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Functional training in comparison to traditional training on physical fitness and quality of movement in older women

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Sport Sciences for Health
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Background The functional training (FT) is based on the application of exercises with free weights in patterns of movements that resemble the daily activities of the individual. On the other hand, traditional training (TT) seeks to improve muscular fitness, through exercises predominantly performed in conventional machines. Lately, there has been a lack of research comparing these two methods in order to understand their real effects on functionality. Aim The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of functional and traditional strength training on physical fitness and movement quality in sedentary older women. Methods Thirty-two elderly women were randomly divided into 1- Functional Training (FT: n=13; 64.8±4.6 years) and 2- Traditional Training (TT: n=12; 66.0±5.5 years). To verify the physical fitness for daily activities, the Senior Fitness battery was applied and, in a complementary way, a maximum isometric strength test and quality of movement patterns. Results At the end of 8 weeks, when compared to TT, the FT promoted significant increases in the variables: balance/agility (p=0.03, +8.5%), lower limb strength (p=0.03; +19%), upper limbs strength (p=0.02, +15.6%), cardiorespiratory capacity (p=0.02, +8.5%) and isometric strength (p=0.04, +16.5%). At the end of 12 weeks, the FT showed significant differences in the variables: balance/agility (p=0.00, +10.5%), lower limb strength (p=0.03, +17.9%), cardiorespiratory capacity (p=0.01; +6.7%) and in the quality of movement (p=0.02; +16.6%) when compared to TT. Conclusions The functional training proven more effective than traditional in physical fitness for daily activities and quality of movement patterns in sedentary older women.
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Sport Sciences for Health
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-020-00675-x
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Functional training incomparison totraditional training onphysical
tness andquality ofmovement inolder women
AntônioGomesdeResende‑Neto1,4 · MarielydaSilvaResende2· BrunaCarolineOliveira‑Andrade2·
LeuryMaxdaSilvaChaves1· LeandroHenriqueAlbuquerqueBrandão1· AlbernonCostaNogueira1·
MarceloMendonçaMota3· JosimariMeloDeSantana2· MarzoEdirDaSilva‑Grigoletto1
Received: 20 December 2019 / Accepted: 9 July 2020
© Springer-Verlag Italia S.r.l., part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract
Background The functional training (FT) is based on the application of exercises with free weights in patterns of movements
that resemble the daily activities of the individual. On the other hand, traditional training (TT) seeks to improve muscular
fitness, through exercises predominantly performed in conventional machines. Lately, there has been a lack of research
comparing these two methods to understand their real effects on functionality.
Aim The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of functional and traditional strength training on physical fitness
and movement quality in sedentary older women.
Methods Thirty-two elderly women were randomly divided into (1) functional training (FT n = 13; 64.8 ± 4.6years) and (2)
traditional training (TT n = 12; 66.0 ± 5.5years). To verify the physical fitness for daily activities, the Senior Fitness battery
was applied and, in a complementary way, a maximum isometric strength test and quality of movement patterns.
Results At the end of 8weeks, when compared to TT, the FT promoted significant increases in the variables: balance/agility
(p = 0.03, + 8.5%), lower limb strength (p = 0.03; + 19%), upper limbs strength (p = 0.02, + 15.6%), cardiorespiratory capacity
(p = 0.02, + 8.5%) and isometric strength (p = 0.04, + 16.5%). At the end of 12weeks, the FT showed significant differences
in the variables: balance/agility (p = 0.00, + 10.5%), lower limb strength (p = 0.03, + 17.9%), cardiorespiratory capacity
(p = 0.01; + 6.7%) and in the quality of movement (p = 0.02; + 16.6%) when compared to TT.
Conclusions The functional training proven more effective than traditional in physical fitness for daily activities and quality
of movement patterns in sedentary older women.
Keywords Strength training· Aging· Activities of daily living· Quality of life
Introduction
Aging is a multifactorial, progressive, and irreversible pro-
cess that involves structural and functional variations charac-
terized by loss of adaptive capacity, increased susceptibility
to chronic non-communicable diseases, musculoskeletal and
metabolic disorders, loss of functionality and quality of life.
The decline in functional capacity can be partially explained
by the loss of efficiency of neuromuscular, cardiorespiratory
and somatosensory systems, induced by the aging process
associated with reduced level of habitual physical activity
[1].
This perspective, deficits in conditioning abilities such as
muscle strength and power, cardiorespiratory fitness, balance
and flexibility will gradually accumulate as age advances,
especially if not stimulated properly [2]. Sedentary behavior
* Antônio Gomes de Resende-Neto
1 Department ofPhysical Education, Center ofBiological
andHealth Sciences, Federal University ofSergipe,
SãoCristóvão, Brazil
2 Department ofPhysical Therapy, Center ofBiological
andHealth Sciences, Federal University ofSergipe,
SãoCristóvão, Brazil
3 Department ofPhysical Education, Estácio ofSergipe
College, Aracaju, Brazil
4 Rodovia João Bebe Água, Rua Projetada III, 189, BL12
AP304, Bairro Rosa Elze, SãoCristóvão49100-000, Sergipe,
Brazil
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accelerates the functional decline of the aging process,
increasing the difficulties in performing tasks, often of low
complexity, resulting in loss of autonomy, self-esteem and,
over time, premature death [3].
Pharmacological and surgical interventions, although
being essential strategies in several contexts, could be
avoided in some situations through changes in lifestyle,
including involvement with regular programs of resistance
exercises, which benefits are quite known, particularly in
older adults [4]. The regular practice of strength train-
ing can promote innumerable adaptations favorable to
the health and quality of life of the elderly, with studies
showing improvement of physical capacities related to the
functionality [5] and structural alterations such as increase
of muscle mass and decreased body fat [6].
Traditional training (TT), commonly applied in con-
ventional machines, is classically used to promote neu-
romuscular adaptations and attenuate some effects of
senescence [7]. However, the transfer of these adaptations
for increases in functional fitness in the elderly has been
questioned, since it does not address all the physical fitness
components in the session and their movements do not
resemble daily activities [8]. Studies comparing different
neuromuscular training protocols show that the benefits
of exercise depend on tasks performed during training,
requiring specific movements for daily tasks, for greater
gains in functional capacity, preventing the onset of physi-
cal disabilities [9].
In this premise of improving functional capacity as the
main objective to be achieved in physical training pro-
grams for the elderly, functional training (FT) emerges as
a promising strategy and its use is increasing in clinical
practice [9, 10]. It is based on the application of mul-
tisegmental exercises performed at maximum concentric
speed and aims at the integrated development of physical
valences (muscle strength and power, dynamic balance,
motor coordination, agility, flexibility and cardiovascular
capacity) in movement patterns commonly used in daily
activities, aiming at promote multisystem adaptations and
ensure autonomy during the performance of daily func-
tions [11].
However, the benefits of FT are not well known in the
elderly population and there is also a lack of a model of a
systematized protocol in the studies available in the litera-
ture, as well as the lack of investigations comparing FT with
traditional methods, which hinders a more robust analysis
between applied methods and the answers found for func-
tional fitness in older people. Thus, this experiment sought
to compare the effects at 8 and 12weeks of functional and
traditional training on physical fitness and quality of move-
ment patterns in sedentary older women. Our hypothesis is
that specific training protocols for activities daily may pro-
mote more effective adaptive responses in the functionality
of sedentary older women. From a clinical standpoint, we
believe that the results of the present study may help to
define and guide a therapeutic approach that can contribute
more effectively to the treatment of physical disabilities.
Methods
Experimental design
This study was a randomized clinical trial, performed over
a period of 18weeks, with 12weeks dedicated to the FT
and TT programs, 4weeks used for data collection 2weeks
for familiarization. It was conducted aiming at the analysis
of two different types of physical training, controlling the
action of intervening factors and describing the behavior
of the variables observed in the intervention. All proce-
dures, purpose and risks associated with the study were
explained to all the subjects before they gave their written
informed consent to participate in this investigation. The
investigation was conducted according to the Declaration
of Helsinki (1964, revised in 2001), and approved by the
Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Sergipe (no.
