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Vol.:(0123456789)
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Sport Sciences for Health
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-020-00675-x
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Functional training incomparison totraditional training onphysical
tness andquality ofmovement inolder women
AntônioGomesdeResende‑Neto1,4 · MarielydaSilvaResende2· BrunaCarolineOliveira‑Andrade2·
LeuryMaxdaSilvaChaves1· LeandroHenriqueAlbuquerqueBrandão1· AlbernonCostaNogueira1·
MarceloMendonçaMota3· JosimariMeloDeSantana2· MarzoEdirDaSilva‑Grigoletto1
Received: 20 December 2019 / Accepted: 9 July 2020
© Springer-Verlag Italia S.r.l., part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract
Background The functional training (FT) is based on the application of exercises with free weights in patterns of movements
that resemble the daily activities of the individual. On the other hand, traditional training (TT) seeks to improve muscular
fitness, through exercises predominantly performed in conventional machines. Lately, there has been a lack of research
comparing these two methods to understand their real effects on functionality.
Aim The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of functional and traditional strength training on physical fitness
and movement quality in sedentary older women.
Methods Thirty-two elderly women were randomly divided into (1) functional training (FT n = 13; 64.8 ± 4.6years) and (2)
traditional training (TT n = 12; 66.0 ± 5.5years). To verify the physical fitness for daily activities, the Senior Fitness battery
was applied and, in a complementary way, a maximum isometric strength test and quality of movement patterns.
Results At the end of 8weeks, when compared to TT, the FT promoted significant increases in the variables: balance/agility
(p = 0.03, + 8.5%), lower limb strength (p = 0.03; + 19%), upper limbs strength (p = 0.02, + 15.6%), cardiorespiratory capacity
(p = 0.02, + 8.5%) and isometric strength (p = 0.04, + 16.5%). At the end of 12weeks, the FT showed significant differences
in the variables: balance/agility (p = 0.00, + 10.5%), lower limb strength (p = 0.03, + 17.9%), cardiorespiratory capacity
(p = 0.01; + 6.7%) and in the quality of movement (p = 0.02; + 16.6%) when compared to TT.
Conclusions The functional training proven more effective than traditional in physical fitness for daily activities and quality
of movement patterns in sedentary older women.
Keywords Strength training· Aging· Activities of daily living· Quality of life
Introduction
Aging is a multifactorial, progressive, and irreversible pro-
cess that involves structural and functional variations charac-
terized by loss of adaptive capacity, increased susceptibility
to chronic non-communicable diseases, musculoskeletal and
metabolic disorders, loss of functionality and quality of life.
The decline in functional capacity can be partially explained
by the loss of efficiency of neuromuscular, cardiorespiratory
and somatosensory systems, induced by the aging process
associated with reduced level of habitual physical activity
[1].
This perspective, deficits in conditioning abilities such as
muscle strength and power, cardiorespiratory fitness, balance
and flexibility will gradually accumulate as age advances,
especially if not stimulated properly [2]. Sedentary behavior
* Antônio Gomes de Resende-Neto
1 Department ofPhysical Education, Center ofBiological
andHealth Sciences, Federal University ofSergipe,
SãoCristóvão, Brazil
2 Department ofPhysical Therapy, Center ofBiological
andHealth Sciences, Federal University ofSergipe,
SãoCristóvão, Brazil
3 Department ofPhysical Education, Estácio ofSergipe
College, Aracaju, Brazil
4 Rodovia João Bebe Água, Rua Projetada III, 189, BL12
AP304, Bairro Rosa Elze, SãoCristóvão49100-000, Sergipe,
Brazil
Sport Sciences for Health
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accelerates the functional decline of the aging process,
increasing the difficulties in performing tasks, often of low
complexity, resulting in loss of autonomy, self-esteem and,
over time, premature death [3].
Pharmacological and surgical interventions, although
being essential strategies in several contexts, could be
avoided in some situations through changes in lifestyle,
including involvement with regular programs of resistance
exercises, which benefits are quite known, particularly in
older adults [4]. The regular practice of strength train-
ing can promote innumerable adaptations favorable to
the health and quality of life of the elderly, with studies
showing improvement of physical capacities related to the
functionality [5] and structural alterations such as increase
of muscle mass and decreased body fat [6].
