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INDIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
RESEARCH ARTICLE
OPEN ACCESS
Received: 14-05-2020
Accepted: 14-06-2020
Published: 24-06-2020
Editor: Dr. Natarajan Gajendran
Citation: Rao MR, Itagi RK, Srini-
vasan TM (2020) Efficacy of yoga
in facilitating mindfulness among
asymptomatic male cricket players.
Indian Journal of Science and
Technology 13(21): 2182-2188. https
://doi.org/10.17485/IJST/v13i22.614
∗Corresponding author.
Manasa R Rao
Division of Yoga and Physical
Sciences, Swami Vivekananda Yoga
Anusandhana Samsthana (S-VYASA
Deemed-to-be-University), 'Eknath
Bhavan', Gavipuram Circle,
Kempegowda Nagar, Bengaluru,
560019, Karnataka, India. Tel.: +91
9880106669
mansarao@gmail.com
Funding: None
Competing Interests: None
Copyright: © 2020 Rao, Itagi,
Srinivasan. This is an open access
article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and
source are credited.
Published By Indian Society for
Education and Environment (iSee)
Efficacy of yoga in facilitating mindfulness
among asymptomatic male cricket players
Manasa R Rao1∗, Ravi Kumar Itagi1, TM Srinivasan1
1Division of Yoga and Physical Sciences, Swami Vivekananda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana
(S-VYASA Deemed-to-be-University), 'Eknath Bhavan', Gavipuram Circle, Kempegowda Nagar,
Bengaluru, 560019, Karnataka, India. Tel.: +91 9880106669
Abstract
Background: Cricket scenario across the globe has undergone tremendous
changes in the last two decades. Premier league designs have exposed the
players to immense aggression, competitiveness, and expectations. Objec-
tive: To evaluate the efficacy of yoga in facilitating mindfulness among asymp-
tomatic male cricket players. Methods and materials: First-class domestic
male cricket players in the age group of 18-35 years from the Karnataka State
Cricket Association were randomized into yoga group n=40 and wait-list control
group n=42. Players received the yoga module for five days/week for a dura-
tion of six weeks. Five-facet mindfulness questionnaire was given at baseline,
immediate post-intervention, and a follow-up after six months of interven-
tion. Statistical analysis: Group differences in the change in parameters over
time was modelled using linear mixed-effects regression method using the
lme4 package in R, as two groups were compared over three unevenly spaced
assessment time points. Findings: Comparison of the model fit indicates a sig-
nificant (p<0.001) difference between the model as compared to the baseline
model among all the five facets. There was no significant effect (p>0.001) at
either time or group, however, there was a significant interaction effect at T2
(immediate post-intervention) among all the facets. No significant interaction
effect (group*time interaction) was found in the follow-up study. Application:
Regular practice of this yoga module may enhance the likelihood to main-
tain a state of mindfulness among the male cricket players. Integrating yoga
into the competitive world of cricket appears to be promising in enhancing
mindfulness.
Keywords: Sports performance; mindfulness; Yoga; cricket players; wellbeing
1 Introduction
One of the most important aspects of sports performance is the player’s ability to train
the mind to put themselves in the best situation to compete with an optimum athletic
ability and focus, where there is little room for error. Expectations to be perfect and
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fear of defeat can hinder any player’s performance during intense competition. e pursuit of excellence in sport encompasses
four signicant components, namely physical, technical, tactical and mental skills(1). e facilitative role of mental skills in
high level sports participation has been strongly emphasised over the past three decades. Mental factors such as self-condence,
commitment, concentration, coping skills, imagery and visualisation goals have emerged as key antecedents to achieving athletic
success at the highest level of sports participation(2,3).
Mindfulness techniques have been widely utilized in clinical psychology, oen as an adjunct to cognitive or behavioural
interventions(4). It has become relevant in sport considering the fact that the practice inculcates a present moment awareness
that is crucial in athletic performance(5). An early study integrating mindfulness in sport was conducted by Jon Kabat-Zinn,
who designed the mindfulness-based stress reduction(6). Mindfulness, dened as the non-judgmental focus of one’s attention
on the experience that occurs in the present moment(7), aids in addressing issues related to tendencies of present moment
focus. Current moment awareness, a crucial component of peak sport performance also helps in generating a state of ‘ow’,
or a state of complete focus(8). Mindfulness-based interventions for sports are ecient in minimizing external distractions(9).
