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The Status of Indonesian Coral Reefs 2019

July 2020

Publisher: Research Center for Oceanography
ISBN: 978-602-6504-29-6

Authors:

Tri aryono Hadi

Indonesian Institute of Sciences

Abrar Muhammad

National Research and Innovation Agency

Giyanto Giyanto

Indonesian Institute of Sciences

Bayu Prayudha

National Research and Innovation Agency

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Tri Aryono Hadi

Muhammad Abrar

Giyanto

Bayu Prayudha

Ofri Johan

Agus Budiyanto

Ahmad Reza Dzumalek

La Ode Alifatri

Siti Sulha

Suharsono

RESEARCH CENTER FOR OCEANOGRAPHY (RCO)

Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program

Coral Triangle Initiative (COREMAP – CTI)

2020

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

THE STATUS OF INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS 2019

Authors : Tri Aryono Hadi, Muhammad Abrar, Giyanto, Bayu Prayudha,

Ofri Johan, Agus Budiyanto, Ahmad Reza Dzumalek, La Ode Alifatri,

Siti Sulha, Suharsono

Photo : Agus Budiyanto, Muhammad Abrar, Tri Aryono Hadi, Yunaldi

Design : Dudy Ramdhana

ISBN : 978-602-6504-29-6

RHM Secretariat

Research Center for Oceanography (RCO)

Pasir Putih 1, Ancol Timur

North Jakarta 14430

Telp. 021-64713850

Email: rhmsekretariat@gmail.com

http://indocoasting.id

http://oseanogra.lipi.go.id

The Status Of Indonesian Coral Reefs 2019

Tri Aryono Hadi...et al.,2019

 --Jakarta:PuslitOseanogra-LIPI.

vi + 88 hlm.; 17,6 cm x 25 cm

Bibliogra:hlm.27

iii

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

As the global climate is unpredictable and the human population is

rising up gradually, the ecosystems are prone to degradation both in

the land and seas. As an archipelagic country, coastal ecosystems play

important roles, not only protecting the shorelines from abrasion

but also supporting economic sectors for local communities. In

thiscase,thedegradedcoastalecosystemcouldimpacttheshery

production and ecotourism sectors and eventually threaten the

national economy. Therefore, it is vital to inform the current status

of coral reefs as well as the trend so that the policymakers can

address the issues which can be different among the regions.

The Research Center for Oceanography (RCO), through COREMAP-

CTI, has responsibility for monitoring coral reefs across the

Indonesian waters to provide information regarding the coral reef

condition as well as the trend, and feasible solutions to maximize

the management system. In addition, RCO has been appointed to

provide Indonesia’s coral reef map to support the one map policy.

Lastly, it is important to improve people’s awareness as early as

possible so that their contribution will be real and massive in the

future.

I would like to thank the team that has worked hard to make this out

and wish it will be meaningful for stakeholder, coastal communities,

conservationists, and even science.

Jakarta, June 2020

Director of Research Center for Oceanography

Dr. Augy Syahailatua, M. Sc

Foreword

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Chelonia mydas, Komodo National Park, NTT

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF TABLE

TABLE OF FIGURES

Table 1. Criteria of coral reef damage according to

the Ministry of Environment and Forestry ... ..... .... . .... ..... ..... .... . . 7

Introduction ......................................................................................... 1

Distribution of coral reefs in Indonesia................................................ 2

Categorization of coral reef condition ................................................... 7

Status of Indonesian coral reefs ........................................................... 9

The various threats on Indonesian coral reefs ........................................ 17

Reef Restoration ................................................................................... 19

Acknowledgement.................................................................................. 23

Conclusion ............................................................................................ 25

Bibliography ......................................................................................... 27

Appendix 1 ........................................................................................... 32

Appendix 2 ........................................................................................... 36

Indonesian version ............................................................................... 44

Figure 1. a) Acropora suharsonoi, b) Euphyllia baliensis (courtesy

of mahagirinusalembongan.blogspot.com), c) Indophyllia

macassarensis, d) Isopora togianensis ..................................... 3

Figure 2. Coral reefs in a) Weh, b) Bintan, c) Prigi Bay, d) Seribu Islands .... . .. 4

Figure 3. Distribution of stony corals in Indonesia ......................................... 5

Figure 4. Trend of coral reef conditions from 1993 to 2019.... . .... ..... .... . .... ..... 9

Figure 5. Trend of coral cover from COREMAP-CTI monitoring sites

(n: number of reefs monitored) ........................................................ 10

Figure 6. Changes in benthic communities using Underwater photo

transect (lefts : 2016, rights : 2017) ................................................. 11

Figure 7. Trend of coral reef conditions in western Indonesia .... .... . .... . .... ..... . 12

Figure 8. a) Bleaching event in 2016, b) the reef at “no return point”

(algae dominated reef) ..................................................................... 13

Figure 9. Trend of coral reef conditions in central Indonesia ... ..... .... . .... ..... .... 14

Figure 10. Trend of coral reef conditions in eastern Indonesia .... .... . .... ..... .... . . 15

Figure11.a)localparticipationinanarticialreefcompetition,

 b)dome-shapedarticialreef;c)Acropora transplanted on

iron racks; d) spider web like structure (credit Alicia McArdle);

e) biorock; f) reef restoration using coral transplants .. ..... .... . .... ..... .. 21

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Wakatobi National Park, Southeast Sulawesi

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Introduction

Indonesia is an archipelagic country with 16.056 veried islands

situated in the tropical zone. This makes the water warm throughout

the year and this is suitable for plenty of marine creatures to strive.

Besides, Indonesia is a part of the coral triangle region, the world’s

highest marine biodiversity. In this case, there are about 569 species

and 83 genera of stony corals recorded, representing approximately

69% and 76% for species and genera respectively of stony corals around

the world. Interestingly, there are 4 endemic species recorded, namely 

Acropora suharsonoi (Lombok), Euphyllia baliensis (Bali), Indophyllia

macassarensis (Makassar), and Isopora togianensis (Togean) (Figure 1). To

conserve the marine habitats and biodiversity, by the middle of 2019

the government has already had a 22.68 million hectares of marine

conservationarea,approximately6%ofIndonesianmarineareas.

As the world’s fourth most populous country by around 270 million

people, Indonesia’s coastal areas are prone to degradation due to human

activities. The impact can be seen in front of some big cities located close

to coastal areas, such as in Jakarta, Surabaya, Makassar, and Batam. Natural

disasters, such as earthquakes and tsunami, also sometimes occur and

affect negatively the coral reefs. Another main problem is the elevated sea

temperature which causes bleaching events in many locations, especially

in the southern and western parts of Indonesia. Although these factors

are inevitable, it appears that the reefs are able to recover, depending on

the intensity and frequency of the stressors, resilience potential, and the

environmental conditions.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Coral reef rehabilitation and management program (COREMAP) is a

long term national program that aims to manage Indonesia’s coral reefs

anditsrelatedcoastal ecosystemstoremain sustainable and benet the

coastal communities. One main component of the program is monitoring

the condition of coastal ecosystems, especially coral reef, seagrass, and

mangrove (the last two ecosystems have been being monitored since 2015).

The other component is to improve people’s awareness through education,

dissemination, and training in which people are expected to participate

actively in ecosystem conservation. In short, the program focuses not only

on the ecosystem management, but also the people as the key success

factor of the program.

Distribution of coral reefs

in Indonesia

Coral reefs in Indonesia spread from Rondo Island (Aceh), the outermost

island in the northwest of Indonesia’s archipelago, to the north of Jayapura,

the easternmost city in Indonesia. Coral reefs on the west coast of Sumatra

- including the outer islands such as Rondo Island, Weh Island, Banyak

Islands, Simeulue Island, Nias Island, Batu Islands, Siberut Island, Pagai

Island, Sipora Island and Enggano Islands - are characterized by low to fair

coralcoversand low diversityof stonycoralsasit is strongly inuenced

by the Indian Ocean. Not all of the islands are surrounded by coral reefs,

but instead only patches especially in the outermost islands. On the other

hand, the reefs on the east coast of Sumatra cannot develop well as many

riversowtotheeast,resultinginlowsalinityandhighturbidity.However,

off the shore, the patchy reefs commonly occur, such as in Balerang Islands,

Senayang Lingga, Bangka Belitung, and Karimata Islands. The reefs develop

well particularly in the middle of the Natuna Sea, including Anambas

Islands, Natuna Islands, and Tambelan Islands.

