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Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
(http://jwb.araku.ac.ir/)
DOI: 10.22120/jwb.2020.122080.1120
Population status, habitat suitability and threat assessment of
Indian spiny-tailed lizard Saara hardwickii (Gray, 1827) in the
Thar desert of Rajasthan
Mandeep Kaur1, Manish Joshi1,
Kiranmay Sarma1, Syed Asrafuzzaman2,
Sanjay Keshari Das1*
1University School of Environment,
Management, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha
University, Sector 16-C, Dwarka, New Delhi
110078, India
2PG Department of Zoology, Utkal University,
Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar 751004, India.
*Email:skdasipu@gmail.com,
Received: 23 February 2020 / Revised: 29 March 2020 / Accepted:
7 April 2020 / Published online: 20 April 2020. Ministry of Sciences,
Research, and Technology, Arak University, Iran.
Abstract
In India, the population of the Indian spiny-
tailed lizard is extinct in many parts of its past
distribution. Currently, the species is mainly
confined to the desert areas of northwestern
India. The present study was carried out from
January 2014 to May 2017 in the Thar desert of
Rajasthan (TDR) to know the population status
and habitat suitability of the species and to
assess the threats it faces. For this, the
population was estimated through active burrow
counting in selected 15mx15m quadrats. GIS-
based weighted overlay analysis was used for
habitat suitability analysis for which habitat and
microhabitat information was collected through
'perambulation,' and 'quadrat sampling-time
constrained' methods. Threats were documented
using various methods viz. through vehicular
surveys, perambulation, opportunistic searches,
and by interacting with local people as well as
forest staff. The species was recorded in six
districts of the TDR. The overall density of the
lizard was found to be 314.6±142.1 active
burrows/ha in the study area. The maximum
density was observed in the Jaisalmer district
(362.5±102.3/ha) and the lowest in Jodhpur
district (228.0±49.1/ha). Suitability analysis
identified different potential habitat zones of the
species in the TDR which are 1.71%, 13.49%,
59.51%, 10.65%, and 14.64% as most suitable,
moderately high suitable, moderately low
suitable, low suitable and unsuitable
respectively. The majority of the most suitable
areas found to fall in the Jaisalmer district of
western Rajasthan that needs to be protected
immediately. The study also revealed the
species had been continuously facing various
threats in the TDR that lead to local extinctions.
Keywords: Conservation, crucial habitats, GIS,
India, local extinction
Introduction
Members of genus Saara represents one of the
fascinating group of diurnal lizards, ground-
dwelling, burrowing and live in colonies (Dutta
and Jhala 2007, Ramesh and Ishwar 2008, Das
et al. 2013). This group comprises three species
worldwide, which are exclusive to Asia and
distributed from southwest to southeast Asia
from eastern Iraq to western India through Iran,
Afghanistan, and Pakistan (Wilms et al. 2009).
In the Indian sub-continent, the group is
represented by a single species Saara
hardwickii (Gray, 1827) that is popularly
known as the Indian spiny-tailed lizard (Fig.
1A). This species is restricted to India, Pakistan
and Afghanistan (Wilms et al. 2009) which is
herbivorous and inhabits grassland habitats in
sandy or gravely plains of arid or semiarid areas
(Dutta and Jhala 2007, Ramesh and Ishwar
2008, Das et al. 2013) (Fig. 1B). Conservation
of this species is of serious concern because of
its declining population throughout its
distribution due to its heavy exploitation in the
pet trade for its meat, skin, and oil, the latter
Research Article
81 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
supposed to be aphrodisiac (Knapp 2004, Dutta
and Jhala 2007, Ramesh and Ishwar 2008,
Wilms et al. 2009, Rais et al. 2012, Das et al.
2013). In India, illegal pet trade along with
habitat destruction for urbanization and
agriculture has been pushed the species locally
extinct in many parts of its past distribution
(Knapp 2004, Dutta and Jhala 2007, Ramesh
and Ishwar 2008, Das et al. 2013). Hence, the
species is protected under Schedule II of the
Indian Wildlife (Protection Act), 1972, and
enlisted in Appendix II of CITES (Anonymous
1994, CITES 2020). But due to lack of proper
information on this species, it has been declared
as Data Deficient nationally though it has not
been accessed by IUCN (Molur and Walker
1998, IUCN 2020). Moreover, recent genetic
analysis of the species by Sharma et al. (2018)
has also been revealed the monomorphic nature
of the Indian populations of this species and
suggested for urgent conservation of this
species in this region. Hence, there is a need for
immediate population assessment of this
species in its current distribution in India.