Traditional training (TT), commonly applied in con-
ventional machines, is classically used to promote neu-
romuscular adaptations and attenuate some effects of
senescence [7]. However, the transfer of these adaptations
for increases in functional fitness in the elderly has been
questioned, since it does not address all the physical fitness
components in the session and their movements do not
resemble daily activities [8]. Studies comparing different
neuromuscular training protocols show that the benefits
of exercise depend on tasks performed during training,
requiring specific movements for daily tasks, for greater
gains in functional capacity, preventing the onset of physi-
cal disabilities [9].
In this premise of improving functional capacity as the
main objective to be achieved in physical training pro-
grams for the elderly, functional training (FT) emerges as
a promising strategy and its use is increasing in clinical
practice [9, 10]. It is based on the application of mul-
tisegmental exercises performed at maximum concentric
speed and aims at the integrated development of physical
valences (muscle strength and power, dynamic balance,
motor coordination, agility, flexibility and cardiovascular
capacity) in movement patterns commonly used in daily
activities, aiming at promote multisystem adaptations and
ensure autonomy during the performance of daily func-
tions [11].
However, the benefits of FT are not well known in the
elderly population and there is also a lack of a model of a
systematized protocol in the studies available in the litera-
ture, as well as the lack of investigations comparing FT with
traditional methods, which hinders a more robust analysis
between applied methods and the answers found for func-
tional fitness in older people. Thus, this experiment sought
to compare the effects at 8 and 12weeks of functional and
traditional training on physical fitness and quality of move-
ment patterns in sedentary older women. Our hypothesis is
that specific training protocols for activities daily may pro-
mote more effective adaptive responses in the functionality
of sedentary older women. From a clinical standpoint, we
believe that the results of the present study may help to
define and guide a therapeutic approach that can contribute
more effectively to the treatment of physical disabilities.
Methods
Experimental design
This study was a randomized clinical trial, performed over
a period of 18weeks, with 12weeks dedicated to the FT
and TT programs, 4weeks used for data collection 2weeks
for familiarization. It was conducted aiming at the analysis
of two different types of physical training, controlling the
action of intervening factors and describing the behavior
of the variables observed in the intervention. All proce-
dures, purpose and risks associated with the study were
explained to all the subjects before they gave their written
informed consent to participate in this investigation. The
investigation was conducted according to the Declaration
of Helsinki (1964, revised in 2001), and approved by the
Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Sergipe (no.
1,021,732) and by the Brazilian Registry of Clinical Trials
(RBR-5T9HP5). Some data have already been published
before this project [12].
Subjects
Individuals who met the following criteria were included
in the study: (a) age ≥ 60years, (b) female sex, (c) negative
answer to all items of the Physical Activity Readiness Ques-
tionnaire (PAR-Q) [13] and without physical exercise or par-
ticipation in a training program in the previous 6months,
(d) can walk 100m without using a walking stick and climb
10 steps without resting, and (e) with physician referral.
Individuals who had any of the following conditions were
excluded from the study: (a) uncontrolled hypertension, (b)
degenerative joint disease or joint implants, (c) cardiovas-
cular and/or pulmonary disease precluding the practice of
physical activity, or (d) neurological deterioration.
Participant’s recruitment were carried out through
newspaper and radio advertisements, and door-to-door fly-
ers delivered in residential neighborhoods. Sixty women
showed interest in participating in the study. Of these, 28
were excluded because of failure to meet the inclusion
criteria (Fig.1). One of the researchers enrolled the par-
ticipants and performed blind randomization using a per-
mutation procedure based on a computer-generated list of
random numbers, thereby forming 2 study groups with 16
women each. Then, the principal investigator informed the
participants about the schedule of the training sessions. In
Sport Sciences for Health
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addition, the evaluators were blinded to the study group
of each participant at all times during the evaluations of
the dependent variables before and after the intervention.
Moreover, the participants were submitted to anam-
nesis with questions relating to sociodemographic char-
acteristics, health and level of physical activity; a nutri-
tional assessment by means of a usual diet recall applied
by nutritionists and all exclusion criteria were diagnosed
by a specialized medical team. Lastly, before starting the
study, all potential participants were thoroughly informed
about the purpose and procedures, as well as about the
benefits, risks, and discomforts that could result from their
participation. All participants signed an informed consent
form and were informed of their freedom to drop out of
the study at any time.
