates from Crohn's disease patients and from non-Crohn's controls, we used M-cell monolayers, generated by co-culture of Caco2-cl1 and Raji B cells, and human Peyer's patches mounted in Ussing chambers.
E coli translocation increased across M-cells compared to parent Caco2-cl1 monocultures; 15.8-fold (IQR 6.2-32.0) for Crohn's disease E coli (N=8) and 6.7-fold (IQR 3.7-21.0) for control isolates (N=5). Electron microscopy confirmed E coli within M-cells. Plantain and broccoli NSP markedly reduced E coli translocation across M-cells at 5 mg/ml (range 45.3-82.6% inhibition, p<0.01); apple and leek NSP had no significant effect. Polysorbate-80, 0.01% vol/vol, increased E coli translocation through Caco2-cl1 monolayers 59-fold (p<0.05) and, at higher concentrations, increased translocation across M-cells. Similarly, E coli translocation across human Peyer's patches was reduced 45±7% by soluble plantain NSP (5 mg/ml) and increased 2-fold by polysorbate-80 (0.1% vol/vol).
Translocation of E coli across M-cells is reduced by soluble plant fibres, particularly plantain and broccoli, but increased by the emulsifier Polysorbate-80. These effects occur at relevant concentrations and may contribute to the impact of dietary factors on Crohn's disease pathogenesis.
The sulfated polysaccharide carrageenan (CGN) induces activation of NFkappaB and interleukin 8 (IL-8) in human colonic epithelial cells through a pathway of innate immunity mediated by Bcl10 (B-cell CLL/lymphoma 10). In this report, we identify Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), a member of the family of innate immune receptors, as the surface membrane receptor for CGN in human colonic epithelial cells. Experiments with fluorescence-tagged CGN demonstrated a marked reduction in binding of CGN to human intestinal epithelial cells and to RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages, following exposure to TLR4 blocking antibody (HTA-125). Binding of CGN to 10ScNCr/23 mouse macrophages, which are deficient in the genetic locus for TLR4, was absent. Additional experiments with TLR4 blocking antibody and TLR4 small interfering RNAs showed 80% reductions in CGN-induced increases in Bcl10 and IL-8. Transfection with dominant-negative MyD88 plasmid demonstrated MyD88 dependence of the CGN-TLR4-triggered increases in Bcl10 and IL-8. Therefore, these results indicate that CGN-induced inflammation in human colonocytes proceeds through a pathway of innate immunity, perhaps related to the unusual alpha-1,3-galactosidic linkage characteristic of CGN, and suggest how dietary CGN intake may contribute to human intestinal inflammation. Because CGN is a commonly used food additive in the Western diet, clarification of its effects and mechanisms of action are vital to issues of food safety.
Food additive emulsifier restriction is feasible in people with Crohn's disease - Volume 79 Issue OCE1 - Alicia Sandall, Selina Cox, James O Lindsay, Megan Rossi, Kevin Whelan
Very few consumers are aware that chemistry and synthetic chemicals are indispensable in making everyday goods because the products that people buy — such as cell phones, cars and processed foods — are typically far removed from the raw chemicals used in their production.
BACKGROUND
Much research has been done to explain emulsifiers action during breadmaking, but there is still plenty unknown to elucidate their functionality despite their diverse chemical structure. The aim of the present study was to provide some light about the role of emulsifiers on air incorporation into the dough and gas bubbles progress during baking and their relationship with bread features. Emulsifiers like diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglycerides (DATEM), sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL), distilled monoglyceride (DMG‐45 and DMG‐75), lecithin and polyglycerol esters of fatty acids (PGEF) were tested in very hydrated doughs.
RESULTS
Emulsifiers increased the maximum dough volume during proofing. Emulsifiers increased the number of bubbles incorporated during mixing, observing higher number of bubbles, particularly with PGEF. Major changes in dough occurred at 70 K when bubble size augmented, becoming more heterogeneous. DMG‐75 produced the biggest bubbles. As a consequence, emulsifiers tend to increase the number of gas cells with lower size in the bread crumb, but led to greater crumb firmness, which suggested different interactions between emulsifiers and gluten, affecting protein polymerization during baking.