Dominated by peatland and big rivers, Borneo Island has poorly

developing reefs. Close to the mainland, the reefs are patchy like in

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 1. a) Acropora suharsonoi, b) Euphyllia baliensis (courtesy of

mahagirinusalembongan.blogspot.com), c) Indophyllia macassarensis,

d) Isopora togianensis

Sangkulirang. The reefs commonly strive well off the coast of Borneo

Island, such as in Derawan Islands, Matasiri Islands, and Karimata Islands.

The reefs along the coast of Java are typically patchy, such as in

Banten Bay, Jakarta Bay, Jepara, Pasir Putih, Baluran, Nusa Kambangan,

Wediombo, and Prigi Bay. The reefs grow well off the north coast of Java

Island and commonly occurred in a group of islands, including Seribu

Islands, Karimun, Bawean, and Kangean Islands. In addition, the corals are

more diverse in the north compared to the south as it is curtailed by the

extreme environmental condition of the Indian Ocean.

Coral reefs strive well and reach the peak of biodiversity in the coral

triangle area, including Sulawesi, Maluku, Halmahera, West Papua, Raja

Ampat Islands, Aru Islands, Kei Islands, East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 2. Coral reefs in a) Weh, b) Bintan, c) Prigi Bay, d) Seribu Islands

Tenggara, and Bali. The reefs develop horizontally and vertically up to

more than 30 meters in depth. Such fascinating conditions are attributed to

excellent environmental conditions; typically warm and clear water from

thewestPacicowscontinuouslytotheIndianOceanthroughthislarge

area(knownasIndonesianthroughow(ITF))and thismakescoralsgrow

better than the surrounding areas. Nevertheless, the reefs cannot develop

well along the south coast of Papua due to high sedimentation which

results from river discharge. Interestingly, especially in Merauke, corals can

be found on the limestone substrate although the water is very turbid.

Distribution of stony corals shows the common pattern in which the

diversity of coral genera is getting lower as the distance is getting farther

from the biodiversity center (Figure 3). In the coral triangle area, the number

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 3. Distribution of stony corals in Indonesia

TOTAL NUMBER OF GENERA: 83

of genera is about more than 60 and then to decline in the periphery (west

coast of Sumatra and south coast of Java) by less than 50 genera. Uniquely,

Lesser Sunda, the southernmost of Indonesia and spanning from Bali to

East Timor, has a number of coral genera around 60 and still belongs to the

coral triangle area. This area is the exit of ITF and also known as refugia

where many biota are trapped and survive, making the biodiversity high.

For example, there are 36 and 39 species of mushroom corals recorded

in Bali and Komodo Islands respectively, representing about 77 - 83% of

mushroom corals in the world.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Coral transplantation in Bayuwangi, East Java

Euphyllia divisa

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Categorization

of coral reef condition

III

The condition of coral reef is determined by the percentage of live

coral cover. Then, it is divided into 4 categories according to the Ministry

of Environment and Forestry decree No 4 the year 2001 regarding the

criteria of coral reef damage (Table 1).

Table 1. Criteria of coral reef damage according to the Ministry of Environment

and Forestry

No Hard coral cover (HC) Category

1HC≤25% Poor

225%<HC≤50% Fair

350%<HC≤75% Good

4 HC > 75% Excellent

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 4. Trend of coral reef conditions from 1993 to 2019

Status of Indonesian

coral reefs

General status

Based on the 2019 data from 1153 reefs, there are about 390

reefs (33.82%) categorized poor, 431 reefs (37.38%) categorized fair,

258 reefs (22.38%) categorized good and 74 reefs (6.42%) categorized

excellent (Appendix 1). During the period of 1993 to 2019, in general,

there were about 30.85 ± 0.29% of reefs having more than 50 % coral

cover (good and excellent reefs) and these were relatively stable despite

upward and downward trends for excellent and good reefs respectively

inthelastveyears(Figure4).Ontheotherhand,69.15±0.29%ofthe

reefs had less than 50 % coral cover (poor and fair reefs) and the trends

wereuctuating.Inthiscase,thesereefsareunlikelystable,havingmore

space for coral recruits to attach and grow but very vulnerable to stressors.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

2015

31,48

26,18 26,13

29,42

2016 2017 2018 2019

Coral Cover (%)

n = 325

n = 270

n = 201

n = 286

n = 202

27,96

Figure 5. Trend of coral cover from COREMAP-CTI’s monitoring sites

(n: number of reefs monitored)

However, the poor reefs may be at “no return point” when they are under

intense chronic stress, causing the reefs to perish. In some cases, the poor

reefs are at a stable state due to its extreme environmental conditions.

Global stressor, especially elevated sea surface temperature, has a

huge impact on Indonesia coral reefs. The trend of coral reef condition

appears to be declining between 2015 and 2016 due to mainly bleaching

event. However, such bleaching event did not occur at all locations as

Indonesiacoral reefsareinuencedbydifferent types ofhydrodynamic

regimes of two oceans (Pacic and the Indian Ocean). In addition, the

geomorphological conditions of Indonesia’s Islands are quite diverse,

making the impact of elevated sea surface temperature vary among reefs.

Data from COREMAP-CTI’s monitoring locations also conrms that

there was a signicant decline in coral cover between 2015 and 2016

and followed by a gradual increase until 2019 (Figure 5). The data was

collected by using underwater photo transect (Figure 6) from plenty

of reefs across Indonesian waters (Appendix 1). In short, the recovery

process after the bleaching event has been progressing and this evidence

gives hope to the management regime amid the global declining trends

of coral cover.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 6. Changes in benthic communities using underwater photo transect

(lefts : 2016, rights : 2017)

Western Indonesia

In western Indonesia, the coral reef condition appears to be better,

given that the percentage of excellent and fair reefs are improving

(Figure 7). This condition may be related to the change of natural resource

exploitationarea; people usedtoexploitthe western area tofulllthe

high demand of shery products but then moved away to the eastern

part which is much promising. Furthermore, the people awareness had

been improved; COREMAP phase II encouraged law enforcement to

combatdestructiveshingpractices, and community-based management

which involved local communities to participate actively in managing the

coastal ecosystem and this occurred at 8 locations in the west.

Apart from the human factors, the western part is prone to

bleaching related to elevated sea temperature. For example, in the

marine conservation area of Pieh, the coral cover dropped from 41.4% in

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 7. Trend of coral reef conditions in western Indonesia

2015 to 28.38% in 2016 (Figure 8a). Likewise, coral cover in the marine

conservation area of Nias declined from 26.76% in 2015 to 13.82%

in 2016. In contrast, in Riau Islands province, the coral covers were

increasing between 2015 and 2016; in Bintan, the coral cover increased

from 35.61% to 37.97%, and in Batam the coral cover increased from

36.28% to 39.44%. This might be related to the hydrodynamic regime in

whichRiauwaterishighlyinuencedbyPacicNorthEquatorialCurrent,

whereas the 2015-2016 bleaching occurred severely on the west coast of

Sumatra and south coast of Java which are bordered by the Indian Ocean.

In addition to anthropogenic stressors, marine pollution,

sedimentation, and low salinity are the main stressors in western

Indonesia. In Jakarta Bay, for instance, the reefs are suffering high-

intensity chronic stress due to sewage from the capital city of Indonesia

(13 rivers are passing through the capital and discharging to the bay),

causing the reefs to be at “no return point” (Figure 8b). The same situation

also occurs in Bangka Island where massive offshore tin mining activities

are very intense and thus cause the reefs to die due to sedimentation. If

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 8. a) bleaching event in 2016, b) the reef at “no return point” (algae dominated reef )

a b

these stressors remain intense, the area impacted will be wider and the

number of potentially degraded reefs will increase.