1,021,732) and by the Brazilian Registry of Clinical Trials
(RBR-5T9HP5). Some data have already been published
before this project [12].
Subjects
Individuals who met the following criteria were included
in the study: (a) age 60years, (b) female sex, (c) negative
answer to all items of the Physical Activity Readiness Ques-
tionnaire (PAR-Q) [13] and without physical exercise or par-
ticipation in a training program in the previous 6months,
(d) can walk 100m without using a walking stick and climb
10 steps without resting, and (e) with physician referral.
Individuals who had any of the following conditions were
excluded from the study: (a) uncontrolled hypertension, (b)
degenerative joint disease or joint implants, (c) cardiovas-
cular and/or pulmonary disease precluding the practice of
physical activity, or (d) neurological deterioration.
Participant’s recruitment were carried out through
newspaper and radio advertisements, and door-to-door fly-
ers delivered in residential neighborhoods. Sixty women
showed interest in participating in the study. Of these, 28
were excluded because of failure to meet the inclusion
criteria (Fig.1). One of the researchers enrolled the par-
ticipants and performed blind randomization using a per-
mutation procedure based on a computer-generated list of
random numbers, thereby forming 2 study groups with 16
women each. Then, the principal investigator informed the
participants about the schedule of the training sessions. In
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addition, the evaluators were blinded to the study group
of each participant at all times during the evaluations of
the dependent variables before and after the intervention.
Moreover, the participants were submitted to anam-
nesis with questions relating to sociodemographic char-
acteristics, health and level of physical activity; a nutri-
tional assessment by means of a usual diet recall applied
by nutritionists and all exclusion criteria were diagnosed
by a specialized medical team. Lastly, before starting the
study, all potential participants were thoroughly informed
about the purpose and procedures, as well as about the
benefits, risks, and discomforts that could result from their
participation. All participants signed an informed consent
form and were informed of their freedom to drop out of
the study at any time.
Intervention
All training sessions were performed in the sportive center
at the university, and were supervised by certified fitness
coaches to ensure proper performance of the respective rou-
tines. They were responsible for seeing that exercise pre-
scription were followed and achieved through each training
session (e.g., load progression, safety considerations and
velocity of movement). To ensure consistent performances,
all exercises were performed with a partner (e.g., rest period,
motivation and social facilitation). Participants in the experi-
mental groups went through 2weeks of familiarization and
completed 36 sessions of training. The 55min sessions were
performed three times per week on non-consecutive days.
The exercises were performed according to the individual’s
physical capacity and the effort was monitored and normal-
ized during and after each training set by the OMNI-GSE
scale [14].
Functional training: Participants performed multifunc-
tional, integrated and multi-joint exercises specific to their
daily needs, and each session was divided into four sets: 1st:
10min of mobility for the main joints (ankle, hip and gleno-
humeral) and general warm-up exercises that included ten
repetitions each of squats and jumps; 2nd: 15min of inter-
mittent activities organized in circuit that required agility,
coordination and muscle power; 3rd: 20min of multi-joint
exercises for upper and lower limbs, with intense activation
of stabilizing muscles of the spine, also organized in circuit;
and 4th: 10min of intermittent activities.
Traditional training: Participants performed traditional
exercises on machines, predominantly analytical with iso-
lated neuromuscular work, each session was also divided
into four sets: 1st: 10min of mobility for the main joints and
general warm-up exercises that included ten repetitions each
of squats and jumps; 2nd: 15min interval walk (30s walking
naturally alternating with 30s walking a little faster) was
performed within a distance of 86m; 3rd: 20min of analyti-
cal exercises for upper and lower limbs, also organized in
circuit; and 4th: 10min of intermittent activities (Fig.2).
The 3rd set, consisting of strength exercises performed
at maximum concentric speed, the participants trained in
pairs, being supervised by experienced physical educa-
tion professionals, whose responsibility was to maintain
the established protocols and ensure an optimal standard
of safety and motivation. For TT, the intensity in this set
was progressive by adding external loads, from a note
referred to < 6 (easy) on the OMINI-GSE scale, and with
the number of repetitions performed for maintenance of
8–12 repetitions, or that is, if the participant performed
more than the maximum number of pre-established repeti-
tions (> 12), an increase of 5% for upper limb exercises
and 10% for lower limbs in the external load was per-
formed. In the FT condition, the criterion followed was the
Fig. 1 Flowchart for screening,
recruitment, allocation, and
intervention
Assessed for eligibility (n = 60)
Excluded (n = 28)
Not meeting inclusion
criteria
Analyzed (n = 13)
Medical issue (n =1)
Loss of interest (n= 2)
Functional Training (n = 16)
Randomized
(
n = 32
)
Traditional Trainin
g(
n= 16
)
Familiarization (2 weeks) + Intervention (12 weeks)
Analyzed (n = 12)
Medical issue (n =2)
Loss of interest (n= 2)
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one previously mentioned, with the addition of external
load for the applicable exercises, whereas modifications
were adopted for those exercises performed with body
mass. Functional exercises were performed according to
the participant’s skill and comfort level for maintenance
8–12 repetitions. The training density was 30s of work per
30s of transition/recovery between stations. There was no
predetermined sequence for the exercises in each session,
however, the participants were instructed to alternate the
exercises for upper and lower limbs.
In the 4th set an intermittent activity of low motor com-
plexity was used, following a training density of 10s of work
for 20s of recovery:
Fig. 2 Overview of functional
training sessions (FT) and tradi-
tional strength training (TT)
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- Intervals run: In a space of 30m, groups of five partici-
pants were separated. Of these participants, three formed a
column behind a cone and the other two formed another col-
umn at a distance of 20m. Working time consisted of walk-
ing this distance with maximum speed and recovery allowed
while the other participants in the group performed the
sprints. The total volume was 8–12 sprints per individual.
The present intervention proposal was elaborated accord-
ing to the concepts presented by La Scala Teixeira etal. [11]
and was previously tested by Resende-Neto etal. [12].
Evaluation ofthestudy variables
Anthropometric characteristics and cognitive status: body
mass (kg) was determined using a scale (Lider®, P150C, São
Paulo, Brazil) with maximum capacity of 150kg. Height
(m) was determined using a stadiometer (Sanny, ES2030,
São Paulo, Brazil). Cognitive status was verified through
the Mini Mental State Examination, which aims to provide
data on temporal and spatial orientation, immediate memory,
attention and calculation, visual language and constructive
capacity [15].
Physical fitness: Was assessed using the Senior Fitness
Test battery proposed by Rikli and Jones [16], with tests that
evaluate physiological attributes to perform normal everyday
activities safely and independently, without undue fatigue:
Sit and reach: This test evaluates flexibility of the lower
limbs and lower back. The volunteer was instructed to sit
on the edge of the chair, with the right leg extended as
far as possible with the ankle in neutral position, slowly
lowering the trunk with arms extended and hands over-
lapping. The left leg remained with the knee flexed at
90°. The end of the hallux corresponded to zero point.
Failing to reach this point, the result was negative and,
surpassing it, the result was positive. As a final result, the
average obtained by the right and left sides of the body
was considered.
Reach behind the back: This test evaluates upper limb
flexibility. The participant, standing, placed her hand of
preference in the back, passing the arm over the shoulder.
The palm of the hand was facing the back with the fingers
extended, trying to reach the greater distance (towards
the hips). The other hand was also placed on the back,
but with the arm going through the side of the body. The
smallest distance between the fingers was recorded after
two attempts and as a final result, the average obtained
by the right and left sides of the body was considered.
30-s arm curl: This test evaluates upper-limb strength.
The participant must flex and extend the elbow while
holding a dumbbell for 30s in a sitting position on a
chair. The test has a correlation coefficient of r = 0.82
with the Cybex machine arm curl performance [17].
30-s chair stand: This test evaluates lower-limb strength.
From the sitting position, the participant has to get up
from a chair completely and return to the sitting posi-
tion as many times as possible for 30s. The reliability
in contrast to 1RM in leg press was r = 0.78 for men and
0.71 for women [18].