Mindfulness training allows the individual to channelize on being non-judgmental rather than restricting negative thoughts.
With the present moment acceptance of internal experience, an athlete can focus on the positives and learn to cope through
challenging times(10).
Historically, mindfulness has its origins in Eastern contemplative spiritual traditions and has been considered the core of
Buddhist meditation(6). Dhyansky explains that, based on the so-called ‘Proto-Siva’ from Mohenjodaro, discovered by Marshall
and Mackay, reveal that the ve ‘Proto-Siva’ seals, clearly indicates that yoga was known and practiced by the people of the Indus
Valley civilization in the North Western part of India about ve thousand years ago. Further, yoga maintained the oral tradition
till Patanjali systematized it in his Yogasutra(11). Patanjali discusses the mind and its bondage, and gives a detailed prescription
for it accordingly, in his multicomponent process of Raja yoga(12). e yogic technology of Raja yoga overlaps with meditative
traditions such as Buddhism(13). Eventually, as the discipline of yoga became the common property of humanity, it was applied
as a therapeutic intervention in the twentieth century yielding various psychophysiological benets. Each component of yoga
such as – physical postures (asanas), breathing techniques (pranayama), deep relaxation, and meditation comprise its own
distinct emphasis cultivating an awareness and ultimately more profound states of consciousness(14). Yoga prescribes to reach
the state of meditation through breath and it introduces syncing of the breath with purposeful movement, as its foundation.
Likewise, breathing technique is also the crux of the mindfulness skills as described by Kabat-Zinn(15).
Yoga focuses on systematically directing awareness toward internal sensations emanating during yoga movement sequences
that are performed slowly and gently without being physically taxing, thereby, facilitating mindful awareness (16). A study that
investigated the relationship between home practice of mindfulness meditation exercises and levels of mindfulness, medical and
psychological symptoms, perceived stress, and psychological well-being on adults in a clinical Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduc-
tion (MBSR) program. is study found that yoga practice time to be more strongly correlated with self-reported improvements
in mindfulness, perceived stress, anxiety, and psychological well-being than formal sitting meditation time(17). Another study
that explored the utility, feasibility, and potential ecacy of a comprehensive mindfulness intervention for student athletes
with modied MAC ( Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment) intervention sessions immediately followed by 1-hr hatha yoga
session, reported greater mindfulness, greater goal-directed energy, and less perceived stress than before the intervention(18).
e yogic techniques, thus, aim at bringing focus by incorporating body movement to quieten the mind(19). Recent lines of
evidence suggest that yoga training can have a positive impact on a range of physiological, cognitive, and performance aspects
that include facets of mindfulness and ow(20).
To date, there has been no attempt to carry out an experimental study on the eects of yoga on mindfulness on a large group
of cricket players. e current study is thus an attempt to ll this major gap in this eld. Cricket, being the most prominent
sport, has undergone tremendous changes in the last two decades. Unlike the temperate countries, cricket is generally played
all year round in the tropical countries. e premier league designs has exposed the players to unique playing conditions, game
formats, and sheer absence of the o season and an escalated workload(21). Competitive shorter versions of the game has also
led to greater aggression and an upsurge in the number of cricketing injuries(22). Hence, a mind-body intervention such as
yoga was introduced addressing the current scenario. e aim of this study was to evaluate the ecacy of yoga in facilitating
mindfulness among asymptomatic male cricket players.
2 Method
2.1 Participants
A total of 82 rst class domestic cricket players from the Karnataka State Cricket Association were randomly selected for the
study. Male cricketers in the age group of 18-35 years, with an experience of 2-15 years in playing for the cricketing association,
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with no physical signs of an injury in the past three months and who were willing to participate for the entire duration of the
intervention, were selected for the study.
2.2 Procedure
e players were randomized into yoga group n=40 and wait-list control group n=42. Cricket players received the yoga module
for 80 minutes per session for 5 days/week for duration of 6 weeks. e players in the yoga group practiced the module as
mentioned in Table 1, along with their routine tness sessions, while the control group followed their regular daily routine
during the study period. e yoga sessions were conducted by a yoga expert. e duration of the follow-up was for a period
of six months. e ve-facet mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ) was completed by the players at baseline, immediate post-
intervention and a follow-up aer six months of intervention.
e Karnataka State Cricket Association had extended their consent for conducting this study. Written informed consent
from the participants was obtained before the intervention. e players were explained in detail about the nature of the study
and the voluntary nature of participation. Condentiality was assured as a part of the research process. is study was approved
by Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) of Swami Vivekananda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana (S-VYASA University).