Central Indonesia

In central Indonesia, the coral reef condition, in general, was

improvinguntil2015(Figure9).Afterward,thereweresignicantdeclines

on the trends of the fair and good reefs as a result of the bleaching event

that occurred in many locations. The most suffering area was the Lesser

Sunda, especially Bali and West Nusa Tenggara, as this area borders the

Indian Ocean. For instance, In Bali, the coral cover declined from 60.3%

(2015) to 29.6% (2016). In West Lombok, the coral cover declined from

36.09% (2015) to 18.23% (2016) and in the marine conservation area of

Gili Matra also declined from 23.43% (2015) to 18.48% (2016). It is typical

that during the El Nino event, the warm phase of the El Nino Southern

Oscillation (ENSO), the Indian Ocean is getting warmer and this affects

the reefs in the western and southern parts of Indonesia. In addition,

human factors, such as coastal development, land-based pollution, blast

shing, mining activities, and tourismalsocontributetothedeclineof

coral covers in the last 5 years.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 9. Trend of coral reef conditions in central Indonesia

Eastern Indonesia

In contrast to the western and central parts, the condition of coral

reefs in the eastern appears to be declining, especially in the 2000s

(Figure10).It shows that the trend ofpoorreefincreased signicantly

at the beginning of the 2000s but gradually declined at the end of the

2000s. It is likely related to the exploitation that moved away from the

west to the east. Other main issues on the east are poor community

awareness and poor law enforcement. Lack of job opportunities also leads

local communities to depend much on nature. Furthermore, there are

plenty of remote areas that have poor surveillance, causing the reefs to

bevulnerabletodestructiveshingpractices, and exploitation. However,

therecoveryhasbeenstillprogressing,particularlyinthelastveyears.

In Ternate and surrounding, the coral cover increased from 29.26% in

2015 to 32.83% in 2016. Likewise, in the marine conservation area of

Padaido, the trend of coral cover was increasing between 2015 and

2019 (from 29.92% to 35.25%). A similar result also occurs in the marine

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 10. Trend of coral reef conditions in eastern Indonesia

conservation area of Raja Ampat (Waigeo) which increased from 32.24%

in 2015 to 37.84% in 2019. The eastern part might be less affected by the

2015-2016 bleaching event as it is passed by Indonesian throughow

which delivers continuously clear and nutritious water from Pacic to

the Indian Ocean. This can reduce the heat stress by increasing the rate

of dilution, making the impact of elevated sea temperature less severe.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Banggai, Central Sulawesi

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

The various threats

on Indonesian coral reefs

Climate changes and anthropogenic factors have become the main causes

of reef degradations. Elevated sea temperature has caused mass bleaching

events and it takes years to recover. The effect will be even multiplying when

theanthropogenic stressors also occur, such as blast shing,pollution,mining

activities, and terrestrial runoff due to land use. Although reefs are able to adapt

to the changing environment, complex and high intensity of stressors can cause

the reefs to collapse. For instance, when the reefs are exposed to chronic stress

which pushes it close to the threshold, then another chronic or acute stress that

occurs at the same time will cause the reefs to fail to resist and recover.

In general, anthropogenic factors are the prominent stressor in the central

and eastern parts, while natural stressors appear to be noticeable in the west

and south (Appendix 2). There are many poor locations, mainly spreading in

the periphery (west coast of Sumatra, south coast of Java, and south of Lesser

Sunda). These poorly categorized locations do not always mean that the reefs

are terribly degraded. In normal conditions, the reefs have less than 25% coral

cover as a result of extreme environmental conditions, such as poor habitat

variability and high energy waves. However, the reefs are able to recover slightly

when suffering acute stress. In contrast, poor locations in South and Southeast

Sulawesi, North Moluccas, and Papua are attributed to anthropogenic factors,

especially blast shing. Not all of these areas belong to marine conservation

areas,thereforedestructiveshingisstillundergoing.Inaddition,thedestructive

shingcommonlyoccursfarfromvillagesandmanytakeplaceinremoteareas

Fair locations appear to dominate and occur from the west to east, commonly

close to the mainland (nearshore reefs). These locations are prone to degradation

due to anthropogenic stressors, such as coastal development, pollution, and

mining. Sedimentation and low salinity also aggravate the situation, especially

in the west due to river discharge. Farther from the mainland, the good and

excellent locations commonly occur, typically offshore reefs, like in Tambelan and

Lucipara which are located in the middle of Natuna and Banda Sea respectively.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Biorock, Bali

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

VI Reef Restoration

As the reefs have been being affected by human factors and

natural disturbances, it is necessary to monitor the condition over

time whether it is improving or degrading. Minimizing the stressors

especially human anthropogenic to allow the reefs to recover naturally

is a passive way to improve coral reef conditions. In order to boost

the ecosystem recovery, ecological intervention is certainly needed.

This could be coral transplantation, substrate modification, artificial

reefs, assisted coral recruitment, eliminating coral predators, and

macroalgae removal. However, these passive and active efforts have

to be integrated with the social perspective of people who depend or

use the ecosystem.

The most common effort of coral restoration is coral transplantation

which is aimed to improve reef conditions in terms of live coral cover,

biodiversity, and topographic complexity (Figure 11). This also offers

fast and wide coverage by commonly using local sources that have

adapted to the local environment. In this case, the transplants are taken

from neighboring healthy reefs without causing a significant impact.

Fast-growing corals, including family Acroporidae and Pocilloporidae,

are the most common corals for transplantation but need to be

enriched with slow-growing corals, such as Faviidae, Poritidae, and

Mussidae. Such mixed combination makes the reef more diverse and

able to withstand disturbances without losing all the populations; in

normal condition, the fast-growing corals will dominate the space, but

in reverse when disturbances occur. The size of fragments and methods

of transplantation also determine the growth rate of transplants that

eventually contributes to the live coral cover.

Coral transplantation will be appropriate if the recruitment is

poor, indicating that sources is not sufficient for natural recovery. This

could be attributed to a lack of mature individuals for self-recruitment,

poor external recruitment from up-current reefs, and less stable

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

substrates. On the other hand, if the poor recruitment is attributed to

poor environmental conditions (low salinity, high turbidity, nutrient

enrichment, algal dominance), therefore coral transplantation is not

feasible. In addition, in areas with high energy waves, transplantation

is also not suitable as many transplants will be broken and lost. When

the recruitment is high and the environmental conditions are favorable,

so artificial reefs or substrate modifications are more preferable than

coral transplantation.

Coral transplantation has been carried out in many locations for

different purposes, including restoration, tourism, and trading. In this

case, coral transplantation not only restores the reefs but also has direct

benefits to the local communities, making this activity more sustain as

the locals are engaged. Bali and Sulawesi are the most active areas

as they have sources and periodical maintenance to ensure that coral

transplantations work.

Monitoring is very important for the management regime to

understand whether the coral restoration works properly or poorly.

Apart from the environmental conditions, reef restoration depends on

the local community engagement, regulation, economic, and political

constraints. These should be integrated and the sustainability of reef

restoration, commonly being neglected, has to be maintained to achieve

the ultimate long term goal.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Figure 11. a) local participation in an articial reef competition, b) dome-shaped

articial reef; c) Acropora transplanted on iron racks; d) spider web like structure

(credit Alicia McArdle); e) biorock; f) reef restoration using coral transplants

a b

c d

e f

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Natuna, Riau Islands

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Conclusion

VII

In general, long term observation indicates that coral reef condition

in Indonesia is relatively stable, especially for good and excellent reefs.

Incontrast,thepoorandfairreefsappear to be uctuating;therecovery

process may occur when the reefs suffer acute stress but fail when intense

chronic stresses arise. Managing the reefs through the establishment of

marine conservation areas is a feasible option that not only manages the

ecosystem but also the people, minimizing the impact of anthropogenic

factors while maintaining the productivity of the ecosystem. In this case,

improving people’s awareness and making them our valuable asset have to

be the main priority of the management system, considering that they are

able to participate actively in ecosystem conservation. However, natural

disturbances are inevitable and the impacts are somehow devastating.