Intervention
All training sessions were performed in the sportive center
at the university, and were supervised by certified fitness
coaches to ensure proper performance of the respective rou-
tines. They were responsible for seeing that exercise pre-
scription were followed and achieved through each training
session (e.g., load progression, safety considerations and
velocity of movement). To ensure consistent performances,
all exercises were performed with a partner (e.g., rest period,
motivation and social facilitation). Participants in the experi-
mental groups went through 2weeks of familiarization and
completed 36 sessions of training. The 55min sessions were
performed three times per week on non-consecutive days.
The exercises were performed according to the individual’s
physical capacity and the effort was monitored and normal-
ized during and after each training set by the OMNI-GSE
scale [14].
Functional training: Participants performed multifunc-
tional, integrated and multi-joint exercises specific to their
daily needs, and each session was divided into four sets: 1st:
10min of mobility for the main joints (ankle, hip and gleno-
humeral) and general warm-up exercises that included ten
repetitions each of squats and jumps; 2nd: 15min of inter-
mittent activities organized in circuit that required agility,
coordination and muscle power; 3rd: 20min of multi-joint
exercises for upper and lower limbs, with intense activation
of stabilizing muscles of the spine, also organized in circuit;
and 4th: 10min of intermittent activities.
Traditional training: Participants performed traditional
exercises on machines, predominantly analytical with iso-
lated neuromuscular work, each session was also divided
into four sets: 1st: 10min of mobility for the main joints and
general warm-up exercises that included ten repetitions each
of squats and jumps; 2nd: 15min interval walk (30s walking
naturally alternating with 30s walking a little faster) was
performed within a distance of 86m; 3rd: 20min of analyti-
cal exercises for upper and lower limbs, also organized in
circuit; and 4th: 10min of intermittent activities (Fig.2).
The 3rd set, consisting of strength exercises performed
at maximum concentric speed, the participants trained in
pairs, being supervised by experienced physical educa-
tion professionals, whose responsibility was to maintain
the established protocols and ensure an optimal standard
of safety and motivation. For TT, the intensity in this set
was progressive by adding external loads, from a note
referred to < 6 (easy) on the OMINI-GSE scale, and with
the number of repetitions performed for maintenance of
8–12 repetitions, or that is, if the participant performed
more than the maximum number of pre-established repeti-
tions (> 12), an increase of 5% for upper limb exercises
and 10% for lower limbs in the external load was per-
formed. In the FT condition, the criterion followed was the
Fig. 1 Flowchart for screening,
recruitment, allocation, and
intervention
Assessed for eligibility (n = 60)
Excluded (n = 28)
Not meeting inclusion
criteria
Analyzed (n = 13)
Medical issue (n =1)
Loss of interest (n= 2)
Functional Training (n = 16)
Randomized
(
n = 32
)
Traditional Trainin
g(
n= 16
)
Familiarization (2 weeks) + Intervention (12 weeks)
Analyzed (n = 12)
Medical issue (n =2)
Loss of interest (n= 2)
Sport Sciences for Health
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one previously mentioned, with the addition of external
load for the applicable exercises, whereas modifications
were adopted for those exercises performed with body
mass. Functional exercises were performed according to
the participant’s skill and comfort level for maintenance
8–12 repetitions. The training density was 30s of work per
30s of transition/recovery between stations. There was no
predetermined sequence for the exercises in each session,
however, the participants were instructed to alternate the
exercises for upper and lower limbs.
In the 4th set an intermittent activity of low motor com-
plexity was used, following a training density of 10s of work
for 20s of recovery:
Fig. 2 Overview of functional
training sessions (FT) and tradi-
tional strength training (TT)
Sport Sciences for Health
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- Intervals run: In a space of 30m, groups of five partici-
pants were separated. Of these participants, three formed a
column behind a cone and the other two formed another col-
umn at a distance of 20m. Working time consisted of walk-
ing this distance with maximum speed and recovery allowed
while the other participants in the group performed the
sprints. The total volume was 8–12 sprints per individual.
The present intervention proposal was elaborated accord-
ing to the concepts presented by La Scala Teixeira etal. [11]
and was previously tested by Resende-Neto etal. [12].
Evaluation ofthestudy variables
Anthropometric characteristics and cognitive status: body
mass (kg) was determined using a scale (Lider®, P150C, São
Paulo, Brazil) with maximum capacity of 150kg. Height
(m) was determined using a stadiometer (Sanny, ES2030,
São Paulo, Brazil). Cognitive status was verified through
the Mini Mental State Examination, which aims to provide
data on temporal and spatial orientation, immediate memory,
attention and calculation, visual language and constructive
capacity [15].