CONCLUSION
Bubbles progress during baking allowed discriminate among emulsifiers, which could explain their performance in breadmaking.
Ice cream is a multiphase frozen food containing ice crystals, air cells, fat globules, and partially coalesced fat globule clusters dispersed in an unfrozen serum phase (sugars, proteins, and stabilizers). This microstructure is responsible for ice cream's melting characteristics. By varying both formulation (emulsifier content and overrun) and processing conditions (dasher speed), the effects of different microstructural elements, particularly air cells and fat globule clusters, on ice cream melt‐down properties were studied.
Factors that caused an increase in shear stress within the freezer, namely increasing dasher speed and overrun, caused a decrease in air cell size and an increase in extent of fat destabilization. Increasing emulsifier content, especially of polysorbate 80, caused an increase in extent of fat destabilization. Both overrun and fat destabilization influenced drip‐through rates. Ice creams with a combination of low overrun and low fat destabilization had the highest drip‐through rates. Further, the amount of remnant foam left on the screen increased with reduced drip‐through rates. These results provide a better understanding of the effects of microstructure components and their interactions on drip‐through rate.
Practical Applications
Manipulating operating and formulation parameters in ice cream manufacture influences the microstructure (air cells, ice crystals, and fat globule clusters). This work provides guidance on which parameters have most effect on air cell size and fat globule cluster formation. Further, the structural characteristics that reduce melt‐down rate were determined. Ice cream manufacturers will use these results to tailor their products for the desired quality attributes.
Emulsions, i.e., the dispersion of liquid droplets in a nonmiscible liquid phase, are overwhelmingly present in food products. In such systems, both liquid phases (generally, oil and water) are separated by a narrow region, the oil-water interface. Despite the fact that this interface is very thin (in the nanometer range), it represents a large surface area and controls to a great extent the physicochemical stability of emulsions. This review provides an overview of the aspects that govern the composition, structure, and mechanical properties of interfaces in food emulsions, taking into account the complexity of such systems (presence of numerous surface-active molecules, influence of processing steps, and dynamic evolution due to chemical changes). We also review methods that have conventionally, or recently, been used to study liquid-liquid interfaces at various scales. Finally, we focus on the link between interfacial properties and the physical, chemical, and digestive stability of emulsions at different levels and point out trends to control stability via interfacial engineering. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Food Science and Technology Volume 9 is March 25, 2018. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Food Emulsions: Principles, Practice, and Techniques, Second Edition introduces the fundamentals of emulsion science and demonstrates how this knowledge can be applied to better understand and control the appearance, stability, and texture of many common and important emulsion-based foods. Revised and expanded to reflect recent developments, this second edition provides the most comprehensive and contemporary discussion of the field of food emulsions currently available. It contains practical information about the formulation, preparation, and characterization of food emulsions, as well as the fundamental knowledge needed to control and improve food emulsion properties. New features include updates of all chapters, a critical assessment of the major functional ingredients used in food emulsions, and reviews of recent advances in characterizing emulsion properties.