Rise and walk: This test evaluates agility and dynamic
balance. This test measures the time it takes for a partici-
pant to get up from a chair, turn around a cone located
3m away, and return to the sitting position. This test has
a correlation coefficient r = 0.81 with the Berg Balance
Scale and r = 0.789 with the Barthel Index for Activities
of Daily Living [16].
6-min walk test: Distance walked, walking as fast as pos-
sible, in a time of 6min. The rectangular course had a
total distance of 45.72m and was demarcated by cones
every 4.57m. The participant was advised when 2min
and 1min were left to the end of the task. At the end of
the time, the walk was interrupted and then the distance
traveled was measured. The test has a correlation coef-
ficient of r = 0.82 for men and r = 0.71 for women with
the treadmill test [16].
Maximum Isometric Force: Determined using a dorsal
dynamometer (Crown®, dorsal, São Paulo, Brazil), with
capacity of 200kg and scale of 1kg. Participants remained
standing, with trunk upright and knees bent at an angle of
130°–140° without flexing the trunk, slowly stretching legs
up to maximum muscle contraction. Each participant per-
formed three attempts, with the best score considered as final
test result [19].
Functional Movement Screen®: This test evaluates of
movement patterns. This is a battery test involving seven
functional movement that assess body mobility and stability.
Each pattern was executed three times and assigned a score
of 0–3 [(1) did not perform the movement; (2) performed the
movement with compensations and (3) perfect execution].
For the analyses, the total score reached by the participant
was used [20].
Statistical analysis
Pretrial statistical power was calculated using the G*Power
3.1 (https ://www.gpowe r.hhu.de/en.html) in the muscle
strength tests of the Senior Fitness Test battery from the
results obtained by Resende-Neto etal. [12] expecting an
average increase of 10% in the performance of the partici-
pants. Thus, adopting α level of 0.05 and a power (1−β) of
0.80, it would be necessary to include at least 24 volunteers
(12 participants for each group).
Data were submitted to statistical treatment using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 24.0 for
Windows. Descriptive statistics were determined after
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confirming the normality of the variables using the Shap-
iro–Wilk test and after testing for homoscedasticity using
Levene’s test. The two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
with repeated measures (group × time) was used to ver-
ify the differences between the interventions. When an
F-ratio was significant, the Bonferroni post hoc test was
used to identify where the significance occurred. To assess
whether significant differences had practical applications,
effect sizes and intra-group percentage changes were also
calculated [21]. The results were interpreted following
standards according to which Cohen < 0.2 is considered a
trivial effect; 0.2–0.5, a small effect; 0.5–0.8, a moderate
effect; 0.8–1.33, a large effect; and >1.33 a very large
effect. For all tests used, significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.
The minimal clinically important difference (MCID)
of each measure, determined after the intervention, were
compared to assess whether intra-group changes were
clinically significant. The following MCID values of meas-
ures in older adults were retrieved from the literature: 2.53
repetitions for 30-s arm curl, 3.3 repetitions for 30-s chair
stand, 1s for the Rise and walk test, 27m for the 6-min
walk test [22, 23].
Results
The average participation rate was 30 sessions of 36,
and sample loss was seven individuals. The participant’s
attendance was 95% (~ 34 sessions) for the FT and 85%
(~ 31 sessions) for TT. FT had three losses, one for med-
ical reasons and two for not attending all stages of the
study. TT had four losses, two for medical reasons and
the other two for attendance less than 85%. Before the
exercise intervention, there were no statistically significant
differences between the experimental groups in any of the
analyzed variables (Table1).
At the end of 8weeks, when compared to TT, the FT
promoted significant increases in the variables: balance/
agility (+ 8.5%), lower limb strength (+ 19%), upper limbs
strength (+ 15.6%), cardiorespiratory capacity (+ 8.5%)
and isometric strength (+ 16.5%). At the end of 12weeks,
the FT showed significant differences in the variables:
balance/agility (+ 10.5%), lower limb strength (+ 17.9%),
cardiorespiratory capacity (+ 6.7%) and in the quality of
movement (+ 16.6%) when compared to TT (Table2).
Discussion
The present investigation shows both protocols are effi-
cient in improving physical complications arising from
senescence, confirming the need for this type of training
in this population profile, regardless of the method used.
However, the FT obtained greater gains in physical fitness
variables related to daily activities in sedentary women,
with magnitudes higher the minimum important clinical
difference (MCID) and values above the TT. Similar val-
ues were found by Resende-Neto etal. [24] when com-
paring an intervention with functional exercises (specific
to the daily needs) to a control that performed conven-
tional activities, showing greater improvement in 7.6% of
dynamic balance/agility, 11% in strength of upper limbs,
15.3% in strength of lower limbs and 10.7% in cardiores-
piratory capacity.
The superior adaptations provided by the FT in the
rise and walk test are probably attributed to the princi-
ple of training specificity. That is, the FT program was
designed to promote constant instability and change of
direction with the applied exercises, which may stimulate
postural control systems and activate stabilizing muscles
more frequently, thus promoting mechanisms important for
the efficient development of dynamic balance and agility
[2527]. Corroborating these findings, Giné-Garriga etal.
[28] and Karóczi etal. [29] demonstrated a 17% and 27%
improvement in agility/dynamic balance, respectively,
after 12weeks of functional training. However, also per-
formed at maximum concentric speed, TT causes impor-
tant adaptations in muscle power [30], which is strongly
associated dynamic balance [31] and contributes positively
to the rapid execution of the task. In addition, the neu-
romuscular complexity of the exercises applied in both
training methods can improve muscle synergy, increase
the recruitment of motor units and, consequently, body
stability [9].
The benefits of strength training, especially TT in mus-
cle strength, are clearly evidenced in the scientific commu-
nity, through adaptations such as muscle cell hypertrophy,
increased recruitment of motor units and the excitability of
motor neurons in the spinal marrow [7]. On the other hand,
Table 1 Baseline characteristics in the functional training (FT) and
traditional training (TT)
Values presented in mean and standard deviation (M ± SD)
MMSE Mini-Mental Status Exam, BMI body mass index, kg/m2 kilo-
grams/meter2
p values indicate the outcome of Student’s t test
Variables FT (n = 13) TT (n = 12) p
Age (years) 64.8 ± 4.6 66.0 ± 5.5 0.608
MMSE (points) 24.4 ± 3.3 26.3 ± 2.7 0.133
Body mass (kg) 71.7 ± 13.2 69.0 ± 16.7 0.669
Height (cm) 153.7 ± 6.5 155.3 ± 8.3 0.618
BMI (kg/m2)29.6 ± 5.2 28.5 ± 5.6 0.613
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Table 2 Changes in
functionality after 8 and
12weeks of functional training
(FT) and traditional resistance
training (TT) in sedentary older
women
Values presented in mean and standard deviation (M ± SD)
W weeks, Δ% delta percentage between Pre vs. post 8 or post 12, ES effect size
*p < 0.05 for pre vs. post 8 or post 12
p < 0.05 for post 8 vs. post 12
# FT vs. TT (p < 0.05). I = p value for interaction (time×group)
Evaluation moments Traditional (n = 12) Functional (n = 13) p value TT vs. FT
Sit and reach (cm) I = 0.467
Pre 2.63 ± 7.30 2.77 ± 6.40
Post_8_w 4.92 ± 6.82* 6.04 ± 6.66* 0.681
Δ%—ES 87.07–0.33 118.05–0.49
Post_12_w 5.83 ± 5.87* 7.81 ± 6.26*0.424
Δ%—ES 121.67–0.54 181.94–0.80
Reach behind the back (cm) I = 0.110
Pre −6.46 ± 9.94 −7.54 ± 4.63
Post_8_w −4.25 ± 9.25* −4.15 ± 5.80* 0.976
Δ%—ES 152.00–0.20 81.68–0.58
Post_12_w −2.17 ± 7.40*−2.69 ± 6.32*0.851
Δ%—ES 197.69–0.57 180.29–0.76
30-s arm curl (rep) I = 0.071
Pre 16.33 ± 2.99 17.46 ± 2.76
Post_8_w 20.08 ± 2.19* 23.23 ± 3.88*#0.021
Δ%—ES 22.96–1.71 33.04–1.48
Post_12_w 21.08 ± 2.15* 23.38 ± 3.52* 0.061
Δ%—ES 29.08–2.20 33.90–1.68
30-s chair stand (rep) I < 0.001
Pre 15.58 ± 4.23 14.85 ± 4.38