Thus, community engagement is needed to assist the management regime

to minimize the impacts and boost ecosystem recovery. National support

from the government is certainly necessary to organize both central and

local elements across Indonesia to work together following an integrated

management system that not only considers the sustainability of the

ecosystembutalsothebenetstocommunities.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Komodo National Park, NTT

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

VIII Acknowledgement

First and foremost we would like to thank Allah SWT for giving us

knowledge, ability, and opportunity to carry out monitoring surveys and

write this book. We thank COREMAP – CTI and the World Bank that have

been fully supporting this project. We are also grateful to our monitoring

teams (secretariat, scientists, technicians, administrative staffs), Ministry of

Marine Affairs and Fisheries (KKP), Ministry of Environment and Forestry

(KLHK), National Development Planning Agency (Bappenas), Geospatial

Information Agency (BIG), provincial government agencies, Maritime

University of Raja Ali Haji (UMRAH), University of Bung Hatta (UBH),

University of Diponegoro (UNDIP), University of Hasanuddin (UNHAS),

University of Mataram (UNRAM), University of Sam Ratulangi (UNSRAT),

University of Halu Oleo (UHO), University of Syiah Kuala (UNSYIAH),

Indonesian Coral, Shell and Ornamental Fish Association (AKKII), Terangi,

Minang Bahari, Rock n Roll Divers (Buton), Scuba Weh (Sabang), Lini, Karang

Nusantara, and Mars Inc.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Derawan, East Kalimantan

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

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Appendix 1.