Consumers in industrialized countries are nowadays much more interested in information about the production methods and components of the food products that they eat, than they had been 50 years ago. Some production methods are perceived as less “natural” (i.e. conventional agriculture) while some food components are seen as “unhealthy” and “unfamiliar” (i.e. artificial additives). This phenomenon, often referred to as the “clean label” trend, has driven the food industry to communicate whether a certain ingredient or additive is not present or if the food has been produced using a more “natural” production method (i.e. organic agriculture). However, so far there is no common and objective definition of clean label. This review paper aims to fill the gap via three main objectives, which are to a) develop and suggest a definition that integrates various understandings of clean label into one single definition, b) identify the factors that drive consumers' choices through a review of recent studies on consumer perception of various food categories understood as clean label with the focus on organic, natural and ‘free from’ artificial additives/ingredients food products and c) discuss implications of the consumer demand for clean label food products for food manufacturers as well as policy makers. We suggest to define clean label, both in a broad sense, where consumers evaluate the cleanliness of product by assumption and through inference looking at the front-of-pack label and in a strict sense, where consumers evaluate the cleanliness of product by inspection and through inference looking at the back-of-pack label. Results show that while ‘health’ is a major consumer motive, a broad diversity of drivers influence the clean label trend with particular relevance of intrinsic or extrinsic product characteristics and socio-cultural factors. However, ‘free from’ artificial additives/ingredients food products tend to differ from organic and natural products. Food manufacturers should take the diversity of these drivers into account in developing new products and communication about the latter. For policy makers, it is important to work towards a more homogenous understanding and application of the term of clean label and identify a uniform definition or regulation for ‘free from’ artificial additives/ingredients food products, as well as work towards decreasing consumer misconceptions. Finally, multiple future research avenues are discussed.
Objective
The intestinal microbiota plays a central role in the development of many chronic inflammatory diseases including IBD and metabolic syndrome. Administration of substances that alter microbiota composition, including the synthetic dietary emulsifiers polysorbate 80 (P80) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), can promote such inflammatory disorders. However, that inflammation itself impacts microbiota composition has obfuscated defining the extent to which these compounds or other substances act directly upon the microbiota versus acting on host parameters that promote inflammation, which subsequently reshapes the microbiota.
Design
We examined the direct impact of CMC and P80 on the microbiota using the mucosal simulator of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem (M-SHIME) model that maintains a complex stable human microbiota in the absence of a live host.
Results
This approach revealed that both P80 and CMC acted directly upon human microbiota to increase its proinflammatory potential, as revealed by increased levels of bioactive flagellin. The CMC-induced increase in flagellin was rapid (1 day) and driven by altered microbiota gene expression. In contrast, the P80-induced flagellin increase occurred more slowly and was closely associated with altered species composition. Transfer of both emulsifier-treated M-SHIME microbiotas to germ-free recipient mice recapitulated many of the host and microbial alterations observed in mice directly treated with emulsifiers.
Conclusions
These results demonstrate a novel paradigm of deconstructing host–microbiota interactions and indicate that the microbiota can be directly impacted by these commonly used food additives, in a manner that subsequently drives intestinal inflammation.
Scope:
The objective of this study was to interrogate two mechanisms by which commercial Carrageenans (E407) (CGN) may adversely affect human health: [i] Through modification of gastric proteolysis and [ii] Through affecting gut epithelial structure and function.
Methods and results:
Three commercial CGN samples with distinct zeta-potentials (stable at the pH range of 3-7 and varied with physiological levels of CaCl2 ) were mixed with milk, soy or egg protein isolates, then subjected to a semi-dynamic in vitro digestion model and analyzed by SDS-PAGE. This revealed varying levels of interference with gastric digestive proteolysis and a significant decrease in pepsin activity. Further, a Caco-2 cell model was used to explore various effects of physiologically digested CGN (pdCGN) on various epithelial cell functions and characteristics. Samples of pdCGN (0.005-0.5 mg/mL) affected the epithelial barrier function, including redistribution of the tight-junction protein Zonula Occludens (Zo)-1, changes in cellular F-actin architecture and increased monolayer permeability to the transfer of macromolecules. Moreover, pdCGN induced elevation in the levels of the pro-inflammatory IL-8 receptor CXCR1.