Post_8_w 19.25 ± 2.80* 22.92 ± 5.11*#0.036
Δ%—ES 23.55–1.31 54.34–1.57
Post_12_w 19.50 ± 3.55* 23.00 ± 4.38*#0.038
Δ%—ES 25.16–1.10 54.88–1.86
Rise and walk (s) I < 0.001
Pre 5.46 ± 0.47 5.60 ± 0.63
Post_8_w 5.23 ± 0.43* 4.82 ± 0.47*#0.033
Δ%—ES 4.39–0.53 16.18–1.65
Post_12_w 5.24 ± 0.34* 4.74 ± 0.49*#0.007
Δ%—ES 4.19–0.64 18.14–1.75
6-min walk test (m) I < 0.001
Pre 528.86 ± 50.51 527.31 ± 38.29
Post_8_w 548.24 ± 46.00 595.24 ± 50.20*#0.023
Δ%—ES 3.66–0.42 21.38–1.35
Post_12_w 562.93 ± 34.90* 601.08 ± 33.22*#0.010
Δ%—ES 6.44–0.97 21.63–2.22
Maximum isometric force (kgf) I = 0.084
Pre 53.58 ± 12.10 53.00 ± 9.37
Post_8_w 56.50 ± 13.17 65.85 ± 8.61*#0.045
Δ%—ES 5.44–0.22 24.20–1.49
Post_12_w 62.50 ± 12.94*68.62 ± 7.67* 0.172
Δ%—ES 16.64–0.68 29.47–2.03
Quality of movement (points) I = 0.04
Pre 9.08 ± 2.35 9.08 ± 2.02
Post_8_w 11.83 ± 2.62* 12.23 ± 1.48* 0.653
Δ%—ES 30.28–1.04 34.69–2.12
Post_12_w 12.00 ± 2.34* 14.00 ± 1.47*≠# 0.020
Δ%—ES 32.15–1.24 54.18–3.34
Sport Sciences for Health
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the FT seems to act by interacting the body structures to
provoke an important neuromuscular adjustment for the
performance of the strength in daily activities. In this
study, these adaptations greater effect size than TT could
be explained by neuromuscular and metabolic specificity
of the training with the 30-s chair stand test (∆%: + 8.15
rep. vs. MCID: 3.3). Likewise, the significant differences
in 30-s arm curl test (∆%: + 5.92 rep. vs. MCID: 2.53)
and isometric strength may be due to the transfer in the
recruitment of motor units and the similarity of the move-
ments of these tests to the standard performed in alternat-
ing waves and deadlift exercises. Another important point
is that exercises performed with free weights in closed
kinetic chain promote greater muscle activation [32] and
better functional performance [33] when compared with
exercises applied in machines. With an intervention simi-
lar to the present study, Cadore etal. [34] found significant
increases in isometric strength and muscle power using
a combination of strength training, balance and gait for
12weeks in 24 nonagenarians. Lohne-Seiler etal. [35]
compared functional strength exercises to traditional
strength exercises both at high intensity and speed and
found no significant post-intervention differences in maxi-
mum dynamic strength tests. However, this research used
tests with different motor and metabolic requirements.
In regards of cardiorespiratory capacity, it seems that the
metabolic characteristic of the high-intensity interval exer-
cises, together with the central circuits present in the FT set,
can increase aerobic performance by providing central adap-
tations (e.g., increase in the pulmonary diffusion of oxygen,
the maximum cardiac output and affinity between oxygen
and hemoglobin) and peripheral (e.g., increase in muscle
glycogen, myoglobin content, capillarization, mitochon-
drial volume and enzyme activity), thus causing changes
in the mechanisms of transport and use of oxygen, such as
an increase in the oxidative capacity of the muscle cell, an
increase in the breakdown of glycogen and phosphate and
a better use of intramuscular triglyceride [36, 37], which
could explain the adaptations superior to TT (FT: + 73.7 vs.
TT: + 34.1; MCID: 27m). After 12weeks of resistive train-
ing in circuit three times per week at intensity of 80% of
1RM, Frontera etal. [38] observed improved VO2max accom-
panied by a 15% increase in the number of capillaries per
fiber and 38% in citrate synthase activity, thus suggesting
some of the main adaptive responses to exercise protocols
with these features.
The improvement of the quality of movement in older
adults appears to be benefited with multi-joint exercises, of
greater motor complexity and specific for everyday tasks.
Krebs etal. [39] found the participants who performed exer-
cises functional presented faster gait, increased maximum
torque on the knee, better dynamic balance and coordina-
tion while performing daily activities compared to the group
who practiced training using elastics. In another study, De
Vreede etal. [40] showed that functional exercises produce
greater gains in on physical fitness for daily activities when
compared to traditional. However, Pacheco etal. [41] com-
paring these intervention proposals in physically active and
independent individuals, found no significant differences
between groups in quality of movement, estimated by func-
tional movement screen and the Y-balance test, perhaps
due to the lower sensitivity of tests to subjects with these
characteristics.
In this study, the applied protocols were equally effec-
tive in improving flexibility, and this adaptation can be
derived from the dynamic stretching exercises applied in
the first set of the session. Moreover, adaptations in flex-
ibility are commonly observed also in strength training,
when composed of multi-joint exercises performed with
full range of motion, thus being complemented and guar-
anteed by other sets of the session, through mechanisms
such as increased production of synovial fluid, reduction
of non-contractile tissues in the cross-sectional area and
the muscle spindle firing rate [42, 43].
This investigation is focused on comparing the adap-
tive responses to training protocols aimed at improving
functional performance in older women and presented two
safe, effective, easily reproducible and practical applica-
tion methods. Although the present study rigorously con-
trolled for all factors that could have affected the findings,
some biases remain, such as the loss of participants and
the impossibility of making comparisons according to sex.
Thus, our results may not be generalizable to all elderly
populations. We recommend for future studies to apply
longer interventions and analyzing the levels of habitual
physical activity a better isolation of these intervening
factors.
Conclusion
Our results suggest that FT appears to be more effective
than TT in improving physical fitness and quality of move-
ment in sedentary older women after 8 and 12weeks. This
research showed that a physical training program designed
to stimulate the various systems that promote health benefits
should focus on improving the physical fitness components
in exercises specific for the activities of the daily life, provid-
ing adequate amount of exercise regarding the possibilities
of response to the stimulus and guarantee of optimal adjust-
ments, respecting safety and efficacy criteria.
Author contributions AGRN, MSR, LMSC, LEAB, ACN and BCOA:
participated in data collection, performed the statistical analysis and
Sport Sciences for Health
1 3
processing and drafted the original manuscript; AGRN, MMM, JMS
and MESG: assisted in data interpretation and in revising the man-
uscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the
manuscript, and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.
Funding No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation
of this article.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest regarding the current manuscript.
Statement of human and animal rights All human studies were in
accordance with Declaration of Helsinki, Ethical Principles for Medical
Research Involving Human Subjects. The investigation was approved
by the Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Sergipe (no.
1,021,732) and by the Brazilian Registry of Clinical Trials (RBR-
5T9HP5).
Informed consent Informed consents were derived from all partici-
pants.
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... Despite the positive effects, multicomponent training is often applied analytically without approaching the specificity [23,24]. Thus, functional training (FT) is an alternative that explores the specificity of approaching exercises similar to the activities of daily living, with several positive effects to the older women population [25,26]. To the best of our knowledge, however, there have been no studies investigating the possible effects of FT on EF in older women. ...
... A limitation of the present study was the absence of tests related to physical fitness, such as aerobic fitness or muscle strength. However, other studies using similar training methods such as that of Aragão-Santos et al. [56], Resende-Neto et al. [26], Resende-Neto et al. [57], Brustio et al. [58], and Martinez-Navarro [22] are consistent regarding the increase in physical fitness through the application of FT and DTT. In addition, Weinstein et al. [59] and Predovam et al. [60] found a connection between aerobic fitness and executive function in older participants. ...