Keeping this in mind, the present study was
undertaken in the Thar desert of Rajasthan
(TDR) to fill this gap. In India, since the species
at present occurs mostly in small fragmented
populations in the dry areas of northwestern
India i.e., the Indian desert (Knapp 2004, Dutta
and Jhala 2007, Ramesh and Ishwar 2008,
Wilms et al. 2009, Das et al. 2013) and the TDR
represents the major part of the Indian desert
(about 62%) (Baqri and Kankane 2002),
population assessment of the species in the
TDR will be no doubt very helpful to
understand the current population status of the
species in India.
The study also aimed at habitat suitability
analysis for the species in the TDR using
geospatial techniques to understand habitat
attributes of the species in this region. For this,
GIS-based weighted overlay analysis was
followed that used different environmental
variables along with species occurrence data
collected from ground-truthing (Malczewski
2004, Walke et al. 2012, Joshi et al. 2017).
Figure 1. A: Indian spiny-tailed lizard while
foraging; B: General habitat of Indian spiny-tailed
lizard.
Material and methods
Study area
The study area is the Thar desert of Rajasthan
(22○30ꞌ to 32○05ꞌN and 68○05ꞌ to 74○45ꞌE) (Fig.
2). The area lies in the Biogeographic Zone 3A-
Thar Desert (Rodgers et al. 2002) and represents
a unique ecosystem which is bounded by the
Aravali Hills in the east, the fertile Indus and
Nara valley in the west, the great salt marsh of
Kachchh in the south and the semiarid districts
of Haryana and Punjab in the north (Baqri and
Kankane 2002). It is an extension of the Sahara
desert, through Arabian and Persian deserts and
continues with the desert portion of Pakistan on
its west, supporting a rich biodiversity (Baqri
and Kankane 2002).
82 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
Figure 2. Distribution of Indian spiny-tailed lizard in Rajasthan
Field data collection
The field data was collected through regular
field surveys in the study area from January
2014 to May 2017. Priority was given to survey
areas where the species was recorded earlier.
Population estimation and preparation of
the distribution map
For population estimation, active burrows were
counted during the resting time of the lizard by
observing trails or fresh pellets in nearby areas
in 15mx15m plots (Wilms et al. 2009, Das et al.
2013). The population of species was estimated
from active burrow density for different areas
(no. of active burrows/area) (Das et al. 2013)
(Table 1). GPS points were recorded for species
occurrence in the area. The distribution map of
the species was prepared by importing ground
control points (GCPs) for species on the base
map of the study area.
Habitat suitability analysis
Habitat and microhabitat information were
collected through the 'perambulation' method
(Ralph et al. 1993, Dieni and Jones, 2002). At
selected sites, ecological sampling was carried
out following the 'quadrat sampling-time
constrained' method (Campbell and Christman
1982, Vogt and Hine 1982, Das et al. 2013) in
15mX15m plots and information on habitat and
microhabitat collected through such sampling
was also taken into consideration for habitat
suitability analysis.
The analysis was carried out following GIS-
based weighted overlay analysis (Malczewski
2004, Walke et al. 2012, Joshi et al. 2017). For
83 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
this, thematic maps for vegetation, land use/land
cover, annual rainfall, soil, and monthly
maximum and minimum temperature of the
study area given by Joshi et al. (2017) were used
as source maps. All the maps were geometrically
rectified using geographic projection system
UTM. The spheroid and datum used were WGS
1984 with UTM zone 42N. The geo-databases
for all maps were generated in ArcGIS
environment. GCPs for species occurrence were
imported on the base map, and multiple ring
buffers were generated for all the locations (Fig.
3A). All the polygon features were converted
into a grid with 50 meters pixel size. Percentile
influences were assigned to all geographically
referenced input data for different criteria that
were used for suitability analysis and weights
(1-9) to different attributes within each criterion
based on habitat and microhabitat information of
the species collected in the field (Table 2).