Conclusion:
This work raises the possibility that CGN may reduce protein and peptide bioaccessibility, disrupt normal epithelial function, promote intestinal inflammation and consequently compromise consumer health. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Ice Cream, 7th Edition focuses on the science and technology of frozen dessert production and quality. It explores the entire scope of the ice cream and frozen dessert industry, from the chemical, physical, engineering and biological principles of the production process to the distribution of the finished product. It is intended for industry personnel from large to small scale processors and suppliers to the industry and for teachers and students in dairy or food science or related disciplines. While it is technical in scope, it also covers much practical knowledge useful to anyone with an interest in frozen dessert production. World-wide production and consumption data, global regulations and, as appropriate, both SI and US units are provided, so as to ensure its relevance to the global frozen dessert industry. This edition has been completely revised from the previous edition, updating technical information on ingredients and equipment and providing the latest research results. Two new chapters on ice cream structure and shelf-life have been added, and much material has been rearranged to improve its presentation. Outstanding in its breadth, depth and coherence, Ice Cream, 7th Edition continues its long tradition as the definitive and authoritative resource for ice cream and frozen dessert producers. © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013. All rights are reserved.
The interactions between a hydrophobic emulsifier (polyglycerol polyricinoleate) and pectin at the oil–water interface were studied using drop shape tensiometry, and the results were related to the emulsifying behavior of these ingredients in water-in-oil emulsions. High methoxyl pectin (HMP) and sugar beet pectin (SBP) were used as model polysaccharides, because of their differences in interfacial activity. Pectins were added to the aqueous phase in the absence and presence of PGPR in the oil phase. SBP was shown to further decrease the interfacial tension when added simultaneously with PGPR. In the presence of PGPR, SBP or HMP caused the formation of a weakly elastic interfacial film. Water-in-oil emulsions containing PGPR (2–6%) showed improved stability when containing SBP or HMP (0.1%), compared to water alone. This work highlights the potential for reducing the amount of PGPR added to water-in-oil emulsions by creating interacting films with polysaccharides at the oil–water interface.
Colloids comprise a very broad class of materials. Their basic structure consists of a dispersion of one phase into another one, in which the dispersed phase possesses a typical length scale ranging from a fewmolecular sizes up to several microns. Some colloids are thermodynamically stable and generally form spontaneously, whereas others are metastable, requiring energy for preparation and specific properties to persist. Metastable colloids are obtained by two main distinct routes: one is nucleation and growth, including precipitation, and the other is fragmentation. In both cases, as a consequence of the intrinsic off-equilibrium nature of this class of colloids, specific surface properties are required to prevent recombination. Surfaceactive species are generally employed to stabilize freshly formed fragments or growing nuclei, as they are expected to provide sufficient colloidal repulsive forces.
Commercial vanilla ice cream products from the United States (full fat, low fat, and nonfat) were analyzed for their structural, behavioral (i.e., melt rate and drip‐through), compositional, and sensorial attributes. Mean size distributions of ice crystals and air cells, drip‐through rates, percent partially coalesced fat, percent overrun and total fat, and density were determined. A trained panel carried out sensory analyses in order to determine correlations between ice cream microstructure attributes and sensory properties using a Spectrum TM descriptive analysis. Analyses included melt rate, breakdown, size of ice particulates (iciness), denseness, greasiness, and overall creaminess. To determine relationships and interactions, principle component analysis and multivariate pairwise correlation were performed within and between the instrumental and sensorial data. Greasiness and creaminess negatively correlated with drip‐through rate and creaminess correlated with percent total fat and percent fat destabilization. Percent fat did not determine the melt rate on a sensorial level. However, drip‐through rate at ambient temperatures was predicted by total fat content of the samples. Based on sensory analysis, high‐fat products were noted to be creamier than low and nonfat products. Iciness did not correlate with mean ice crystal size and drip‐through rate did not predict sensory melt rate. Furthermore, on a sensorial level, greasiness positively correlated with total percent fat destabilization and mean air cell size positively correlated with denseness. These results indicate that commercial ice cream products vary widely in composition, structure, behavior, and sensory properties.