The status of Indonesian coral reefs 2019

No. Location No. of

Reefs Excellent Good Fair Poor

WESTERN

1 Weh, Sabang (Aceh)* 12 0 0 8 4

2 Simeulue Island (Aceh) 5 0 0 3 2

3 Sibolga dan Tapanuli Tengah (Sumatra Utara) 13 0 0 7 6

4 Nias Utara (Sumatra Utara)* 10 0 0 0 10

5 Kepulauan Hinako, Nias Barat (Sumatra Utara) 4 0 0 2 2

6 Teluk Dalam Nias Selatan (Sumatra Utara) 3 0 0 0 3

7 P.P. Batu, Nias Selatan (Sumatra Utara) 9 0 0 0 9

8 Mentawai Islands (Sumatra Barat)* 9 0 0 3 6

9 KKPN Pieh (Sumatra Barat)* 13 1 3 4 5

10 Pieh (Sumatra Barat)* 4 0 0 0 4

11 Enggano (Bengkulu) 12 0 1 3 8

12 Pulau Tikus (Bengkulu) 3 0 0 3 0

13 Kaur (Bengkulu) 7 0 1 3 3

14 Pulau Pisang (Lampung Barat) 14 5 5 4 0

15 Teluk Ratai (Lampung) 4 1 2 0 1

16 Bakauheni (Lampung)* 10 0 2 3 5

17 Lampung Bay (Lampung) 18 5 8 3 2

18 Krakatau (Lampung) 8 0 1 5 2

19 Tambelan Island (Kepulauan Riau) 12 8 3 1 0

20 KKPN Anambas (Kepulauan Riau)* 12 0 1 11 0

21 Natuna Islands (Kepulauan Riau)* 19 0 0 9 10

22 Bintan (Kepulauan Riau)* 14 0 3 10 1

23 Senayang-Lingga (Kepulauan Riau)* 11 0 0 10 1

24 Batam (Kepulauan Riau)* 19 0 3 13 3

25 Bangka (Bangka Belitung) 10 1 3 3 3

26 Belitung (Bangka Belitung)* 11 0 2 7 2

27 Belitung Timur (Bangka Belitung) 10 0 7 3 0

28 Merak (Banten) 5 0 0 1 4

29 Ujung Kulon Selat Sunda (Banten) 16 0 1 6 9

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

30 Teluk Banten (Banten) 4 0 4 0 0

31 Kepulauan Seribu (Jakarta) 52 0 16 12 24

32 Indramayu (Jawa Barat) 10 6 1 2 1

33 Nusakambangan Islands (Jawa Tengah) 3 0 0 1 2

34 Jepara (Jawa Tengah) 7 0 1 3 3

35 Karimun Jawa (Jawa Tengah) 38 10 15 12 1

36 Pantai Wediombo Gn Kidul (Jogjakarta) 3 0 0 2 1

37 Trenggalek (Perigi Bay) (Jawa Timur) 5 0 0 0 5

38 Madura Island (Jawa Timur) 12 2 8 2 0

39 Kangean Islands (Jawa Timur) 7 0 4 3 0

40 Bawean Islands (Jawa Timur) 8 0 2 6 0

41 TN. Baluran, Situbondo ( Jawa Timur) 5 1 0 2 2

42 Pasir Putih Situbondo (Jawa Timur) 4 0 2 2 0

43 Karimata Islands (Kalimantan Barat) 4 0 1 3 0

CENTRAL

44 Kepulauan Matasiri (Kalimantan Selatan) 5 0 0 1 4

45 Sangkulirang (Kalimantan Timur) 3 0 1 1 1

46 Kutai Timur (Kalimantan Timur) 9 2 3 4 0

47 Kota Bontang (Kalimantan Timur) 11 0 0 5 6

48 Kab. Kutai Kartanegara (Kalimantan Timur) 1 0 0 0 1

49 Kab. Penajam Paser Utara (Kalimantan Timur) 3 0 0 1 2

50 Derawan Islands (Kalimantan Timur)* 11 0 0 5 6

51 Gilimanuk Bay (Bali) 6 0 1 1 4

52 Bali Island (Bali) 19 1 4 2 12

53 KKPN Gili Matra (NTB)* 8 0 1 2 5

54 Lombok Island (NTB) 36 2 7 9 18

55 Sekotong, Lombok (NTB)* 12 0 0 2 10

56 Pulau Keramat, Sumbawa (NTB) 12 5 4 3 0

57 Sumbawa Islands (NTB) 9 0 1 4 4

58 Komodo Islands (NTT)* 12 0 1 8 3

59 Sumba (NTT)* 10 0 0 2 8

60 Kab. Sikka, Maumere (NTT)* 14 0 0 3 11

61 Flores Timur (NTT) 10 0 7 2 1

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

62 Lamalera, Lembata (NTT) 8 0 5 2 1

63 Perairan Lamalera (NTT) 8 0 5 2 1

64 Tablolong dan Semau, Kupang KKPN Laut Sawu (NTT)* 6 0 0 2 4

65 Rote Ndao, KKPN Laut Sawu (NTT)* 6 0 2 0 4

66 Kota Makassar (Sulawesi Selatan)* 13 0 1 6 6

67 Pangkep (Sulawesi Selatan)* 15 1 3 6 5

68 Selayar Islands (Sulawesi Selatan)* 15 0 0 9 6

69 KKPN Kapoposang (Sulawesi Selatan)* 13 0 6 7 0

70 Taka Bonerate Islands (Sulawesi Selatan)* 12 0 0 5 7

71 Kendari (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 9 0 3 3 3

72 Buton Islands (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 5 0 1 3 1

73 Buton Tengah (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 5 0 0 2 3

74 Buton Selatan (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 5 0 1 3 1

75 Wakatobi (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 15 0 0 9 6

76 Kabupaten Konawe (Sulawesi Tenggara) 3 0 0 3 0

77 Labengke Island (Sulawesi Tenggara) 10 1 5 4 0

78 Tiga Islands (Sulawesi Tengah) 6 0 0 6 0

79 Togian Island (Sulawesi Tengah) 8 0 4 4 0

80 Banggai (Sulawesi Tengah) 9 1 3 3 2

81 Luwuk (Sulawesi Tengah) 10 2 5 3 0

82 Palu (Sulawesi Tengah) 8 0 6 2 0

83 Kwandang Bay (Gorontalo) 4 0 2 2 0

84 Dulupi Island (Gorontalo) 4 0 0 3 1

85 Pantai Manado (Sulawesi Utara) 3 0 0 3 0

86 Minahasa (Sulawesi Utara) 3 0 2 0 1

87 Bunaken & Siladen (Sulawesi Utara) 10 4 3 2 1

88 Selat Lembeh, Bitung (Sulawesi Utara) 13 2 6 2 3

89 Kumeke Islands (Sulawesi Utara) 9 1 2 2 4

90 Kepulauan Tagulandang (Sulawesi Utara) 3 1 1 1 0

EASTERN

91 Ternate (Maluku Utara)* 5 0 0 1 4

92 Tidore (Maluku Utara)* 6 0 1 4 1

93 Halmahera Barat (Maluku Utara)* 3 0 1 1 1

94 Tobelo Halmahera Utara (Maluku Utara) 14 0 4 2 8

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

95 Jiew Island (Maluku Utara) 3 0 0 3 0

96 Ambon Bay (Maluku) 10 1 5 2 2

97 Bagian Barat Seram (Maluku) 4 0 3 1 0

98 Bagian Timur Seram (Maluku) 16 0 3 8 5

99 Kepulauan Kei (Maluku) 17 2 3 7 5

100 Tual (Maluku)* 10 0 2 4 4

101 Kepulauan Leti (Maluku) 7 0 3 3 1

102 KKPN Aru Tenggara (Maluku)* 12 0 2 6 4

103 KKPN Laut Banda (Maluku)* 12 0 4 3 5

104 Lucipara Islands (Maluku) 8 5 3 0 0

105 Pulau Wetar (Maluku) 8 0 1 5 2

106 Morotai (Maluku) 14 0 0 1 13

107 Maluku Tengah (Maluku) 4 0 1 3 0

108 Misool Raja Ampat (Papua Barat) 7 0 1 5 1

109 KKPN Kab. Raja Ampat (Papua Barat)* 9 0 2 4 3

110 Cendrawasih Bay (Papua Barat) 12 1 7 4 0

111 KKPN Waigeo Barat (Papua Barat)* 8 0 0 4 4

112 Selatan Waigeo Kab Raja Ampat (Papua Barat) 7 0 1 4 2

113 Batang Pele, Kab Raja Ampat (Papua Barat) 5 0 2 3 0

114 Salawati & Batanta, Kab Raja Ampat (Papua Barat)* 12 0 0 7 5

115 Bras Fanildo Island (Papua Barat) 3 0 3 0 0

116 Fani Island (Papua Barat) 4 0 4 0 0

117 Ayau Islands (Papua Barat) 6 0 0 5 1

118 Biak (Papua)* 13 0 0 3 10

119 Liki Island (Papua) 6 0 2 3 1

120 Bepondi Island (Papua) 3 0 0 1 2

121 Miosnum Island (Papua) 4 1 1 1 1

122 KKPN Padaido (Papua)* 13 1 3 4 5

Total 1153 74 258 431 390

Percentage (%) 6,42% 22,38% 37,38% 33,82%

*COREMAP-CTI’s monitoring locations

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Appendix 2.

The conditions of coral reefs in Indonesia and its threats

(reef category: red = poor; yellow = fair; green = good; blue = excellent)

The conditions of coral reefs in Indonesia

!(!(

!(!(!(

!(!(

!(!(!(

!(!(!(!(

!(!(!(!(!(

!(!(

135°0'0"E

120°0'0"E

105°0'0"E

5°0'0"N

0°0'0"

5°0'0"S

10°0'0"S

1,200

Kilometers

Research Center of Oc eanography

The Conditions of Coral Reefs

in Indonesia 2019

1 : 20.000.000

General condition

Excellent

Good

Fair

Poor

Sources: Esri, HERE, Garmin,

USGS, Intermap,

INCREMENT P, NRCan, Esri

Japan, METI, Esri China

(Hong Kong), Esri Korea, Esri

Arafura Sea

East Sea

Banda Sea

Sulawesi Se a

Java Sea

Natuna Sea

Grid System

Horizontal Datum

Grid Geography

WGS 1984

1. RBI Map

2. Sattelite Imagery

3. Field Survey (Coral Reefs )

Map Source

Benthic Habitats

Coral Reef

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Potentially bleaching areas (based on the bleaching event in 1983, 1997, 2010 and 2015)

High energy waves

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Low salinity

Land-based pollution

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Developing areas and tourism

Blast shing (based on eld observations and interviews with locals)

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Sedimentation

Mining activities

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Various threats on Indonesian coral reefs

1. Blastshing,potentiallybleachingarea,highenergywave,developing

area and tourism

2. Blastshing,miningactivity,sedimentation,developingareaand

tourism

3. Blastshing,potentiallybleachingarea,highenergywave

4. Blastshing,potentiallybleachingarea,developingareaandtourism

5. Blastshing,miningactivity,developingareaandtourism

6. Blastshing,miningactivity,sedimentation

7. Blastshing,land-basedpollution,developingareaandtourism

8. Blastshing,sedimentation,developingareaandtourism

9. Blastshing,potentiallybleachingarea

10. Blastshing,miningactivity

11. Blastshing,developingareaandtourism

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

12. Potentially bleaching area, high energy wave, land-based pollution,

sedimentation, developing area and tourism

13. Potentially bleaching area, high energy wave, sedimentation, developing

area and tourism

14. Potentially bleaching area, high energy wave, mining activity, developing

area and tourism

15. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity, land-based pollution, developing

area and tourism

16. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity, land-based pollution,

sedimentation

17. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity, sedimentation, developing area

and tourism

18. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity, mining activity, developing area

and tourism

19. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity, mining activity, sedimentation

20. Potentially bleaching area, mining activity, sedimentation, developing

area and tourism

21. Potentially bleaching area, land-based pollution, sedimentation,

developing area and tourism

22. Potentially bleaching area, high energy wave, sedimentation

23. Potentially bleaching area, high energy wave, developing area and

tourism

24. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity, sedimentation

25. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity, developing area and tourism

26. Potentially bleaching area, sedimentation, developing area and tourism

27. Potentially bleaching area, high energy wave

28. Potentially bleaching area, low salinity

29. Potentially bleaching area, sedimentation

30. Potentially bleaching area, developing area and tourism

31. Low salinity, land-based pollution, developing area and tourism

32. Low salinity, sedimentation, developing area and tourism

33. Low salinity, sedimentation

34. Low salinity, developing area and tourism

35. Mining activity, sedimentation, developing area and tourism

36. Mining activity, sedimentation

37. Land-based pollution, developing area and tourism

38. Sedimentation, developing area and tourism

39. Potentially bleaching area

40. Low salinity

41. Mining activity

42. Developing area and tourism

43. Sedimentation

44. Blastshing

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT Belitung, Bangka Belitung

PUSAT PENELITIAN OSEANOGRAFI (P2O)

Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program

Coral Triangle Initiative (COREMAP – CTI)

2020

TRI ARYONO HADI, MUHAMMAD ABRAR, GIYANTO, BAYU PRAYUDHA, OFRI JOHAN, AGUS BUDIYANTO

AHMAD REZA DZUMALEK, LA ODE ALIFATRI, SITI SULHA, SUHARSONO

STATUS TERUMBU KARANG INDONESIA 2019

©PusatPenelitianOseanogra-LembagaIlmuPengetahuanIndonesia

Penulis : Tri Aryono Hadi, Muhammad Abrar, Giyanto, Bayu Prayudha,

Ofri Johan, Agus Budiyanto, Ahmad Reza Dzumalek, La Ode Alifatri,

Siti Sulha, Suharsono

Foto : Agus Budiyanto, Muhammad Abrar, Tri Aryono Hadi, Yunaldi

Desain : Dudy

ISBN : 978-602-6504-29-6

Sekretariat RHM

PusatPenelitianOseanogra

Pasir Putih 1, Ancol Timur

Jakarta Utara 14430

Telp. 021-64713850

Email: rhmsekretariat@gmail.com

http://indocoasting.id

http://oseanogra.lipi.go.id

Status Terumbu Karang Indonesia 2019

Tri Aryono Hadi...et al.,2019

 --Jakarta:PuslitOseanogra-LIPI.

vi + 88 hlm.; 17,6 cm x 25 cm

Bibliogra:hlm.71

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Kondisi iklim global yang tidak dapat diprediksi dan populasi manusia

yang terus meningkat, berakibat pada kecenderungan ekosistem untuk

mengalami degradasi baik di darat maupun di laut. Sebagai negara

kepulauan, ekosistem pesisir memainkan peran penting, tidak hanya

melindungi garis pantai dari abrasi tetapi juga mendukung sektor ekonomi

bagi masyarakat lokal. Dalam hal ini, ekosistem pesisir yang rusak dapat

berdampak pada produksi perikanan dan sektor ekowisata dan akhirnya

mengancam perekonomian nasional. Oleh karena itu, sangat penting

untuk menginformasikan status terumbu karang saat ini beserta trennya.

sehingga para pembuat kebijakan dapat mengatasi masalah-masalah yang

mungkin berbeda di antara wilayah-wilayah tersebut.

Pusat Penelitian Oseanogra (P2O), melalui COREMAP-CTI, memiliki

tanggung jawab untuk memantau kondisi terumbu karang di seluruh

perairan Indonesia untuk memberikan informasi mengenai kondisi terumbu

karang dan tren, serta solusi untuk memaksimalkan sistem manajemen.