Physical fitness: Was assessed using the Senior Fitness
Test battery proposed by Rikli and Jones [16], with tests that
evaluate physiological attributes to perform normal everyday
activities safely and independently, without undue fatigue:
• Sit and reach: This test evaluates flexibility of the lower
limbs and lower back. The volunteer was instructed to sit
on the edge of the chair, with the right leg extended as
far as possible with the ankle in neutral position, slowly
lowering the trunk with arms extended and hands over-
lapping. The left leg remained with the knee flexed at
90°. The end of the hallux corresponded to zero point.
Failing to reach this point, the result was negative and,
surpassing it, the result was positive. As a final result, the
average obtained by the right and left sides of the body
was considered.
• Reach behind the back: This test evaluates upper limb
flexibility. The participant, standing, placed her hand of
preference in the back, passing the arm over the shoulder.
The palm of the hand was facing the back with the fingers
extended, trying to reach the greater distance (towards
the hips). The other hand was also placed on the back,
but with the arm going through the side of the body. The
smallest distance between the fingers was recorded after
two attempts and as a final result, the average obtained
by the right and left sides of the body was considered.
• 30-s arm curl: This test evaluates upper-limb strength.
The participant must flex and extend the elbow while
holding a dumbbell for 30s in a sitting position on a
chair. The test has a correlation coefficient of r = 0.82
with the Cybex machine arm curl performance [17].
• 30-s chair stand: This test evaluates lower-limb strength.
From the sitting position, the participant has to get up
from a chair completely and return to the sitting posi-
tion as many times as possible for 30s. The reliability
in contrast to 1RM in leg press was r = 0.78 for men and
0.71 for women [18].
• Rise and walk: This test evaluates agility and dynamic
balance. This test measures the time it takes for a partici-
pant to get up from a chair, turn around a cone located
3m away, and return to the sitting position. This test has
a correlation coefficient r = 0.81 with the Berg Balance
Scale and r = 0.789 with the Barthel Index for Activities
of Daily Living [16].
• 6-min walk test: Distance walked, walking as fast as pos-
sible, in a time of 6min. The rectangular course had a
total distance of 45.72m and was demarcated by cones
every 4.57m. The participant was advised when 2min
and 1min were left to the end of the task. At the end of
the time, the walk was interrupted and then the distance
traveled was measured. The test has a correlation coef-
ficient of r = 0.82 for men and r = 0.71 for women with
the treadmill test [16].
Maximum Isometric Force: Determined using a dorsal
dynamometer (Crown®, dorsal, São Paulo, Brazil), with
capacity of 200kg and scale of 1kg. Participants remained
standing, with trunk upright and knees bent at an angle of
130°–140° without flexing the trunk, slowly stretching legs
up to maximum muscle contraction. Each participant per-
formed three attempts, with the best score considered as final
test result [19].
Functional Movement Screen®: This test evaluates of
movement patterns. This is a battery test involving seven
functional movement that assess body mobility and stability.
Each pattern was executed three times and assigned a score
of 0–3 [(1) did not perform the movement; (2) performed the
movement with compensations and (3) perfect execution].
For the analyses, the total score reached by the participant
was used [20].
Statistical analysis
Pretrial statistical power was calculated using the G*Power
3.1 (https ://www.gpowe r.hhu.de/en.html) in the muscle
strength tests of the Senior Fitness Test battery from the
results obtained by Resende-Neto etal. [12] expecting an
average increase of 10% in the performance of the partici-
pants. Thus, adopting α level of 0.05 and a power (1−β) of
0.80, it would be necessary to include at least 24 volunteers
(12 participants for each group).
Data were submitted to statistical treatment using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 24.0 for
Windows. Descriptive statistics were determined after
Sport Sciences for Health
1 3
confirming the normality of the variables using the Shap-
iro–Wilk test and after testing for homoscedasticity using
Levene’s test. The two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
with repeated measures (group × time) was used to ver-
ify the differences between the interventions. When an
F-ratio was significant, the Bonferroni post hoc test was
used to identify where the significance occurred. To assess
whether significant differences had practical applications,
effect sizes and intra-group percentage changes were also
calculated [21]. The results were interpreted following
standards according to which Cohen < 0.2 is considered a
trivial effect; 0.2–0.5, a small effect; 0.5–0.8, a moderate
effect; 0.8–1.33, a large effect; and >1.33 a very large
effect. For all tests used, significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.