The results of French intake estimates for 13 food additives prioritized by the methods proposed in the 2001 Report from the European Commission on Dietary Food Additive Intake in the European Union are reported. These 13 additives were selected using the first and second tiers of the three-tier approach. The first tier was based on theoretical food consumption data and the maximum permitted level of additives. The second tier used real individual food consumption data and the maximum permitted level of additives for the substances which exceeded the acceptable daily intakes (ADI) in the first tier. In the third tier reported in this study, intake estimates were calculated for the 13 additives (colours, preservatives, antioxidants, stabilizers, emulsifiers and sweeteners) according to two modelling assumptions corresponding to two different food habit scenarios (assumption 1: consumers consume foods that may or may not contain food additives, and assumption 2: consumers always consume foods that contain additives) when possible. In this approach, real individual food consumption data and the occurrence/use-level of food additives reported by the food industry were used. Overall, the results of the intake estimates are reassuring for the majority of additives studied since the risk of exceeding the ADI was low, except for nitrites, sulfites and annatto, whose ADIs were exceeded by either children or adult consumers or by both populations under one and/or two modelling assumptions. Under the first assumption, the ADI is exceeded for high consumers among adults for nitrites and sulfites (155 and 118.4%, respectively) and among children for nitrites (275%). Under the second assumption, the average nitrites dietary exposure in children exceeds the ADI (146.7%). For high consumers, adults exceed the nitrite and sulfite ADIs (223 and 156.4%, respectively) and children exceed the nitrite, annatto and sulfite ADIs (416.7, 124.6 and 130.6%, respectively).
The aim of this study was to assess the dietary exposure of 13 priority additives in four European countries (France, Italy, the UK and Ireland) using the Flavourings, Additives and Contact Materials Exposure Task (FACET) software. The studied additives were benzoates (E210-213), nitrites (E249-250) and sulphites (E220-228), butylated hydroxytoluene (E321), polysorbates (E432-436), sucroses esters and sucroglycerides (E473-474), polyglycerol esters of fatty acids (E475), stearoyl-lactylates (E481-482), sorbitan esters (E493-494 and E491-495), phosphates (E338-343/E450-452), aspartame (E951) and acesulfame (E950). A conservative approach (based on individual consumption data combined with maximum permitted levels (Tier 2)) was compared with more refined estimates (using a fitted distribution of concentrations based on data provided by the food industry (Tier 3)). These calculations demonstrated that the estimated intake is below the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for nine of the studied additives. However, there was a potential theoretical exceedance of the ADI observed for four additives at Tier 3 for high consumers (97.5th percentile) among children: E220-228 in the UK and Ireland, E432-436 and E481-482 in Ireland, Italy and the UK, and E493-494 in all countries. The mean intake of E493-494 could potentially exceed the ADI for one age group of children (aged 1-4 years) in the UK. For adults, high consumers only in all countries had a potential intake higher than the ADI for E493-494 at Tier 3 (an additive mainly found in bakery wares). All other additives examined had an intake below the ADI. Further refined exposure assessments may be warranted to provide a more in-depth investigation for those additives that exceeded the ADIs in this paper. This refinement may be undertaken by the introduction of additive occurrence data, which take into account the actual presence of these additives in the different food groups.
The relationship between the global food system, and the worldwide rapid increase of obesity and related diseases, is not yet well understood. A reason is that the full impact of industrialized food processing on dietary patterns, including the environments of eating and drinking, remains overlooked and underestimated. Many forms of food processing are beneficial. But what is identified and defined here as ultra-processing, a type of process that had become increasingly dominant, at first in high-income countries, and now in middle-income countries, creates attractive, hyper-palatable, cheap, ready-to-consume food products that are characteristically energy-dense, fatty, sugary or salty, and generally obesogenic. In this study the scale of change in purchase and sales of ultra-processed products is examined and the context and implications are discussed. Data come from 79 high- and middle-income countries, with special attention to Canada and Brazil. Results show that ultra-processed products dominate the food supplies of high-income countries, and that their consumption is now rapidly increasing in middle-income countries. It is proposed here that the main driving force now shaping the global food system is transnational food manufacturing, retailing and fast-food service corporations whose businesses are based on very profitable, heavily promoted ultra-processed products, many in snack form.