2.3 Measures
Five-facet mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ) is based on a factor analytic study of ve independently developed mindfulness
questionnaires. e analysis yielded ve factors that appear to represent elements of mindfulness as conceptualized in the
psychological literature. e ve facets are observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience and
non-reactivity to inner experience. e internal consistency of the ve subscales is of adequate to good consistency - cronbach
alpha values: observing = .83, describing = .91, acting with awareness = .87, non-reactivity to inner experiences = .75 and
non-judging of inner experiences = .87(23).
2.4 Statistical Analysis
Data were coded and recorded in MS Excel spreadsheet program. R Statistical Soware, RStudio Team (2019) was used for
data analysis. Descriptive statistics were presented as appropriate. Validity of the FFMQ was examined using Bartlett’s test of
sphericity to evaluate whether or not the variables intercorrelate and Cronbach’s alpha for internal consistency. Intercorrelations
between FFMQ facets were conducted to examine if facets represent related but distinct constructs. Regression analyses were
conducted to predict each FFMQ facet from the other four facets combined. e adjusted R2indicates the variance accounted
for by the dependents relationship with the other facets, hence revealing the extent to which facets are non-overlapping(24). Data
were explored for normal distribution using the criteria of absolute skewness < 2, absolute kurtosis < 3, and a non-signicant
Shapiro-Wilk Test. e presence of outliers was investigated using Grubb’s test and boxplots. Outliers were checked for accuracy
of data, and analysis was performed using both the outlier removed and the outlier included dataset to ensure that the outliers
were not signicant inuencers. Results are presented for the outlier removed datasets. Group dierences in the change in
parameters over time was modelled using linear mixed-eects regression method as two groups were compared over three
unevenly spaced assessment time points. Linear mixed-eects approach was employed as it has important advantages over
traditional methods of repeated measures analysis, while seamlessly dealing with unequally spaced observations over time (25).
Linear mixed-eect regression method was conducted using the lme4 package in R, with each outcome parameter respectively
as the dependent variable, main eect of Group and Timepoint and their interaction as the xed eects, and allowing for a
random intercept for each subject and a random slope for Time.
Full models were compared against baseline models with no xed eects for deriving the signicance of model t. Statistical
signicance was assumed at p<0.05.
3 Results
A total of 42 cricket players were taken in each group. However, there were two dropouts from the control group as they were
lost to both the post and the follow-up assessments due to their unavailability. Hence, in the yoga group n=40 and in control
group n=42. Prior to performing any statistical analysis for comparison, the data were compiled to obtain the descriptive statis-
tics. ere were no missing data at T1 (baseline), T2 (immediate post-intervention) and at T3 (follow-up aer six months of
intervention).
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Table 1. List of yoga practices
Type of yoga practice Name of the practice Duration (min)
Breathing practice Pavanamuktasana Kriya 3
Suryanamaskara Suryanamaskara - 12 steps 10
Asanas in standing position Utthita Trikonasana 2
Parivrita Trikonasana 2
Parsvakonasana 2
Virabhadranasa I 2
Virabhadrasana II 2
Utthita Padangustasana 2
Prasarita Padottanasana 2
Vriksasana 2
Asanas in sitting position Baddhakonasana 1
Upavista Konasana 1
Gomukhasana 2
Parivritta Janu Sirsasana 2
Ushtrasana 2
Virasana 2
Asana in prone position Bhujangasana 3
Shalabasana 2
Dhanurasana 2
Asana in supine position Salamba Sarvangasana 2
Matsyasana 2
Uttana Padasana 1
Jathara Parivartanasana 2
Pranayama Nadishuddhi 10
Bhramari 2
Relaxation in supine position Deep Relaxation 15
Bartlett’s test of sphericity was conrmed as signicant (
χ
2(10)=321.070, p<0.001). Cronbach’s alpha coecients indicated
that the subscales observe - 0.672, describe - 0.742, acting with awareness - 0.729 and non-reacting - 0.731 were internally
consistent, falling within acceptable range except non-judging with an alpha of 0.406. e intercorrelations presented in Table 2
show that all FFMQ sub scales were signicantly intercorrelated.