... Based on our results and limitations, it is worthwhile to research further the effects of DTT and FT on EF by exploring evaluation methods more similar to real-life scenarios, such as the timed-up and go test or the walking speed test combined with a second task, which could be a motor or cognitive task [22,26,[56][57][58]. Another point is to investigate the relationship of different EF tests with physical fitness measures in older people. ...
Article
Full-text available
Citation: Pantoja-Cardoso, A.; Aragão-Santos, J.C.; Santos, P.d.J.; Dos-Santos, A.C.; Silva, S.R.; Lima, N.B.C.; Vasconcelos, A.B.S.; Fortes, L.d.S.; Da Silva-Grigoletto, M.E. Functional Training and Dual-Task Training Improve the Executive Function of Older Women. Geriatrics 2023, 8, 83. https:// Abstract: Functional training (FT) is a type of multicomponent training with emphasis on activities of daily living that stimulate different physical capacities in only one session. Dual-task training (DTT) is a type of training that simultaneously applies cognitive and motor stimuli. We investigated the effects of sixteen weeks of FT and DTT and eight weeks of detraining on older women's in-hibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Sixty-two older women (66.9 ± 5.4 years; 27.7 ± 3.9 kg/m 2) completed a 16-week intervention program comprising the FT (n = 31) and DTT (n = 31), and 43 returned after the detraining period. We used the Stroop Color Word Color test to evaluate inhibitory control, the Corsi Block Test to assess working memory, and the Trail Making Test to evaluate cognitive flexibility. Only DTT reduced the congruent response time between the pre-test and post-test (d= −0.64; p < 0.001), with no difference between the post-test and the detraining values (d = 1.13; p < 0.001). Both groups reduced the incongruent response time between the pre-test and post-test (FT: d = −0.61; p = 0.002; DTT: d= −0.59; p = 0.002) without a difference between groups. There were no significant differences in working memory and cognitive flexibility. Sixteen weeks of FT and DTT increased the inhibitory control of older women but not the working memory and cognitive flexibility, and these effects persisted after eight weeks of detraining.
... Despite the positive effects, multicomponent training is often applied analytically without approaching the specificity [23,24]. Thus, functional training (FT) is an alternative that explores the specificity of approaching exercises similar to the activities of daily living, with several positive effects to the older women population [25,26]. To the best of our knowledge, however, there have been no studies investigating the possible effects of FT on EF in older women. ...
... A limitation of the present study was the absence of tests related to physical fitness, such as aerobic fitness or muscle strength. However, other studies using similar training methods such as that of Aragão-Santos et al. [56], Resende-Neto et al. [26], Resende-Neto et al. [57], Brustio et al. [58], and Martinez-Navarro [22] are consistent regarding the increase in physical fitness through the application of FT and DTT. In addition, Weinstein et al. [59] and Predovam et al. [60] found a connection between aerobic fitness and executive function in older participants. ...
... Based on our results and limitations, it is worthwhile to research further the effects of DTT and FT on EF by exploring evaluation methods more similar to real-life scenarios, such as the timed-up and go test or the walking speed test combined with a second task, which could be a motor or cognitive task [22,26,[56][57][58]. Another point is to investigate the relationship of different EF tests with physical fitness measures in older people. ...
Article
Full-text available
Citation: Pantoja-Cardoso, A.; Aragão-Santos, J.C.; Santos, P.d.J.; Dos-Santos, A.C.; Silva, S.R.; Lima, N.B.C.; Vasconcelos, A.B.S.; Fortes, L.d.S.; Da Silva-Grigoletto, M.E. Functional Training and Dual-Task Training Improve the Executive Function of Older Women. Geriatrics 2023, 8, 83. https:// Abstract: Functional training (FT) is a type of multicomponent training with emphasis on activities of daily living that stimulate different physical capacities in only one session. Dual-task training (DTT) is a type of training that simultaneously applies cognitive and motor stimuli. We investigated the effects of sixteen weeks of FT and DTT and eight weeks of detraining on older women's in-hibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Sixty-two older women (66.9 ± 5.4 years; 27.7 ± 3.9 kg/m 2) completed a 16-week intervention program comprising the FT (n = 31) and DTT (n = 31), and 43 returned after the detraining period. We used the Stroop Color Word Color test to evaluate inhibitory control, the Corsi Block Test to assess working memory, and the Trail Making Test to evaluate cognitive flexibility. Only DTT reduced the congruent response time between the pre-test and post-test (d= −0.64; p < 0.001), with no difference between the post-test and the detraining values (d = 1.13; p < 0.001). Both groups reduced the incongruent response time between the pre-test and post-test (FT: d = −0.61; p = 0.002; DTT: d= −0.59; p = 0.002) without a difference between groups. There were no significant differences in working memory and cognitive flexibility. Sixteen weeks of FT and DTT increased the inhibitory control of older women but not the working memory and cognitive flexibility, and these effects persisted after eight weeks of detraining.
... They are presented as Ansai et al. [29,30] and Lord et al. [31,32] respectively, resulting in a total of 20 studies for analysis. Two other articles also originated from the same study, but different intervention periods were examined, so that the more recent study was selected for analysis [33,34]. All studies were published 1995 or later. ...
... In the 20 studies, 1632 community-dwellers with a mean age of 72.4 ± 4.3 years were assessed (see Table 2). The sample size ranged from 32 [34] to 259 [18] participants, with a mean size of 82 ± 64 participants. The sample sizes among the studies were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test: p < 0.001). ...
... Fifteen out of 20 studies used a two-armed [14,16,17,19,31,[34][35][36][37][38][39][40][42][43][44], three studies a three-armed [18,29,40,41] and two studies a four-armed study design [13,15]. As it was part of the inclusion criteria, all studies applied standard randomization procedures for group assignment. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Multimodal exercise training (MT) as a time-efficient training modality promotes a wide range of physical dimensions. Incorporating agility-like training aspects (coordination, changes of direction and velocity) into MT may further enhance physical outcomes highly relevant for activities of daily living. This meta-analysis investigated the effects of multimodal agility-like exercise training (MAT) on physical and cognitive performance compared to inactive (IC) and active controls (AC) in older adults. Methods Literature search was conducted in four health-related databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science). Randomized controlled trials with pre-post testing applying MAT (including aspects of training with at least two different traditional domains: strength, balance, endurance) and an agility-like component in community-dwelling older adults were screened for eligibility. Standardized mean differences (SMD) adjusting for small sample sizes (hedges’ g) were used to extract main outcomes (strength, gait, balance, mobility, endurance, cognition). Statistical analysis was conducted using a random effects inverse-variance model. Results Twenty trials with 1632 older adults were included. All effects were significantly in favour of MAT compared to IC: Strength, mobility and endurance revealed large overall effects (SMD: 0.88, 0.84, 1.82). Balance showed moderate effects (SMD: 0.6). Small overall effects were observed for gait (SMD: 0.41). Few data were available to compare MAT vs. AC with negligible or small effects in favour of MAT. Funnel plots did not reveal clear funnel shapes, indicating a potential risk of bias. Conclusions MAT may serve as a time-efficient training modality to induce positive effects in different physical domains. Compared to isolated training, MAT allows equal effect sizes at lower overall training volumes. More studies are needed to investigate the potential value of MAT with systematic training and load control, especially compared to other exercise-based interventions.
... Indeed, functional task training movements which mimic ADLs have been widely suggested to improve specific motor tasks, most likely due to the similarity between training stimuli and ADLs [10][11][12][13]. Though appealing, literature is conflicting when comparing the effects of functional-tasks exercise training with those elicited by resistance training [10,[12][13][14][15][16]. To shed light on this topic, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of functional task training movements which mimic ADLs and traditional resistance training on physical functioning in older adults. ...
... These greater gains in muscle strength may explain, at least partially, the similar improvements on specific motor tasks between training protocols, despite higher specificity in FTT. It is also important to note that, in the current study, gains in muscle strength induced by TRAD were higher than those of previous studies indicating superiority of functional-task training for improving ADLs [10,12,16]. This outsized increase in strength may explain our finding that the interventions are equally effective. ...