Selain itu, P2O telah ditunjuk menjadi walidata terumbu karang Indonesia

dan berkontribusi dalam pembuatan kebijakan ‘satu peta’. Terakhir, penting

untuk meningkatkan kesadaran masyarakat sedini mungkin sehingga

kontribusi mereka akan nyata dan besar di masa depan.

Saya ingin mengucapkan terima kasih kepada tim yang telah bekerja keras

untuk membuat buku ini, dan berharap ini bermanfaat bagi para pemangku

kepentingan, masyarakat pesisir, komunitas pemerhati lingkungan serta

ilmu pengetahuan.

Jakarta, Juni 2020

KepalaPusatPenelitianOseanogra

Dr. Augy Syahailatua, M. Sc

Pengantar

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Pendahuluan

Indonesia adalah sebuah negara kepulauan dengan jumlah pulau yang

telah terverikasi yaitu 16.056. Kondisi Indonesia yang terletak di wilayah

tropis membuat perairan hangat sepanjang tahun dan kondisi ini cocok untuk

biota-biota laut untuk berkembang. Selain itu, Indonesia adalah bagian dari

wilayah segitiga karang dunia, dengan keanekaragaman hayati laut tertinggi

di dunia. Dalam hal ini, ada sekitar 569 spesies dan 83 genus karang batu yang

tercatat, atau mewakili sekitar 69% (species) dan 76% (genus) karang batu di

seluruh dunia. Lebih lanjut, ada 4 spesies endemik yang tercatat di Indonesia,

yaitu Acropora suharsonoi (Lombok), Euphyllia baliensis (Bali), Indophyllia

macassarensis (Makassar), dan Isopora togianensis (Togean) (Gambar 1). Untuk

melestarikan habitat dan keanekaragaman hayati, pada pertengahan 2019

pemerintah telah memiliki 22,68 juta hektar kawasan konservasi laut, atau

sekitar 6% dari wilayah laut Indonesia.

Sebagai negara terpadat keempat di dunia dengan sekitar 270 juta jiwa,

wilayah pesisir Indonesia rentan terhadap degradasi karena aktivitas manusia.

Dampaknya dapat terlihat jelas di beberapa kota-kota besar yang terletak dekat

dengan wilayah pesisir, seperti Jakarta, Surabaya, Makassar, dan Batam. Bencana

alam, seperti gempa bumi dan tsunami, juga terkadang terjadi dan berdampak

negatif pada terumbu karang. Masalah utama lainnya adalah peningkatan suhu

laut yang menyebabkan pemutihan karang di banyak lokasi, terutama di bagian

selatan dan barat Indonesia. Meskipun faktor-faktor ini tidak dapat dihindari,

terlihat terumbu menunjukkan adanya kemampuan untuk pulih, tergantung

pada intensitas dan frekuensi stressor, potensi resiliensi, dan kondisi lingkungan.

Program pengelolaan dan rehabilitasi terumbu karang (COREMAP) adalah

program nasional jangka panjang yang bertujuan untuk mengelola terumbu

karang Indonesia dan ekosistem pesisir terkait lainnya agar tetap berkelanjutan

dan memberikan manfaat bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat pesisir. Salah satu

komponen utama dari program ini adalah monitoring kondisi ekosistem pesisir,

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Distribusi terumbu karang

di Indonesia

khususnya terumbu karang, lamun dan mangrove (dua ekosistem terakhir

telah dipantau sejak 2015). Komponen lainnya adalah peningkatkan kesadaran

masyarakat melalui pendidikan, diseminasi dan pelatihan dimana masyarakat

diharapkan untuk dapat berpartisipasi aktif dalam konservasi ekosistem.

Singkatnya, program ini tidak hanya berfokus pada pengelolaan ekosistem,

tetapi juga masyarakat sebagai faktor kunci keberhasilan program.

Terumbu karang di Indonesia tersebar dari Pulau Rondo – Aceh (pulau

terluar di barat laut kepulauan Indonesia) hingga ke utara Jayapura (kota

paling timur di Indonesia). Terumbu karang di pantai barat Sumatra (termasuk

pulau-pulau terluar seperti Pulau Rondo, Pulau Weh, Pulau Banyak, Pulau

Simeulue, Pulau Nias, Pulau Batu, Pulau Siberut, Pulau Pagai, Pulau Sipora, dan

Pulau Enggano) umumnya masuk dalam kondisi buruk hingga sedang dengan

keanekaragaman karang batu yang rendah. Hal ini sangat dipengaruhi oleh

kondisi perairan, khusunya Samudra Hindia yang secara alami mempunyai

biodiversitas yang lebih rendah daripada Samudra Pasic. Lebih lanjut, tidak

semua pulau dikelilingi oleh terumbu karang, tetapi hanya patches – patches

terutama di pulau-pulau terluar. Di sisi lain, terumbu di pantai timur Sumatra

tidak dapat berkembang dengan baik karena banyak sungai mengalir ke

timur, sehingga salinitas rendah dan kekeruhan tinggi. Namun, di lepas pantai,

terumbu patchy umumnya muncul, seperti di Kepulauan Balerang, Senayang

Lingga, Bangka Belitung, dan Kepulauan Karimata. Lebih jauh lagi dari daratan,

terumbu karang berkembang dengan baik terutama di tengah Laut Natuna,

termasuk Kepulauan Anambas, Kepulauan Natuna, dan Kepulauan Tambelan.

Pulau Kalimantan yang didominasi oleh lahan gambut dan banyak sungai

besar memiliki terumbu karang yang tidak berkembang dengan baik. Dekat

dengan daratan, terumbu karang berupa patches seperti di Sangkulirang.

Terumbu karang berkembang dengan baik terutama yang berada jauh di lepas

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 1. a) Acropora suharsonoi, b) Euphyllia baliensis (courtesy of mahagirinusalembongan.blogspot.

com), c) Indophyllia macassarensis, d) Isopora togianensis

pantai Pulau Kalimantan, seperti di Kepulauan Derawan, Kepulauan Matasiri,

dan Kepulauan Karimata.

Terumbu di sepanjang pantai Jawa biasanya berupa patches-patches,

seperti di Teluk Banten, Teluk Jakarta, Jepara, Pasir Putih, Baluran, Nusa

Kambangan, Wediombo dan Teluk Prigi. Terumbu karang tumbuh dengan baik

di lepas pantai utara Pulau Jawa dan umumnya berbentuk gugusan pulau-

pulau, seperti Kepulauan Seribu, Karimun, Bawean, dan Kepulauan Kangean.

Selain itu, karang lebih beranekaragam di utara dibandingkan dengan selatan,

karena dibatasi oleh kondisi lingkungan yang ekstrem khususnya Samudra

Hindia. Terumbu karang berkembang dengan baik dan mencapai puncak

keanekaragaman hayati di daerah segitiga karang, diantaranya yaitu Sulawesi,

Maluku, Halmahera, Papua Barat, Kepulauan Raja Ampat, Kepulauan Aru,

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 2. Terumbu Karang di a) Weh, b) Bintan, c) Pantai Prigi, d) Kepulauan Seribu

Kepulauan Kei, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Nusa Tenggara Barat, dan Bali. Terumbu

karang berkembang secara horizontal dan vertikal hingga kedalaman lebih

dari 30 meter. Kondisi-kondisi yang baik ini disebabkan oleh faktor alami

yang sangat mendukung, salah satunya yaitu suhu air yang hangat dan jernih

yang mengalir terus-menerus dari Pasik barat ke Samudera Hindia melalui

daerah-daerah tersebut (dikenal sebagai Indonesian throughow (ITF)) dan hal

ini membuat karang tumbuh lebih baik daripada daerah yang lain. Namun

demikian, terumbu karang tidak dapat berkembang dengan baik di sepanjang

pantai selatan Papua karena sedimentasi tinggi yang dihasilkan dari muara

sungai. Uniknya, terutama di Merauke, karang masih bisa ditemukan di substrat

batu kapur meski airnya sangat keruh.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 3. Sebaran Terumbu Karang di Indonesia

TOTAL NUMBER OF GENERA: 83

Distribusi karang batu menunjukkan pola umum dimana keanekaragaman

genus karang batu semakin rendah seiring bertambah jauhnya jarak dari pusat

keanekaragaman hayati (Gambar 3). Di daerah segitiga karang, jumlah genus

adalah lebih dari 60 dan kemudian menurun di daerah tepi (pantai barat

Sumatra dan pantai selatan Jawa) hingga kurang dari 50 genus. Uniknya, Lesser

Sunda, daerah paling selatan Indonesia yang membentang dari Bali hingga

NTT, memiliki jumlah genus karang sekitar 60 dan masih termasuk ke dalam

wilayah segitiga karang. Daerah ini adalah pintu keluar ITF dan juga dikenal

sebagai refugia di mana banyak biota terperangkap dan kemudian berkembang,

sehingga biodiversitasnya tetap tinggi. Sebagai contoh, ada 36 species karang

jamur ditemukan di Bali dan 39 spesies karang jamur di Pulau Komodo.