Finally, all the geo-referenced inputs were
overlaid in ArcGIS environment to derive the
suitability map (Fig. 3B).
Table 1. Population status of Indian spiny-tailed lizard in the TDR.
Districts
Localities
No. of
Quadrats
Active burrow
density/ha
Barmer
Ashadhi; Bandera; Munihari; Piparli
16
268.1±71.1
Bikaner
Jorbeer; Karnisar; Near Gajner Sanctuary; Near
Lakhasar village; Near Nal village, Diyatra
22
262.2±56.89
Churu
Gaushala, Tal Chappar village
54
326.1±193.9
Jaisalmer
Barana; Bersiala; Bidda; Chohani; Daw; Dhanela;
Dhursar; Khuri; Kumbharkota; Near Eka village;
Near Ramdevra Temple; Near Sorhakhor village;
Nimba; Pithla; Sam; Shahgarh; Sudasari; Sipla
41
362.5±102.3/ha
Jodhpur
Near Khara village; Near Khichan village, Bap
8
228.0±49.1
Overall
-
141
314.6±142.1/ha
Figure 3. A: Location buffer of Indian spiny-tailed lizard in the TDR; B: Habitat suitability of Indian
spiny-tailed lizard in the TDR
84 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
Table 2. Influences and weightages of different thematic layers used for habitat suitability modeling of Indian
spiny-tailed lizard in TDR.
Thematic layers
Influence
(%)
Field class
The weightage (1 -
9)
Vegetation
13
Calligonum-Haloxylon-Leptadenia
5
Salvadora-Prosopis-Capparis
8
Acacia nilotica-Acacia tortilis
1
Prosopis-Capparis-Ziziphus
9
Prosopis-Tecomela
3
Acacia nilotica
1
Acacia senegal-Euphorbia caducifolia
1
Ziziphus-Capparis
7
Anogeissus pendula-Boswellia serrate
1
Anogeissus pendula-Euphorbia-Rhus mysorensis
1
Suaeda fruticosa-Salsola baryosma
4
Acacia leucophloea-Prosopis cineraria-Acacia nilotica
1
Land use/ land
cover
13
Arable
1
Water body
1
Culturable wasteland
5
Forest
1
Grassland
8
Scrubland
6
Rural settlement
3
Sand/ pasture
8
Unculturable wasteland
6
Urban settlement
1
Average anuual
rainfall (in cm)
13
<20
7
20-40
6
40-50
1
Soil
13
Alluvial
3
Desert
9
Grey brown
1
Maximum
temperature (July
in ○C)
13
32.5-35
7
35-37.5
8
>37.5
9
Minimum
temperature
(January in ○C)
13
<5
4
5.0-7.5
5
7.6-10
7
>10
8
Sighting location
(distance
in km.)
22
5
9
10
6
25
3
50
1
150
1
300
1
85 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
Threat assessment
Threat data was collected using various methods
during field surveys viz. through vehicular
surveys using both four-wheelers as well as a
bike (running mostly at a moderate speed of
around 30-35 km/h for optimal detection of road
accident deaths of small animals),
perambulation, opportunistic searches and by
interacting with local people as well as staffs of
Rajasthan Forest Department (Dieni and Jones
2002, Hill et al. 2005, Gomes 2009).
Results
Distribution and population status of Indian
spiny-tailed lizard in TDR
The present study recorded the species in six
districts, i.e., Barmer, Bikaner, Churu,
Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, and Jodhpur districts
out of 13 districts of the TDR (Table 1; Fig. 2).
The species occurrence from one locality, i.e.,
Near Kohla forest in Hanumangarh district, was
based on indirect evidence and local people's
information only. The study herewith provides
a distribution map of the species in Rajasthan,
i.e., in the TDR and one locality outside the
TDR where the species exists at present (Fig.
2).
The active burrow density of this species was
found to be highest in Jaisalmer district
(362.5±102.3/ha) followed by Churu
(326.1±193.9/ha), Barmer (268.1±71.1/ha),
Bikaner (262.2±56.89/ha) and Jodhpur
(228.0±49.1/ha) districts and 314.6±142.1/ha in
the overall area of TDR (Table 1).