The minimal clinically important difference (MCID)
of each measure, determined after the intervention, were
compared to assess whether intra-group changes were
clinically significant. The following MCID values of meas-
ures in older adults were retrieved from the literature: 2.53
repetitions for 30-s arm curl, 3.3 repetitions for 30-s chair
stand, 1s for the Rise and walk test, 27m for the 6-min
walk test [22, 23].
Results
The average participation rate was 30 sessions of 36,
and sample loss was seven individuals. The participant’s
attendance was 95% (~ 34 sessions) for the FT and 85%
(~ 31 sessions) for TT. FT had three losses, one for med-
ical reasons and two for not attending all stages of the
study. TT had four losses, two for medical reasons and
the other two for attendance less than 85%. Before the
exercise intervention, there were no statistically significant
differences between the experimental groups in any of the
analyzed variables (Table1).
At the end of 8weeks, when compared to TT, the FT
promoted significant increases in the variables: balance/
agility (+ 8.5%), lower limb strength (+ 19%), upper limbs
strength (+ 15.6%), cardiorespiratory capacity (+ 8.5%)
and isometric strength (+ 16.5%). At the end of 12weeks,
the FT showed significant differences in the variables:
balance/agility (+ 10.5%), lower limb strength (+ 17.9%),
cardiorespiratory capacity (+ 6.7%) and in the quality of
movement (+ 16.6%) when compared to TT (Table2).
Discussion
The present investigation shows both protocols are effi-
cient in improving physical complications arising from
senescence, confirming the need for this type of training
in this population profile, regardless of the method used.
However, the FT obtained greater gains in physical fitness
variables related to daily activities in sedentary women,
with magnitudes higher the minimum important clinical
difference (MCID) and values above the TT. Similar val-
ues were found by Resende-Neto etal. [24] when com-
paring an intervention with functional exercises (specific
to the daily needs) to a control that performed conven-
tional activities, showing greater improvement in 7.6% of
dynamic balance/agility, 11% in strength of upper limbs,
15.3% in strength of lower limbs and 10.7% in cardiores-
piratory capacity.
The superior adaptations provided by the FT in the
rise and walk test are probably attributed to the princi-
ple of training specificity. That is, the FT program was
designed to promote constant instability and change of
direction with the applied exercises, which may stimulate
postural control systems and activate stabilizing muscles
more frequently, thus promoting mechanisms important for
the efficient development of dynamic balance and agility
[25–27]. Corroborating these findings, Giné-Garriga etal.
[28] and Karóczi etal. [29] demonstrated a 17% and 27%
improvement in agility/dynamic balance, respectively,
after 12weeks of functional training. However, also per-
formed at maximum concentric speed, TT causes impor-
tant adaptations in muscle power [30], which is strongly
associated dynamic balance [31] and contributes positively
to the rapid execution of the task. In addition, the neu-
romuscular complexity of the exercises applied in both
training methods can improve muscle synergy, increase
the recruitment of motor units and, consequently, body
stability [9].
The benefits of strength training, especially TT in mus-
cle strength, are clearly evidenced in the scientific commu-
nity, through adaptations such as muscle cell hypertrophy,
increased recruitment of motor units and the excitability of
motor neurons in the spinal marrow [7]. On the other hand,
Table 1 Baseline characteristics in the functional training (FT) and
traditional training (TT)
Values presented in mean and standard deviation (M ± SD)
MMSE Mini-Mental Status Exam, BMI body mass index, kg/m2 kilo-
grams/meter2
p values indicate the outcome of Student’s t test