Keberadaan karang-karang jamur tersebut mewakili sekitar 77-83% karang

jamur di dunia.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Taman Nasional Komodo, NTT

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Kategori kondisi terumbu karang

III

IV Status terumbu karang Indonesia

Kondisi terumbu karang ditentukan berdasarkan persentase tutupan

karang hidup. Dalam hal ini dibagi menjadi 4 kategori sesuai dengan Keputusan

Menteri Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan No 4 tahun 2001 tentang kriteria

kerusakan terumbu karang (Tabel 1).

Tabel 1. Kriteria baku kerusakan terumbu karang

No Tutupan Karang Hidup (HC) Kategori

1HC≤25% buruk

225%<HC≤50% Cukup

350%<HC≤75% Baik

4 HC > 75% Sangat Baik

Kondisi Umum

Berdasarkan data 2019 dari 1153 terumbu, terdapat sekitar 390 terumbu

karang (33,82%) masuk kategori buruk, 431 terumbu karang (37,38%) masuk

kategori cukup, 258 terumbu karang (22,38%) masuk kategori baik dan 74

terumbu karang (6,42%) masuk kategori sangat baik (Lampiran 1). Selama

periode 1993 hingga 2019, secara umum, ada sekitar 30,85 ± 0,29% terumbu

yang memiliki persentase tutupan karang lebih dari 50% (terumbu yang baik

dan sangat baik) dan trennya relatif stabil meskipun ada kecenderungan naik

(terumbu kondisi sangat baik) dan turun (terumbu kondisi baik) dalam lima

tahun terakhir (Gambar 4). Di sisi lain, sekitar 69,15 ± 0,29% terumbu memiliki

tutupan karang kurang dari 50% (terumbu kondisi buruk dan cukup) dan trennya

cenderung beruktuasi. Dalam hal ini, terumbu-terumbu tersebut cenderung

tidak stabil, yaitu masih memungkinkan untuk naik tutupan karang hidupnya

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 4. Tren kondisi terumbu karang Indonesia

karena memiliki lebih banyak ruang bagi larva karang untuk melekat dan

tumbuh tetapi sangat rentan terhadap kondisi-kondisi stres (mudah mengalami

penurunan). Namun, terumbu karang yang buruk mungkin berada pada kondisi

“no return point” yaitu ketika berada di bawah stres kronis yang menyebabkan

terumbu karang tersebut hancur. Sebaliknya, dalam beberapa kasus, terumbu

karang yang buruk berada pada kondisi stabil karena kondisi lingkungannya

yang ekstrem.

Tekanan global, terutama kenaikan suhu permukaan laut, memiliki

dampak besar pada terumbu karang Indonesia. Tren kondisi terumbu karang

terlihat menurun antara 2015 dan 2016 dan hal ini disebabkan utamanya

karena pemutihan karang (bleaching). Namun, peristiwa bleaching tersebut

tidak terjadi di semua lokasi karena terumbu karang Indonesia dipengaruhi

oleh kondisi hidrodinamika yang berbeda-beda dari dua samudera (Pasik

dan Hindia). Selain itu, kondisi geomorfologis Kepulauan Indonesia sangat

bervariasi, membuat dampak peningkatan suhu permukaan laut berbeda di

antara terumbu-terumbu.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

2015

31,48

26,18 26,13

29,42

2016 2017 2018 2019

Tutupan karang hidup (%)

n = 325

n = 270

n = 201

n = 286

n = 202

27,96

Gambar 5. Tren tutupan karang hidup di lokasi monitoring

COREMAP-CTI (n: jumlah terumbu dimonitor)

Gambar 6. Perubahan pada komunitas bentik menggunakan transek foto bawah air

(kiri : 2016, kanan: 2017)

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 7. Tren kondisi terumbu karang di Indonesia bagian barat

Data hasil monitoring lokasi COREMAP-CTI juga menunjukkan adanya

penurunantutupankarangyang signikan antara 2015 dan 2016 danterjadi

peningkatan secara bertahap hingga 2019 (Gambar 5). Data dikumpulkan

dengan menggunakan transek foto bawah air (Gambar 6) dari banyak lokasi-

lokasi terumbu di Indonesia (Lampiran 1). Singkatnya, proses pemulihan setelah

bleaching masih berlangsung dan fakta ini memberi harapan kepada pengelola-

pengelola kawasan di tengah tren penurunan tutupan karang secara global.

Indonesia bagian barat

Di Indonesia bagian barat, kondisi terumbu karang mulai membaik,

terlihat dari peningkatan persentase terumbu sangat baik dan cukup (Gambar

7). Kondisi ini, salah satunya, disebabkan perubahan wilayah eksploitasi sumber

daya alam; mulanya kegiatan eksploitasi di wilayah barat sangat intens yaitu

untuk memenuhi permintaan produk perikanan yang tinggi, tetapi kemudian

pindah ke bagian timur yang jauh lebih menjanjikan. Selanjutnya, kesadaran

masyarakat telah meningkat; COREMAP fase II mendorong penegakan

hukum untuk memerangi penangkapan ikan yang merusak, dan mendorong

pengelolaan berbasis masyarakat yang melibatkan masyarakat setempat untuk

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 8. a) Peristiwa bleaching tahun 2016, b) terumbu karang tidak dapat

kembali ke kondisi semula (terumbu yang didominasi algae)

a b

berpartisipasi aktif dalam mengelola ekosistem pesisir dan hal ini dilakukan di

delapan lokasi COREMAP di wilayah barat.

Selain karena faktor manusia, bagian barat rentan terhadap pemutihan

karena kenaikan suhu air laut. Misalnya, di Kawasan Konservasi Laut Pieh,

tutupan karang hidup turun dari 41,4% pada 2015 menjadi 28,38% pada

2016 (Gambar 8a). Demikian juga, Kawasan Konservasi Laut Nias menurun

dari 26,76% pada 2015 menjadi 13,82% pada 2016. Sebaliknya, di Provinsi

Kepulauan Riau, tutupan karang meningkat antara 2015 dan 2016; di Bintan,

tutupan karang meningkat dari 35,61% menjadi 37,97% dan di Batam tutupan

karang meningkat dari 36,28% menjadi 39,44%. Hal ini terkait dengan kondisi

hidrodinamikaKepulauanRiauyangsangatdipengaruhioleharusdariPasik

utara, sedangkan bleaching 2015-2016 umumnya terjadi sangat parah di pantai

barat Sumatra dan pantai selatan Jawa yang berbatasan dengan langsung

Samudra Hindia.

Beberapa penyebab-penyebab lain yang sangat berpengaruh pada kondisi

terumbu karang di wilayah barat adalah pencemaran laut, sedimentasi, dan

salinitas rendah. Sebagai contoh di Teluk Jakarta dimana terumbu karang

mengalami tekanan kronis dengan intensitas tinggi akibat aliran dari 13

sungai yang melewati Jakarta, dan hal ini menyebabkan terumbu karang

berada pada kondisi “no return point” (Gambar 8b). Kondisi kronis juga terjadi

di Pulau Bangka di mana aktivitas penambangan timah lepas pantai secara

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 9. Trend kondisi terumbu karang di Indonesia bagian tengah

besar-besaran menyebabkan terumbu mati karena sedimentasi yang tinggi. Jika

tekanan ini tetap terus terjadi, area yang terkena dampak akan lebih luas dan

jumlah terumbu yang berpotensi terdegradasi akan meningkat.