Habitat suitability of Indian spiny-tailed
lizard in TDR
In this study, a thematic map prepared under
geospatial environment for species occurrence
data collected from ground-truthing (Fig. 3A)
was used as an independent factor along with
thematic maps for other environmental variables
such as vegetation, land use/land cover, average
annual rainfall, soil, monthly maximum and
minimum temperatures to produce the final
habitat suitability map of Indian spiny-tailed
lizard in the TDR (Fig. 3B). The map identified
different potential habitat zones of Indian spiny-
tailed lizard in the TDR, which are 1.71%,
13.49%, 59.51%, 10.65%, and 14.64% as most
suitable, moderately high suitable, moderately
low suitable, low suitable and unsuitable
respectively (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Suitable area percent cover for Indian
spiny-tailed lizard in the TDR
Threats to Indian spiny-tailed lizard in TDR
Habitat destruction, poaching for the illegal pet
trade, and road accident deaths found to be
common threats for the species in the study area
(Table 3). The present study reports one
conservation conflict that has recently wiped
out the population of the species inside one
Protected Area in the TDR as mentioned in
Table 3, details of which will be published
separately in the future. The study also first
time reports accidental intake of plastic by the
lizard (Table 3, Fig. 5).
Figure 5. An ingested plastic piece in the pellet of
Indian spiny-tailed lizard (under the microscope)
Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020 87
Table 3. Threats to Indian spiny-tailed lizard in the TDR.
S.
No
Threat types
Particular
Areas where
observed
Remark
1
Habitat
Destruction
Human settlement or
developmental purpose
Throughout TDR; the
species is locally
extinct in the
surrounding area of
Bikaner-Gajner State
Highway which was
once considered one of
the best habitats (Das
and Pandey, 2005) of
the species.
One of the major threats as
human population is
increasing and agriculture is
expanding due to introduction
of India Gandhi Nahar (Canal)
Project (IGNP) in the TDR.
Agricultural activity
2
Poaching
Trapping of Indian spiny-
tailed lizards for their meat,
skin and oil; oil extracted
from their skin and tail is
considered an aphrodisiac.
Throughout TDR; more
intense in western
Rajasthan
For illegal trade.
3
Road accident
deaths
The lizard many times get
crushed under vehicles
passing with uncontrolled
speed on roads passing
through their habitats.
Throughout TDR
Lack of roadside displays in
such areas acknowledging
wildlife of the area and
recommending safe vehicular
speed.
4
Conservation
conflict
Replacement of short
grasses by long grasses in
order to avoid food scarcity
in the area for increasing
black buck population.
Tal Chhapar Wildlife
Sanctuary
Complete elimination of
Indian spiny-tailed lizard from
the Sanctuary though
population of several
thousand (Das et al. 2013)
existed inside the Sanctuary
before 2012. At present, the
lizard exists only outside the
Sanctuary that is not part of
the Protected Area.
5
Plastic intake
During pellet analysis
under a microscope in one
pellet, a piece of plastic
was observed embedded
within vegetative parts
(Fig. 5).
Jaisalmer
Accidental (as only one out of
200 pellets it was observed),
but point towards keeping
habitat of the species plastic-
free.
Discussion
The present study reports the population of the
species in six districts of TDR (Table 1, Fig. 2),
though the existence of the species no longer
observed in many parts of these districts from
where it was previously reported (Biswas and
Sanyal 1977, Sharma and Vazirani 1977, Das
and Pandey 2005, Ramesh and Ishwar 2008, Das
et al. 2013). Moreover, in the present study
reporting of the species from Hanumangarh
district is based on indirect evidence only and no
population was recorded in any localities of Pali
and Ganganagar districts from where the species
was reported earlier (Biswas and Sanyal 1977,
Sharma and Vazirani 1977, Ramesh and Ishwar
2008). Hence, the current occurrence of the
species in these districts of TDR is subjected to
further investigation. Ramesh and Ishwar
86| )
87 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
(2008), in their study, had indicated that the
species had been continuously facing local
extinctions in many parts of the TDR, and the
result is in accordance with their findings. This
suggests for immediate protection of the species
in the TDR. Further, the study provides a
distribution map of the species in Rajasthan that
includes one locality outside the TDR viz.
Kalakadi village, Sariska National Park, where
the species at present exists (Das et al. 2015).