Article
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Purpose To compare the effects of an exercise protocol that simulates ADL movements with those of a traditional resistance training protocol on physical functioning in previously untrained older adults. Methods Thirty untrained older adults were randomly assigned to traditional resistance training (TRAD), functional task training movements that mimic ADLs (FTT), or control (CTRL) group. Muscle strength and physical performance were assessed at baseline and after a 10-week intervention. The intervention was performed 2-times-a-week. Results We observed that both training groups had greater improvements than CTRL on sit-to-stand, 6-min walk, and floor-rise tests (all, p < 0.05). TUG test improved more in FTT than TRAD and CTRL (all, p < 0.05). Only TRAD improved stair-climb performance when compared to CTRL (p < 0.05). FTT and TRAD had greater improvements in lower- and upper-limb muscle strength than CTRL (p < 0.05). However, TRAD and FTT had comparable muscle strength improvements. Conclusion Both training regimens (TRAD and FTT) similarly improved physical performance in previously untrained older adults.
... The claims differ when it comes to the research conducted on various populations. Despite the evidence in favor of functional exercise (Da Silva-Grigoletto et al., 2019;de Resende-Neto et al., 2021;Yildiz, Pinar, & Gelen, 2019), numerous authors doubt its superiority over traditional principles (Aragao-Santos et al., 2018;Bonney, Ferguson, & Smits, 2017;Branco et al., 2020;Mcweeny, Boule, Neto, & Kennedy, 2020). ...
... Marković (2015) found functional training to be more effective for the motor development of primary school students compared to PE classes. Further, functional training proved more effective than traditional physical fitness for the daily activities and quality of movement patterns in sedentary older women (de Resende-Neto et al., 2021). In addition to the impact on motor abilities, Bogdani and Pano (2021) pointed out that functional training had a more significant contribution to the reduction of body fat parameters. ...
Article
This study aimed to determine the effects of two training methods on the strength and mobility of trunk muscles in primary school girls. The sample of participants included 596 girls aged 11 to 15. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups: 1) an experimental group (n = 314) that performed a functional training (FT) program; 2) a control group (n = 282) that performed regular Physical Education (PE) classes. The experimental program was implemented during regular PE classes over a period of 16 weeks, where 3 training sessions were conducted per week, lasting 45 minutes each. The FitnessGram battery of tests was used to estimate the strength and mobility of trunk muscles at the initial and the final measurement. The following tests were used: Curl up, Incline push-ups, and dynamic and static Trunk lift tests. The results of the two-factor ANOVA showed significant (p < 0.001) improvements in each test for both groups. The magnitude of the effect size ranged from medium to large and differed between the methods in all tests except for abdominal muscle strength. These findings indicate that both training programs are beneficial for developing trunk muscle strength and mobility in primary school girls. Future research should consider investigating differences between the methods in primary school students.
... It is known that there is an important decline after 45 years of age and low values in this variable are associated with mortality and disability [32]. In this perspective, strength training is shown to be efficient to attenuate the loss of grip strength [33], an outcome also found in the present study. In CT, exercises performed on machines and with implements require the stimulation of this capacity. ...
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Exervise is an important tool against the deleterious effects of aging. Among the possibilities of exercise, bodyweight training (BWT) has been highlighted in the last years as a safe option to improve the health of older people. We compared the effects of 24 weeks of BWT and combined training (CT) on low-grade systematic inflammation and functional fitness in postmenopausal women. For this, 40 women were allocated and submitted to CT (n = 20, 64.43 ± 3.13 years, 29.56 ± 4.80 kg/m2 ) and BWT (n = 20, 65.10 ± 4.86 years, 28.76 ± 4.26 kg/m2 ). We measured inflammation by the interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) assessments. For functional fitness, we used tests similar to activities of daily living. At the end of the 16 weeks, data from 24 women were analyzed, CT (n = 14) and BT (n = 10). Both groups reduced TNF-α and IL-6 levels, without differences in IL-10. Regarding functional fitness, both groups demonstrated improvements in all tests after 24 weeks, except for rise from prone position and the 400-meter walk test for CT. In summary, CT and BWT are effective in reducing the plasma concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines and improving functional fitness in postmenopausal women.
... FRT, which emphasises synchronised, multidimensional, and multijoint movement modes to train muscles with dynamic exercises and continuous changes on unstable surfaces (e.g., BOSU ball, swish ball, balance disc) for enhancing physical tness, has been used to improve the physical condition and health level in patient. FRT improves the physical capabilities (muscle mass, strength, and dynamic balance) and physical performance similar to TRT, although with a lower training intensity [24,25]. ...
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(1) Background: The present study attempted to determine and compare the vascular impact of traditional and functional resistance training on arterial stiffness. (2) Methods: The present study was conducted in 29 untrained healthy young males aged 18–29 years who were randomly divided into two groups, namely traditional resistance training (TRT, n = 15) and functional resistance training (FRT, n = 14). All subjects underwent numerous tests before and after the 6-week training such as body composition, cardio-ankle vascular index (CAVI), blood pressure, heart rate, and maximal strength. The exercise training comprised whole-body strength training exercises 3 days a week for 6 weeks. The total training volume and number of sets (4–5 sets) were kept constantly similar in each group. The TRT group completed 4–5 sets of 8–12 repetitions [70% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM)], whereas the FRT group completed 4–5 sets of 15–22 repetitions (40–50% of 1RM). (3) Results: After the 6-week intervention, lean body mass (TRT: Pre: 59.5 ± 5.4 kg; Post: 60.4 ± 4.9 kg vs. FRT: Pre: 57.7 ± 6.7 kg; Post: 58.8 ± 5.9 kg) significantly increased in both TRT and FRT groups, whereas body fat (TRT: Pre: 18.8% ± 5.8%; Post: 16.5% ± 5.3% vs. FRT: Pre: 16.7% ±4.6%; Post: 15.3% ± 4.7%), R-CAVI (TRT: Pre: 6.2 ± 0.6 m/sec; Post: 5.7 ± 0.6 m/sec vs. FRT: Pre: 5.9 ± 0.5 m/sec; Post: 5.3 ± 0.6 m/sec), and L-CAVI (TRT: Pre: 6.2 ± 0.6 m/sec; Post: 5.7 ± 0.6 m/sec vs. FRT: Pre: 6.0 ± 0.6 m/sec; Post: 5.4 ± 0.6 m/sec) decreased. Additionally, the maximal strength increased significantly in both the groups (p < 0.01). However, no significant difference was observed between the two groups. (4) Conclusions: A similar training volume of TRT and FRT with unstable surface significantly decreased body fat and arterial stiffness and improved lean body mass and maximal muscle strength in young men.
... Recently, functional resistance training (FRT) has been reported to elicit the health promotion and rehabilitation in patients and elder adults. FRT uses strength exercises generally characterized by synchronized, multiple joint, multiple planes, and unstable movements (e.g., BOSU ball, Swiss ball) that attempt to train muscles, despite with a lower training intensity (La Scala Teixeira et al., 2017), which could achieve the similar effect as to TRT (Vasconcelos et al., 2020;de Resende-Neto et al., 2021). This type of training increased muscle activation when compared to traditional training under stable condition through changes in the surface support. ...