Variables FT (n = 13) TT (n = 12) p
Age (years) 64.8 ± 4.6 66.0 ± 5.5 0.608
MMSE (points) 24.4 ± 3.3 26.3 ± 2.7 0.133
Body mass (kg) 71.7 ± 13.2 69.0 ± 16.7 0.669
Height (cm) 153.7 ± 6.5 155.3 ± 8.3 0.618
BMI (kg/m2)29.6 ± 5.2 28.5 ± 5.6 0.613
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Table 2 Changes in
functionality after 8 and
12weeks of functional training
(FT) and traditional resistance
training (TT) in sedentary older
women
Values presented in mean and standard deviation (M ± SD)
W weeks, Δ% delta percentage between Pre vs. post 8 or post 12, ES effect size
*p < 0.05 for pre vs. post 8 or post 12
≠ p < 0.05 for post 8 vs. post 12
# FT vs. TT (p < 0.05). I = p value for interaction (time×group)
Evaluation moments Traditional (n = 12) Functional (n = 13) p value TT vs. FT
Sit and reach (cm) I = 0.467
Pre 2.63 ± 7.30 2.77 ± 6.40
Post_8_w 4.92 ± 6.82* 6.04 ± 6.66* 0.681
Δ%—ES 87.07–0.33 118.05–0.49
Post_12_w 5.83 ± 5.87* 7.81 ± 6.26*≠0.424
Δ%—ES 121.67–0.54 181.94–0.80
Reach behind the back (cm) I = 0.110
Pre −6.46 ± 9.94 −7.54 ± 4.63
Post_8_w −4.25 ± 9.25* −4.15 ± 5.80* 0.976
Δ%—ES 152.00–0.20 81.68–0.58
Post_12_w −2.17 ± 7.40*≠−2.69 ± 6.32*≠0.851
Δ%—ES 197.69–0.57 180.29–0.76
30-s arm curl (rep) I = 0.071
Pre 16.33 ± 2.99 17.46 ± 2.76
Post_8_w 20.08 ± 2.19* 23.23 ± 3.88*#0.021
Δ%—ES 22.96–1.71 33.04–1.48
Post_12_w 21.08 ± 2.15* 23.38 ± 3.52* 0.061
Δ%—ES 29.08–2.20 33.90–1.68
30-s chair stand (rep) I < 0.001
Pre 15.58 ± 4.23 14.85 ± 4.38
Post_8_w 19.25 ± 2.80* 22.92 ± 5.11*#0.036
Δ%—ES 23.55–1.31 54.34–1.57
Post_12_w 19.50 ± 3.55* 23.00 ± 4.38*#0.038
Δ%—ES 25.16–1.10 54.88–1.86
Rise and walk (s) I < 0.001
Pre 5.46 ± 0.47 5.60 ± 0.63
Post_8_w 5.23 ± 0.43* 4.82 ± 0.47*#0.033
Δ%—ES 4.39–0.53 16.18–1.65
Post_12_w 5.24 ± 0.34* 4.74 ± 0.49*#0.007
Δ%—ES 4.19–0.64 18.14–1.75
6-min walk test (m) I < 0.001
Pre 528.86 ± 50.51 527.31 ± 38.29
Post_8_w 548.24 ± 46.00 595.24 ± 50.20*#0.023
Δ%—ES 3.66–0.42 21.38–1.35
Post_12_w 562.93 ± 34.90* 601.08 ± 33.22*#0.010
Δ%—ES 6.44–0.97 21.63–2.22
Maximum isometric force (kgf) I = 0.084
Pre 53.58 ± 12.10 53.00 ± 9.37
Post_8_w 56.50 ± 13.17 65.85 ± 8.61*#0.045
Δ%—ES 5.44–0.22 24.20–1.49
Post_12_w 62.50 ± 12.94*≠68.62 ± 7.67* 0.172
Δ%—ES 16.64–0.68 29.47–2.03
Quality of movement (points) I = 0.04
Pre 9.08 ± 2.35 9.08 ± 2.02
Post_8_w 11.83 ± 2.62* 12.23 ± 1.48* 0.653
Δ%—ES 30.28–1.04 34.69–2.12
Post_12_w 12.00 ± 2.34* 14.00 ± 1.47*≠# 0.020
Δ%—ES 32.15–1.24 54.18–3.34
Sport Sciences for Health
1 3
the FT seems to act by interacting the body structures to
provoke an important neuromuscular adjustment for the
performance of the strength in daily activities. In this
study, these adaptations greater effect size than TT could
be explained by neuromuscular and metabolic specificity
of the training with the 30-s chair stand test (∆%: + 8.15
rep. vs. MCID: 3.3). Likewise, the significant differences
in 30-s arm curl test (∆%: + 5.92 rep. vs. MCID: 2.53)
and isometric strength may be due to the transfer in the
recruitment of motor units and the similarity of the move-
ments of these tests to the standard performed in alternat-
ing waves and deadlift exercises. Another important point
is that exercises performed with free weights in closed
kinetic chain promote greater muscle activation [32] and
better functional performance [33] when compared with
exercises applied in machines. With an intervention simi-
lar to the present study, Cadore etal. [34] found significant
increases in isometric strength and muscle power using
a combination of strength training, balance and gait for
12weeks in 24 nonagenarians. Lohne-Seiler etal. [35]
compared functional strength exercises to traditional
strength exercises both at high intensity and speed and
found no significant post-intervention differences in maxi-
mum dynamic strength tests. However, this research used
tests with different motor and metabolic requirements.