The understanding of the formation, structures, and properties of emulsions is essential to the creation and stabilization of structures in food. The increasing use of surfactants, the identification of compounds with low toxicity and good surface activity properties is of great interest. The relevance of the major end points specified in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines for the hazard assessment of food chemicals is critically analyzed and main parameters are acute toxicity, subacute repeated studies, allergy, reproductive toxicity, long-term studies, and mutagenicity tests. We focus this article on surfactant association structures and food colloids. There is almost infinite number of combinations are organized and arranged in very complex internal microstructures with various types of assemblies such as dispersions, emulsions, foams, gels, etc. Low-mass surfactants are very mobile at the interface and they are particularly efficient reducing the interfacial tension. As a result, they rapidly coat the freshly created oil-water interface during emulsification. In this category, we mainly mentioned monoglycerides, lecithins, glycolipids, fatty alcohols and fatty acids. High-mass surfactants cover protein and polysacharide groups. The protein molecule may interpenetrate in the lipid phase to various degrees. The specific binding is predominantly electrostatic: The headgroups of the surfactants bind to groups of opposite charge on the protein. The saturation binding for anionic surfactants is pH-independent and seems to be controlled by the cooperative hydrophobic interactions. Polysaccharides and smallmolecule surfactants are two of the predominant groups of amphiphilic materials that have been explored for the stabilization of emulsions. One of the most important aspects of polymer-surfactant systems is their ability to control stability and rheology over a wide range of composition. Biocompatible, biodegradable, and/or nontoxic emulsion-based formulations have great potential for applications in the food. The combination of particular characteristics such as emulsifying, anti-adhesive and antimicrobial activities presented by biosurfactants suggests potential application as multipurpose ingredients or additives.
Abstract Dietary exposure assessment to flavourings presents a challenge due to the very large number of food products in which they may be present and the lack of knowledge of their actual presence. Industry claims to be adding more than 2800 different chemically defined flavourings in the European Union (EU). Within the Flavours, Additives and Food Contact Material Exposure Task (FACET) EU project, an occurrence survey was performed to explore the possible use of the information that can be collected from the labels to reduce the uncertainty in exposure assessment. An ad hoc procedure based on the use of market share data of food and drinks was developed for the selection of products to be collected. A database of information retrieved from the food labels of branded products from large and small companies was created. Such information may be used to populate some databases of the software developed within the FACET project to assess total dietary exposure to flavourings.
Crohn's disease (CD) incidence has increased over the past fifty years but the explanation is unclear. CD can be brought into remission by liquid enteral feeding, but the mechanism for this response is unknown. We suggest that consumption of emulsifiers in processed foods may promote CD by increasing bacterial translocation. This is supported by evidence that (i) geographical variation in CD correlates with emulsifier consumption as does the increasing incidence of CD in Japan; (ii) although CD incidence also correlates with fat consumption, the response to enteral feeding is not affected by the fat content of the feed and (iii) very small concentrations of the emulsifier polysorbate 80 enhance bacterial translocation across intestinal epithelia. Undigested emulsifiers may increase bacterial translocation, particularly in the small intestine where the mucus layer is discontinuous. The hypothesis should be testable by trials of enteral feeding with/without emulsifiers.
A hydrolytic effect of heat sterilization on carrageenan (Seakem 2) was demonstrated in a synthetic milk salt system. The heat-induced changes in carrageenan included increased electrophoretic mobility on cellulose acetate and agarose, reduced viscosity, increased reducing power, and reduced molecular weight by sedimentation equilibrium centrifugation. The apparent weight average molecular weight decreased by 42% after 20 min of heat treatment at 122 °C. The hydrolytic process was a first-order random degradation with a velocity constant at 122 °C approximately twice as large as has been reported for heat degradation of carrageenan in aqueous solution at pH 7.0. The increased hydrolysis in the milk salt environment was attributed to a drop in pH which occurred during heating of that system which was greater than for normal milk. The ultracentrifuge analysis revealed that sodium carrageenate in 0.05 M sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7) containing 0.25 M sodium chloride at 35 °C undergoes a reversible, pressure-dependent dissociation. At 20000g species were produced with weight-average molecular weights of 8.5 × 104 for unheated samples and 5.1 × 104 daltons for samples previously heated in a milk salt system at 122 °C for 15 min. Extrapolation to zero speed indicated a molecular weight of 2.3 × 105 for the undissociated, unheated carrageenan aggregate.