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Background: Resistance training-induced changes in the muscle function is essential for the health promotion of the young and older, but the discrepancies of the effect of resistance training on arterial stiffness leads to the divergence regarding to the effect of resistance training on cardiovascular health. What confuses our understanding in this field may be the following factors: external load (higher intensity vs. lighter intensity), participants’ cardiovascular health, and arterial stiffness assessment measurement. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of the whole-body traditional high-intensity vs. functional low-intensity resistance training protocol on systemic arterial stiffness, and their association with muscular fitness components in untrained young men. Methods: In this randomized controlled trial, twenty-nine untrained young men (mean age about 22.5 years old) were randomized into a 6-weeks (three sessions per week) supervised whole-body traditional high-intensity resistance group (TRT, n = 15) consisting of 4–5 sets of 12 repetitions (70%1RM, lower-repetitions) or a whole-body functional low-intensity resistance group (FRT, n = 14) with 4–5 sets of 20 repetitions (40%1RM, higher-repetitions) to volitional failure. The systemic arterial stiffness (cardio-ankle vascular index, CAVI) and muscular fitness components were assessed before and after the 6-weeks training program. Results: There was a significant decrease (pre-post) for CAVI only in FRT group (p < 0.05), but no significant difference was observed between two groups. In addition, the TRT and FRT groups showed equally significantly increased in maximal strength, muscular endurance and power (within group: both p < 0.01); however, the independent t test exhibited that the difference between two groups in terms of change in maximal strength, muscular endurance and power were no significant (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the reduction in CAVI was negatively correlated with the increase in 1RM of bench press for all participants (r = −0.490, p < 0.01). Conclusion:Using present criterion-standard assessments measurements demonstrates that CAVI was significantly reduced after 6-weeks functional resistance training with beneficial effect on muscular fitness. Negative and significant association between CAVI and 1RM bench press indicated the cardiovascular health may be involved in the regulation of resistance training.
Article
Background Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are the foundation of children’s movement. Professional guidance and customised training methods are essential to effectively acquiring and mastering fundamental motor skills. Recently, functional training has gained widespread popularity and is associated with numerous benefits. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the effect of functional training on fundamental motor skills in children aged 6–7. Methods This study was conducted at a primary school. One hundred children were randomly selected from 382 who met the criteria and allocated to a functional training or regular physical education group, with 25 boys and 25 girls in each group. The research program lasted 12 weeks, with two weekly sessions, each lasting 40 min. The assessment of fundamental motor skills utilises the Test of Gross Motor Development and Pediatric Balance Scale. The pre-test and post-test data were analysed using generalised estimating equations. Results The data analysis showed statistically significant differences between and within groups. There was a significant interaction effect of time and group on the gross motor quotient ( = 51.603, p = 0.001), locomotor subtest standard scores ( = 22.259, p = 0.001), object control subtest standard scores ( = 29.283, p = 0.001), and PBS balance scores ( = 24.881, p = 0.001). Furthermore, the main effect of time was significant for the four variables. However, the main effects of the group varied. Significant effects of the group were observed for the gross motor quotient ( = 8.662, p = 0.003) and object control subtest standard scores ( = 7.471, p = 0.006), but not for locomotor subtest standard scores ( = 2.558, p = 0.110) or PBS balance scores ( = 1.188, p = 0.276). Discussion and Conclusions Functional training can positively impact the development of fundamental motor skills in children aged 6–7, demonstrating greater effectiveness than regular physical education courses. These findings provide evidence that incorporating functional training into early childhood physical education can be an effective intervention for enhancing the development of fundamental motor skills.
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Background The present study investigated the effects of traditional resistance training (TRT) and functional resistance training (FRT) on arterial stiffness and muscular strength in healthy young men. Methods This randomized controlled trial included 29 untrained healthy young men aged 18–29 years who were randomly divided into two groups, namely, TRT group (n = 15) and FRT group (n = 14). All participants underwent numerous tests, such as those for body composition, cardio-ankle vascular index, blood pressure, heart rate, and maximal strength before and after the 6-week training program. The exercise training comprised whole-body strength training exercises 3 days a week for 6 weeks. The total training volume and number of sets (4–5 sets) were kept constantly similar in each group. The TRT group completed 4–5 sets of 8–12 repetitions [70% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM)], whereas the FRT group completed 4–5 sets of 15–22 repetitions (40% 1RM). Results The TRT and FRT groups exhibited equally significantly increased maximal strength (within group: both p < 0.01). Furthermore, the independent t-test showed that the differences between the two groups in terms of changes in maximal strength were no significant (between group: both p > 0.05). Additionally, significant main effects of time (pre vs. post) were observed for the left and right cardio-ankle vascular indices (p < 0.05); however, no significant difference were observed between the groups. For body compositions outcome measures, no significant differences between groups were observed. Conclusion Six weeks of FRT and TRT exhibit no difference in terms of effects on arterial stiffness and muscular strength.
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Aim: To analyze the efficacy of functional training (FT) and traditional training (TT) in body composition and determinants of physical fitness in older women. Methods: This is a randomized clinical trial in which participants performed two 12-week periods of different training methods, separated by eight weeks of washout. Forty-eight physically active older women (≥60 years of age) completed the intervention in three groups: (i) program that started with FT and ended with TT (FT ⟶ TT: n = 19), (ii) program that started with TT and ended with FT (TT ⟶ FT: n = 13), and (iii) stretching group (SG: n = 16). Before and after the interventions, the body composition was evaluated by bioimpedance, the physical fitness by battery of the Senior Fitness Test, and the quality of movement by Functional Movement Screen®. Results: Compared with SG, TT ⟶ FT and FT ⟶ TT promoted significant improvements in balance/agility (13.60 and 13.06%, respectively) and upper limb strength (24.91 and 16.18%). Only FT showed a statistically significant improvement in the strength of the lower limbs, cardiorespiratory capacity, and movement patterns when compared with SG considering the adaptations of methods separately. Conclusion: The programs used are equally effective in increasing physical fitness for daily activities in physically active older women, and therefore, they may be complementary to combat some of the deleterious effects of senescence.
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The Functional training (FT) has gained prominence and attracted a large number of supporters with the basic premise of providing improvement in the human psychobiological system through the application of multisegmental and multiplanar exercises aimed at improving movement ability and increased neuromuscular efficiency for daily tasks. However, the efficacy of FT to mitigate the deleterious effects of the aging process is not well established in the scientific community. Therefore, the objective of the present review is to analyze the information available in the literature so far about the possible effects of FT on body composition, physical fitness, cognitive status and cardiovascular health in older people. The search for information was performed on the electronic databases MEDLINE, BioMed Central, SciELO, Scholar Google and Sport Discus. The selected works were published during the period from 1990 to 2019. The results suggest that FT seems to be a safe, inexpensive and interesting alternative for physical training for the elderly, with positive impact on muscle mass, muscle strength and power, cardiorespiratory capacity, flexibility, balance, cognition and cardiovascular health.
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The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a multimodal exercise program to increase trunk muscle morphology and strength in older individuals, and their associated changes in functional ability. Using a single-blinded parallel-group randomized controlled trial design, 64 older adults (≥60 years) were randomly allocated to a 12-week exercise program comprising walking and balance exercises with or without trunk strengthening/motor control exercises; followed by a 6-week walking-only program (detraining; 32 per group). Trunk muscle morphology (ultrasound imaging), strength (isokinetic dynamometer), and functional ability and balance (6-Minute Walk Test; 30 second Chair Stand Test; Sitting and Rising Test; Berg Balance Scale, Multi-Directional Reach Test; Timed Up and Go; Four Step Square Test) were the primary outcome measures. Sixty-four older adults (mean [SD]; age: 69.8 [7.5] years; 59.4% female) were randomized into two exercise groups. Trunk training relative to walking-balance training increased (mean difference [95% CI]) the size of the rectus abdominis (2.08 [1.29, 2.89] cm2 ), lumbar multifidus (L4/L5:0.39 [0.16, 0.61] cm; L5/S1:0.31 [0.07, 0.55] cm), and the lateral abdominal musculature (0.63 [0.40, 0.85] cm); and increased trunk flexion (29.8 [4.40, 55.31] N), extension (37.71 [15.17, 60.25] N), and lateral flexion (52.30 [36.57, 68.02] N) strength. Trunk training relative to walking-balance training improved 30-second Chair Stand Test (5.90 [3.39, 8.42] repetitions), Sitting and Rising Test (1.23 [0.24, 2.23] points), Forward Reach Test (4.20 [1.89, 6.51] cm), Backward Reach Test (2.42 [0.33, 4.52] cm), and Timed Up and Go Test (-0.76 [-1.40, -0.13] seconds). Detraining led to some declines but all outcomes remained significantly improved when compared to pre-training. These findings support the inclusion of trunk strengthening/motor control exercises as part of a multimodal exercise program for older adults.