In regards of cardiorespiratory capacity, it seems that the
metabolic characteristic of the high-intensity interval exer-
cises, together with the central circuits present in the FT set,
can increase aerobic performance by providing central adap-
tations (e.g., increase in the pulmonary diffusion of oxygen,
the maximum cardiac output and affinity between oxygen
and hemoglobin) and peripheral (e.g., increase in muscle
glycogen, myoglobin content, capillarization, mitochon-
drial volume and enzyme activity), thus causing changes
in the mechanisms of transport and use of oxygen, such as
an increase in the oxidative capacity of the muscle cell, an
increase in the breakdown of glycogen and phosphate and
a better use of intramuscular triglyceride [36, 37], which
could explain the adaptations superior to TT (FT: + 73.7 vs.
TT: + 34.1; MCID: 27m). After 12weeks of resistive train-
ing in circuit three times per week at intensity of 80% of
1RM, Frontera etal. [38] observed improved VO2max accom-
panied by a 15% increase in the number of capillaries per
fiber and 38% in citrate synthase activity, thus suggesting
some of the main adaptive responses to exercise protocols
with these features.
The improvement of the quality of movement in older
adults appears to be benefited with multi-joint exercises, of
greater motor complexity and specific for everyday tasks.
Krebs etal. [39] found the participants who performed exer-
cises functional presented faster gait, increased maximum
torque on the knee, better dynamic balance and coordina-
tion while performing daily activities compared to the group
who practiced training using elastics. In another study, De
Vreede etal. [40] showed that functional exercises produce
greater gains in on physical fitness for daily activities when
compared to traditional. However, Pacheco etal. [41] com-
paring these intervention proposals in physically active and
independent individuals, found no significant differences
between groups in quality of movement, estimated by func-
tional movement screen and the Y-balance test, perhaps
due to the lower sensitivity of tests to subjects with these
characteristics.
In this study, the applied protocols were equally effec-
tive in improving flexibility, and this adaptation can be
derived from the dynamic stretching exercises applied in
the first set of the session. Moreover, adaptations in flex-
ibility are commonly observed also in strength training,
when composed of multi-joint exercises performed with
full range of motion, thus being complemented and guar-
anteed by other sets of the session, through mechanisms
such as increased production of synovial fluid, reduction
of non-contractile tissues in the cross-sectional area and
the muscle spindle firing rate [42, 43].
This investigation is focused on comparing the adap-
tive responses to training protocols aimed at improving
functional performance in older women and presented two
safe, effective, easily reproducible and practical applica-
tion methods. Although the present study rigorously con-
trolled for all factors that could have affected the findings,
some biases remain, such as the loss of participants and
the impossibility of making comparisons according to sex.
Thus, our results may not be generalizable to all elderly
populations. We recommend for future studies to apply
longer interventions and analyzing the levels of habitual
physical activity a better isolation of these intervening
factors.
Conclusion
Our results suggest that FT appears to be more effective
than TT in improving physical fitness and quality of move-
ment in sedentary older women after 8 and 12weeks. This
research showed that a physical training program designed
to stimulate the various systems that promote health benefits
should focus on improving the physical fitness components
in exercises specific for the activities of the daily life, provid-
ing adequate amount of exercise regarding the possibilities
of response to the stimulus and guarantee of optimal adjust-
ments, respecting safety and efficacy criteria.
Author contributions AGRN, MSR, LMSC, LEAB, ACN and BCOA:
participated in data collection, performed the statistical analysis and
Sport Sciences for Health
1 3
processing and drafted the original manuscript; AGRN, MMM, JMS
and MESG: assisted in data interpretation and in revising the man-
uscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the
manuscript, and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.
Funding No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation
of this article.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest regarding the current manuscript.
Statement of human and animal rights All human studies were in
accordance with Declaration of Helsinki, Ethical Principles for Medical
Research Involving Human Subjects. The investigation was approved
by the Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Sergipe (no.
1,021,732) and by the Brazilian Registry of Clinical Trials (RBR-
5T9HP5).
Informed consent Informed consents were derived from all partici-
pants.
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