It is worthy of mentioning here that In India,
outside Rajasthan, the species was earlier
reported from Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat (Smith 1935,
Husain 1997, Vyas 2000, Chandra and Gajbe
2005, Dutta and Jhala 2007, Uetz et al. 2020,
Srivastava et al. 2018). At present, the species is
locally extinct in Delhi (personal observations
by authors), exists at two localities viz. Kalwas
and Rawat Kheda villages in Hisar district of
Haryana (Srivastava et al. 2018) and in desert
areas of Kachchh district of Gujarat (Vyas
2000). However, at present, the existence of this
species in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh is
doubtful and subjected to further investigation
as reporting of the species in these states is based
on very old literature of pre-independence India
(Smith 1935) without any further reporting later.
This is the reason Kanaujia et al. (2017), in their
recent study, could not able to trace the species
in Uttar Pradesh and have been excluded the
species from the herpetofauna checklist of the
state. However, in recent past, Chandra and
Gajbe (2005) had mentioned distribution of the
species from Bandhoharh Tiger Reserve, Rewa
district of Madhya Pradesh based on the
literature of Smith (1935), Khajuria (1986) and
Sanyal (1993), though very, unfortunately,
Khajuria (1986) and Sanyal (1993) had no
mention about the species. This is the reason Sur
et al. (2007) have later excluded the species
from the checklist of reptiles of the state.
In this study, though several environmental
factors have been used along with species
occurrence data to assess habitat suitability,
maximum influence is given to species
occurrence data (Table 2). Further, for each
environmental factor, weightages are assigned
to different field classes based on habitat and
microhabitat information collected through
ground-truthing (Table 2). The maximum
density of the lizard was observed in the
Jaisalmer district (362.5±102.3/ha). The habitat
suitability analysis revealed that though the
species can survive in a significant portion (most
suitable, moderately high suitable, moderately
low suitable) of the TDR, only a small area of
that (1.71%) is best suitable for the species (Fig.
3B, 4). Of the best suitable area, the maximum
area comes under the Jaisalmer district,
followed by Bikaner and Barmer districts of
western Rajasthan (Fig. 3B). Hence, Jaisalmer
district supports most of the crucial habitats for
the species in the TDR. In the absence of any
detailed study, the previous occasional reporting
and short-term studies on the species by Das and
Pandey (2005), Ramesh (2008), Ramesh and
Ishwar (2008), Das et al. (2013) and Solanki et
al. (2015) in the TDR support this finding. The
study also shows a significant part (25.29%) of
the TDR is either less suitable or unsuitable for
the species (Fig. 3B, 4).
Common threats to this species in the TDR as
documented in this study is following findings
of Knapp (2004), Dutta and Jhala (2007),
Ramesh and Ishwar (2008), Das et al. (2013)
and Joshi et al. (2019). Other threats to this
species i.e., conservation conflict and accidental
plastic intake is quite interesting and must bring
the attention of conservationists.
Conclusion
The present study brings into knowledge the
current distribution and population status of the
Indian spiny-tailed lizard in the TDR. The study
reveals the species has been continuously facing
various threats in the TDR that lead to local
extinctions. This, points towards immediate
conservation attention for this species in the
88 | Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 80-90 (2020)
TDR. Through this study, the first time the
habitat suitability analysis for this conservation
dependent species is carried out in the TDR
using geospatial techniques to identify crucial
habitats of the species. This will no doubt help
to save the species from further exploitation,
also in designing conservation priorities areas
for this species in the region.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the following
personnel and institutions: Mr. R.K. Tyagi,
Chief Wildlife Warden, Rajasthan for granting
permission for field study, Mr. Anoop K.R.,
Field Director, Desert National Park and Mr.
Surat Singh Poonia, Assistant Conservator of
Forest, Talchhapar Wildlife Sanctuary for their
cooperation and logistic support during field
surveys; the Department of Science and
Technology (DST), Government of India, New
Delhi for funding the spiny-tailed lizard project
(SERB No: SB/SO/AS-042/ 2013) which made
field surveys possible, Mr. Somanath Sahoo,
Research Scholar, Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University, Mr. Tarun Singh,
Jaisalmer and Mr. Bhagwanram, Churu for
assisting in field surveys during the study, Prof.
Anubha Kaushik, Ex-Dean, USEM, GGSIP
University, New Delhi for providing necessary
facilities and for her constant encouragement
throughout the work.
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