Table 2. Inter-correlations between the facets of ve-facet mindfulness questionnaire
OBS D AA NJ
Observe
Describe .801
Act-aware .695 .777
Non-judging .594 .729 .715
Non-reactivity .736 .798 .753 .677
Note - All p < .001
OBS - Observe, D - Describe, AA - Act-aware, NJ -
Non-judging
Results of the regression analyses predicting each FFMQ facet from the other four facets combined revealed extremely sig-
nicant models with observe - (F=(4,77)=39.608, p<0.001) with an R2of 0.656, describe - (F=(4,77) =71.556, p<0.001) with an
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R2of 0.777, act with awareness - (F=(4,77)=42.242, p<0.001) with an R2of 0.671, non-judging - (F=(4,77)=28.439, p<0.001)
with an R2of 0.575, non-reactivity - (F=(4,77)=45.474, p<0.001) with an R2of 0.687, indicating that although intercorrelated, a
substantial proportion of the variance in each facet is distinct from the other four facets and contributed independently towards
the prediction of mindfulness(4,24). For all the variables, there seemed no dierence of signicance and direction of association
between the original, outlier removed model. Hence, the outlier-removed model was retained.
3.1 Linear mixed-effect model
As indicated by the comparison of the model t there was a signicant (p<0.001) dierence between the model as compared to
the baseline model among all the ve facets. When including the interaction term in the model, there was no signicant xed
eect (p>0.05) of time for the all the facets at T2 and T3 as compared to the T1. Also, no signicant xed.
Table 3. Repeated measures results using linear mixed eects model
Value Std.Error t-value DF p-value
Baseline (Intercept) 19.77 0.42 47.46 80 <0.001
Model 1 (Intercept) 18.44 0.71 26.12 79 <0.001
Observe Group (yoga vs control) 0.23 0.98 0.24 79 0.814
Time T2 0.38 0.74 0.52 79 0.603
Time T3 -0.10 0.64 -0.16 79 0.872
GroupYoga:TimeT2 9.04 1.02 8.85 79 <0.001
GroupYoga:TimeT3 1.75 0.88 1.98 79 0.052
Conditional R2: 0.661; Marginal R2: 0.416
Comparison of Model Fit: X2(5)=119.16, p<0.001
Baseline (Intercept) 21.06 0.47 44.90 80 <0.001
Model 2 (Intercept) 19.79 0.81 24.47 79 <0.001
Describe Group (yoga vs control) 0.06 1.12 0.06 79 0.956
Time T2 -0.15 0.81 -0.19 79 0.850
Time T3 -1.08 0.65 -1.66 79 0.101
GroupYoga:TimeT2 10.08 1.13 8.95 79 <0.001
GroupYoga:TimeT3 2.77 0.90 3.07 79 0.003
Conditional R2: 0.669; Marginal R2: 0.414
Comparison of Model Fit: X2(5)=128.49, p<0.001
Baseline (Intercept) 22.96 0.45 50.97 80 <0.001
Model 3 (Intercept) 20.31 0.83 24.47 79 <0.001
Act With
Awareness
Group (yoga vs control) 0.86 1.15 0.75 79 0.458
Time T2 2.46 0.94 2.61 79 0.011
Time T3 0.36 0.63 0.57 79 0.573
GroupYoga:TimeT2 6.78 1.31 5.18 79 <0.001
GroupYoga:TimeT3 1.69 0.88 1.92 79 0.059
Conditional R2: 0.589; Marginal R2: 0.347
Comparison of Model Fit: X2(5)=96.38, p<0.001
Baseline (Intercept) 20.88 0.29 71.24 79 <0.001
Model 4 (Intercept) 20.28 0.57 35.70 78 <0.001
Non-Judging Group (yoga vs control) -0.70 0.79 -0.88 78 0.383
Time T2 0.69 0.77 0.90 78 0.370
Time T3 -0.41 0.52 -0.79 78 0.429
GroupYoga:TimeT2 7.94 1.07 7.41 78 <0.001
GroupYoga:TimeT3 1.68 0.72 2.33 78 0.023
Conditional R2: 0.575; Marginal R2: 0.428
Comparison of Model Fit: X2(5)=94.73, p<0.001
Baseline (Intercept) 18.17 0.39 46.51 80 <0.001
Model 5 (Intercept) 16.63 0.70 23.79 79 <0.001
Continued on next page
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Table 3 continued
Value Std.Error t-value DF p-value
Non-Reactivity Group (yoga vs control) 1.13 0.98 1.15 79 0.253
Time T2 1.02 0.75 1.36 79 0.176
Time T3 -0.73 0.60 -1.21 79 0.231
GroupYoga:TimeT2 6.22 1.06 5.89 79 <0.001
GroupYoga:TimeT3 1.92 0.84 2.28 79 0.026
Conditional R2: 0.583; Marginal R2: 0.364
Comparison of Model Fit: X2(5)=105.26, p<0.001
T2 – Time 2, at the end of yoga intervention; T3 –Time 3, at the end of follow-up period
eect in group (yoga as compared to controls) can be noted for all the facets. However, signicant interaction eect (group*time
interaction) at T2 can be found among all the facets. ere was no signicant interaction eect (group*time interaction) for all
the facets at T3 as illustrated in Table 3.