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Introduction: Several strength training protocols have been tested in the search for systemic adaptations to improve functionality in the elderly. For this purpose, integrated exercises aimed at improving essential movements can be an interesting strategy to improve the performance of activities of the daily living. Objective: To compare the effects of eight weeks of functional training with traditional strength training on the physical fitness of sedentary elderly women. Methods: Thirty-two elderly women were divided into functional training group (FT, n=16) and traditional training group (TT, n=16). For the verification of functional responses, the Senior Fitness Test battery was used, as well as complementary tests of strength and muscular power. The data were analyzed using a 2x2 ANOVA with post hoc Sidak test to verify the differences between the groups. Results: At the end of eight weeks, when compared to TT group, the FT group showed significant increases in balance/agility variables (p=0.01; +7.6%), lower limbs strength (p=0.04; +15.3%), upper limbs strength (p=0.05; +11.7%), and cardiorespiratory power (p=0.05; +10.7%). However, in relation to flexibility tests and conventional tests of maximum dynamic force and muscular strength, there were no statistically significant differences between the groups. Conclusions: Both interventions are efficient to improve physical fitness of sedentary elderly women; however, functional training induces better adaptive responses to functionality when compared with traditional training. Level of Evidence I; Randomized clinical trial.
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In the twenty-first century, functional training (FT) has become a strong worldwide fitness trend (Thompson, 2016), resulting in a growing interest to investigate its effects on many variables (e.g., morphological, physiological, and psychological) with different populations (children, adults, and elderly). Confirming this view, the current position stand of the American College of Sports Medicine on the prescription of physical exercise for healthy individuals includes FT (also termed: “neuromotor training”) as one of the modalities to be considered (Garber et al., 2011). Although the tools (exercises, equipment, and accessories) used in current functional training have long been employed in rehabilitation and conditioning programs, the systematic use of these tools, as well as scientific interest in this topic, are recent phenomena (Anderson and Behm, 2004; Rhea et al., 2008; Gordon and Bloxham, 2016). However, since it is still a subject of recent scientific interest, there are many methodological conflicts and divergences in training prescriptions (La Scala Teixeira et al., 2016). For example, some studies have associated FT with the use of instability and applied unstable bases in many exercises (Pacheco et al., 2013), while other studies have used instability in a small part of exercises (Weiss et al., 2010; Distefano et al., 2013) or have not used any unstable bases (Lohne-Seiler et al., 2013). In view of these considerations, detailing the actual concepts and characteristics of FT forms the basis for maximizing the benefits of both research and day-to-day interventions in terms of performance or rehabilitation (Behm et al., 2010). However, the methodological divergence observed with practical interventions in several fitness facilities, as well as in scientific studies, points to a reality in which the real concept of FT and all that it encompasses are still not well-elucidated (Fowles, 2010). A major factor that has contributed to this problem in the general population are probably the marketing campaigns promoting FT, which explore random several medias in order to attract consumers (Da Silva-Grigoletto et al., 2014). For example, publications of functional exercises can contain at the same time exercises of low (e.g., planks and squats) and high complexity (e.g.,Olympic weightlifting and calisthenics/gymnastics exercises). Similarly, marketing explores simple and low-cost accessories (e.g., balls, balance disk, elastic bands, medicine balls), as well as expensive equipment (e.g., multi-station machines, pneumatic resistance equipment). Although contributing to the consolidation of the term “functional training” in the fitness scenario, this wide variation in publications impairs consolidation of its true concepts and characteristics (La Scala Teixeira and Evangelista, 2014). Taken together, these facts highlight the need for researchers to establish a consensus about the concept of FT so that studies can be conducted according to a methodological pattern using pre-established criteria and, finally, that coaches and practitioners can make practical applications based on sound theoretical and scientific evidence. Therefore, in this paper we defined the concepts and characteristics of FT based on the analysis of current and relevant specific technical and scientific literature.
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Background Older people constitute a significant proportion of the total population and their number is projected to increase by more than half by 2050. This increasing probability of late survival comes with considerable individual, economic and social impact. Physical activity (PA) can influence the ageing process but the specific relationship with healthy ageing (HA) is unclear. Methods We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies examining the associations of PA with HA. Studies were identified from a systematic search across major electronic databases from inception as January 2017. Random-effect meta-analysis was performed to calculate a pooled effect size (ES) and 95% CIs. Studies were assessed for methodological quality. Results Overall, 23 studies were identified including 174,114 participants (30% men) with age ranges from 20 to 87 years old. There was considerable heterogeneity in the definition and measurement of HA and PA. Most of the identified studies reported a significant positive association of PA with HA, six reported a non-significant. Meta-analysis revealed that PA is positively associated with HA (ES: 1.39, 95% CI = 1.23–1.57, n = 17) even if adjusted for publication bias (ES: 1.27, 95% CI = 1.11–1.45, n = 20). Conclusions There is consistent evidence from longitudinal observational studies that PA is positively associated with HA, regardless of definition and measurement. Future research should focus on the implementation of a single metric of HA, on the use of objective measures for PA assessment and on a full-range of confounding adjustment. In addition, our research indicated the limited research on ageing in low-and-middle income countries.
Article
Fragala, MS, Cadore, EL, Dorgo, S, Izquierdo, M, Kraemer, WJ, Peterson, MD, and Ryan, ED. Resistance training for older adults: position statement from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Aging, even in the absence of chronic disease, is associated with a variety of biological changes that can contribute to decreases in skeletal muscle mass, strength, and function. Such losses decrease physiologic resilience and increase vulnerability to catastrophic events. As such, strategies for both prevention and treatment are necessary for the health and well-being of older adults. The purpose of this Position Statement is to provide an overview of the current and relevant literature and provide evidence-based recommendations for resistance training for older adults. As presented in this Position Statement, current research has demonstrated that countering muscle disuse through resistance training is a powerful intervention to combat the loss of muscle strength and muscle mass, physiological vulnerability, and their debilitating consequences on physical functioning, mobility, independence, chronic disease management, psychological well-being, quality of life, and healthy life expectancy. This Position Statement provides evidence to support recommendations for successful resistance training in older adults related to 4 parts: (a) program design variables, (b) physiological adaptations, (c) functional benefits, and (d) considerations for frailty, sarcopenia, and other chronic conditions. The goal of this Position Statement is to a) help foster a more unified and holistic approach to resistance training for older adults, b) promote the health and functional benefits of resistance training for older adults, and c) prevent or minimize fears and other barriers to implementation of resistance training programs for older adults.
Article
Background: Resistance training is assumed to be a key player in counteracting the age-related decline of functional capacity as well as the incidence of falls in older adults. Functional training using free weights is presumed to mimic daily activities, but there is a lack of studies comparing free weight training with barbells and machine training in older adults. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the development of muscle strength for high resistance training in high functioning older people for machines as well as free-weights as well as testing the feasibility of free weight training for this target group. Methods: Thirty-two fitness trained women and men aged 60 to 86 years (mean: 66.9, SD: ±5.5) participated in this study. Machine exercisers (n = 16; chest press, leg press, upper row, biceps cable curls, triceps cable extension) vs. free weight exercisers (n = 16; squat, bench press, bent-over rowing, biceps curls, lying triceps press) participated twice à week for a total of 26 weeks. They trained the same five muscle groups for three sets with 10 to 12 repetitions at the 10-Repetition-Maximum, followed by 20 min of endurance training over six months. Three measurements (dynamic, isometric strength and endurance) were taken at the beginning, after 10 weeks and again after 26 weeks. Results: Repeated measures MANCOVA analysis revealed significant increases in the free weights training group (FWT) as well as in the machine training group (MT) over the period of 6 months. However, only for leg strength (113 vs. 44%) and triceps (89.0 vs. 28.3%) the free-weights group exhibited significant differences for the percentage increase over a period of 26 weeks compared to the machine group. A detraining period revealed the decline of the dynamic strength without training. The analysis of the follow-up questionnaire resulted in higher demands for safety, but also higher values for fun, motivation, future, and benefit for daily life for the FWT group compared to the MT group indicating an overall better evaluation of their training specific regime. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that especially free-weight training has benefits in improving leg and triceps strength as well as in the subjective perception in older adults. Nevertheless, our results do not overall indicate that free-weight training is superior to machine training for increasing strength.