Food consists of three components, carbohydrates, proteins and fats, which are linked by various types of chemical and physical bonds. The interactions at the interface of dispersions and emulsions are influenced by surface-active emulsifiers such as lecithins. Synergistic effects on the emulsion stability can be obtained by selected protein-lecithin combinations. Hydrocolloids enhance the stability by viscosity increase and Eel formation. Lecithins are modified physically and enzymatically, giving a range of food grade emulsifiers with different hydrophilic-lipophilic-balance (HLB) values. The influence of phospholipid fractions in the homogenization process can be measured by the particle size distribution technique (PSD) and emulsifying tests, which assess the emulsion stability. Basic studies on the interactions of surface-active proteins and lecithins in emulsions are reviewed. The principles of combined use of proteins and lecithins are presented for processed foods such as mayonnaise, margarine, instant milk powders, fat reduced cookies, and chocolate coatings for ice cream dipping. A new challenge for the food industry is the liposome encapsulation technique. Liposomes are produced with phosphatidylcholine fractions to encapsulate water and oil soluble components, such as flavours, in one capsule.
Preparation is given and metabolic fate is shown in rats for both fatty-acid-V-labeled and polyoxyetbylene-C14-labeled polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monolaurate. The emulsifier's metabolic pattern, following oral administration, appears to be as follows: The ester bond between the polyoxyethylated polyol and fatty acid moieties undergoes almost complete hydrolysis, with the fatty acid portion being metabolized in a manner similar to that for trilaurin. The ether linkage between the polyoxyethylene chain and the hexitan molecule is not disrupted appreciably, and this polyoxyethylene-polyol emulsifier moiety is only slightly absorbed. The data also show that none of the polyol moiety is stored in the body of the animal. The fate of each labeled form of the emulsifier following intravenous administration is also shown.
The widely used food additive carrageenan (CGN) has been shown to induce intestinal inflammation, ulcerative colitis-like symptoms, or neoplasm in the gut epithelia in animal models, which are also clinical features of human inflammatory bowel disease. In this study, the effects of CGN on pro-inflammatory transcription factors NF-κB and early growth response gene 1 product (EGR-1) were evaluated in terms of human intestinal epithelial barrier integrity. Both pro-inflammatory transcription factors were elevated by CGN and only NF-κB activation was shown to be involved in the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-8. Moreover, the integrity of the in vitro epithelial monolayer under the CGN insult was maintained by both activated pro-inflammatory transcription factors NF-κB and EGR-1. Suppression of NF-κB or EGR-1 aggravated barrier disruption by CGN, which was associated with the reduced gene expression of tight junction component zonula occludens 1 and its irregular localization in the epithelial monolayer.
Although traditionally associated with thickening and gelation behaviour, food hydrocolloids also influence the properties of dispersed systems through their interfacial properties. Hence, surface-active hydrocolloids may act as emulsifiers and emulsion stabilisers through adsorption of protective layers at oil–water interfaces, and interactions of hydrocolloids with emulsion droplets may affect rheology and stability with respect to aggregation and serum separation. A review of literature evidence suggests that much of the reported emulsifying capability of polysaccharides is explicable in terms of complexation or contamination with a small fraction of surface-active protein. To support this point of view, the specific cases of gum arabic, galactomannans and pectin are considered in some detail. In mixed protein+polysaccharide systems, associative electrostatic interactions can lead to coacervation or soluble complex formation depending on the nature of the biopolymers and the solution conditions (pH and ionic strength). Protein–hydrocolloid complexation at interfaces can be associated with bridging flocculation or steric stabilisation. As well as controlling rheology, the presence of a non-adsorbing hydrocolloid can affect creaming stability by inducing depletion flocculation.