4 Discussion
e present study was the rst of its kind to explore the ecacy of yoga in facilitating mindfulness among asymptomatic male
cricket players. In today’s competitive sporting world, the gap between players physical skills as well as the margin of victory
is narrowing. Every player is in a pursuit of achieving sporting excellence. Adopting yoga as a holistic mind-body intervention
fosters the development of several personal, sport and performance-relevant psychological skills where goal-oriented behaviour
and automatic goal-focused processes are facilitated .
e ndings of this study indicate that yoga training had produced no signicant eect of time or group, however, signicant
interaction eect at T2 among all the facets except for the facets indicate the impact of yoga on the facets of observe, describe,
act with awareness, non-judging and non-reactivity. e follow-up study indicates no signicant interaction eect (group*time
interaction) for all the facets at T3. Overall, this study, shows the impact of yoga post the 6 weeks of training and no signicant
impact aer 6 months of follow-up, hence this study partially supports the previous study on the eects of a yoga intervention on
mindfulness and dispositional ow of elite youth swimmers(20), where no signicant changes in mindfulness and dispositional
ow were identied. In the present study, the frequency, intensity and the duration of the yoga sessions might have contributed
towards signicant changes in the outcome measures at T2.
Hatha yoga practices have previously proven to have been benecial in improving sport performance(26), facilitating secre-
tion of melatonin from the pineal gland, which may be acting as a psycho-sensitive hormone, improvements in the autonomic
balance, respiratory performance and well-being(27). It has also demonstrated to have reduced state anxiety(28), enhancing
mindfulness and decreasing stress(18,29), greater goal-directed energy (18), upregulating the antioxidant capacity of cells to com-
bat oxidative stress(30), and also facilitating self-regulation and mindful awareness by cultivating ‘witness consciousness’ (31).
Another study on participants from Vipassana and Zen meditation has shown that the mindfulness components non-judge
and act-aware were signicant predictors of depression. Non-judge is seen as a signicant predictor of anxiety and stress(4). In
line with the earlier studies that validated the advantages of yoga on mental well-being, this study also demonstrated that com-
prehensive yoga module that encompasses postures, breathing techniques and deep relaxation is likely to increase the cricket
player’s ability to maintain a state of mindfulness.
During the follow-up period, not practicing the yoga module in its entirety or being irregular in their yoga practice might
have resulted in no changes in the facets of mindfulness. is clearly indicates that, long term benets of yoga on mindfulness
can be brought about chiey by internalising the practices by the players into their lives o the mat as well. Continuous and
sustained practice will be benecial in adapting to emotional and homeostatic perturbations of their daily life.
Further investigation on the mechanisms underlying the eect of yoga on mindfulness in performance of the cricket players
needs to be undertaken. Future studies can delve into, the yoga practices that can be benecial before an actual match, eect
of one-on-one yoga training, and also an in-depth qualitative analysis on the benets of yoga on cricket players that stretch
beyond the sport.
5 Conclusions
e current study was a rst step in understanding the holistic yoga approach to mindfulness with equal and immense empha-
sis on postures, breathing techniques and deep relaxation. e results provide an insight that a regular practice of yoga may
increase the likelihood to maintain a state of mindfulness among the cricket players. Integrating ancient wisdom of yoga into
the competitive world of cricket appears to be promising as a holistic approach in enhancing mindfulness.
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Acknowledgment
e authors would like to thank the Karnataka State Cricket Association and the cricket players for lending their support to
this study.
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