Indonesia bagian tengah

Secara umum, kondisi terumbu karang membaik hingga tahun 2015

(Gambar9).Setelahitu,terjadipenurunanyangsignikanuntuktrenterumbu

karang kategori cukup dan baik sebagai dampak dari peristiwa bleaching

yang terjadi di banyak lokasi. Daerah yang paling parah adalah Lesser Sunda,

terutama Bali dan Nusa Tenggara Barat, karena daerah ini berbatasan dengan

Samudra Hindia. Misalnya, Di Bali, tutupan karang menurun dari 60,3% (2015)

menjadi 29,6% (2016). Di Lombok Barat, tutupan karang menurun dari 36,09%

(2015) menjadi 18,23% (2016) dan di kawasan konservasi laut Gili Matra

juga menurun dari 23,43% (2015) menjadi 18,48% (2016). Umumnya selama

peristiwa El Nino, yaitu fase hangat dari El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO),

Samudra Hindia semakin naik temperaturnya dan ini mempengaruhi terumbu

karang di bagian barat dan selatan Indonesia. Selain itu, aktivitas manusia,

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

seperti pemanfaatan lahan pesisir, pencemaran, penangkapan ikan dengan

bahan peledak, penambangan dan pariwisata juga menyebabkan penurunan

tutupan karang dalam 5 tahun terakhir.

Indonesia bagian timur

Berbeda dengan bagian barat dan tengah, kondisi terumbu karang di

bagian timur terlihat menurun, khususnya di periode 2000 - 2010 (Gambar 10).

Hal ini terlihat dari meningkatnya tren terumbu kategori buruk pada sekitar

awal tahun 2000, namun kemudian menurun trennya di sekitar akhir 2010. Hal

ini erat terkait dengan berpindahnya kegiatan eksploitasi dari wilayah barat ke

wilayah timur. Beberapa masalah utama di wilayah timur adalah kurangnya

kesadaran masyarakat tentang terumbu karang dan rendahnya penegakan

hukum. Selain itu, kurangnya lapangan kerja juga menyebabkan masyarakat

lokal sangat bergantung pada alam. Lebih lanjut, di wilayah timur terdapat

banyak daerah-daerah terpencil yang kurang pengawasan, menyebabkan

terumbu karang rentan terhadap penangkapan ikan yang merusak dan

eksploitasi yang berlebihan. Meskipun demikian, pemulihan tutupan karang

terjadi dalam lima tahun terakhir. Di Ternate dan sekitarnya, tutupan karang

meningkat dari 29,26% pada 2015 menjadi 32,83% pada 2016. Demikian

pula, di wiayah konservasi laut Padaido, terumbu karang menunjukkan tren

peningkatan tutupan karang antara 2015 dan 2019 (dari 29,92% menjadi

35,25%). Hasil serupa juga terjadi pada wilayah konservasi laut Raja Ampat

(Waigeo) yang meningkat dari 32,24% pada 2015 menjadi 37,84% pada 2019.

Indonesia bagian timur tidak terlalu terpengaruh oleh peristiwa pemutihan

2015-2016 karena dilewati oleh ITF (Indonesian troughow) yang mengalirkan

airyangjernihdan kayanutrisisecaraterusmenerus dariSamudraPasikke

Samudra Hindia. Aliran yang terus menerus ini dapat mengurangi peningkatan

panas dengan meningkatkan dilution, sehingga dampaknya dapat diminimalisir.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 10. Trend kondisi terumbu karang di Indonesia bagian timur

Berbagai ancaman terhadap

terumbu karang di Indonesia

Perubahan iklim dan faktor antropogenik telah menjadi penyebab utama

degradasi terumbu karang. Peningkatan suhu air laut telah menyebabkan

peristiwa bleaching dan terumbu karang memerlukan waktu bertahun-tahun

untuk pulih secara alami. Dampak negatifnya akan berlipat ganda ketika

faktor antropogenik juga ikut terjadi, seperti penangkapan ikan dengan bom,

pencemaran, kegiatan penambangan, dan penggunaan lahan pesisir. Meskipun

terumbu karang mampu beradaptasi dengan lingkungan yang berubah, masalah

yang kompleks dengan intensitas tinggi dapat menyebabkan terumbu karang

berada di ambang kehancuran. Sebagai contoh, ketika terumbu karang terpapar

pada sebuah tekanan kronis yang mendorongnya mendekati ambang batas,

kemudian muncul tekanan kronis atau akut lainnya yang menyerang pada saat

yang sama akan menyebabkan terumbu karang gagal untuk bertahan dan pulih.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Secara umum, faktor antropogenik merupakan masalah utama di

Indonesia bagian tengah dan timur, sedangkan faktor alam menjadi masalah

utama di bagian barat dan selatan Indonesia (Lampiran 2). Lokasi-lokasi dengan

kategori buruk umumnya tersebar di daerah tepi (pantai barat Sumatra, pantai

selatan Jawa dan Lesser Sunda). Lokasi yang dikategorikan buruk ini tidak selalu

didenisikanbahwaterumbukarangmengalamidegradasiyangparah.Dalam

kondisi normal, terumbu-terumbu di daerah tersebut memiliki tutupan karang

kurang dari 25% sebagai akibat dari kondisi lingkungan yang ekstrem, seperti

variabilitas habitat yang rendah dan energi gelombang yang besar. Namun,

terumbu karang dapat pulih ketika mengalami tekanan akut. Sebaliknya,

lokasi-lokasi dengan kategori buruk di Sulawesi Selatan dan Tenggara, Maluku

Utara, dan Papua umumnya diakibatkan oleh faktor antropogenik, terutama

penangkapan ikan dengan bahan peledak. Tidak semua lokasi-lokasi ini

masuk dalam kawasan konservasi laut, oleh karena itu penangkapan ikan

yang merusak masih berlangsung. Selain itu, penangkapan ikan yang merusak

umumnya terjadi jauh dari pemukiman dan banyak terjadi di daerah terpencil.

Lokasi-lokasi dengan kategori cukup, terlihat dominan mulai dari wilayah

barat sampai timur, dan umumnya dekat dengan daratan. Lokasi-lokasi ini

rentan terhadap degradasi karena faktor antropogenik, seperti pembanguan

di wilayah pantai, pencemaran, dan pertambangan. Sedimentasi dan salinitas

rendah juga memperburuk keadaan, terutama di wilayah barat karena

banyaknya aliran sungai. Lebih jauh dari daratan, terumbu-terumbu umumnya

masih dalam kondisi baik dan sangat baik yaitu di daerah lepas pantai, seperti

di Tambelan (Laut Natuna) dan Lucipara (Laut Banda).

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Taman Nasional Karimun Jawa, Jawa Tengah

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Restorasi terumbu karang

Kondisi terumbu karang yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor antropogenik

dan faktor alam perlu dimonitor perkembangannya, apakah kondisinya membaik

atau menurun. Meminimalisir tekanan antropogenik agar terumbu pulih secara

alami adalah cara pasif untuk memperbaiki kondisi terumbu karang. Namun,

untuk mendorong pemulihan ekosistem, intervensi ekologis tentu diperlukan.

Halinidapatberupatransplantasikarang,modikasisubstrat,terumbubuatan,

memfasilitasi karang rekrutmen serta mengurangi populasi predator karang

dan populasi makroalga. Namun, upaya aktif dan pasif ini harus terintegrasi

dengan perspektif masyarakat yang bergantung atau menggunakan jasa

ekosistem tersebut.

Upaya restorasi terumbu karang paling umum adalah transplantasi

karang yang bertujuan untuk memperbaiki kondisi terumbu karang dalam

haltutupankarang hidup,keanekaragaman jenis dan kompleksitas topogra

(Gambar 11). Transplantasi menawarkan cakupan area yang luas dan cepat

dengan menggunakan sumber-sumber lokal (karang) yang telah beradaptasi

dengan lingkungan setempat. Dalam hal ini, karang transplan diambil dari

terumbu karang yang sehat di sekitarnya tanpa menimbulkan dampak negatif

yang signikan. Karang yang tumbuh cepat, yaitu Famili Acroporidae dan

Pocilloporidae, adalah karang yang paling umum untuk transplantasi tetapi

perlu diperkaya dengan karang yang tumbuh lambat, seperti Faviidae, Poritidae

dan Mussidae. Kombinasi campuran tersebut membuat terumbu karang

lebih beranekaragam dan memungkinkan untuk mampu bertahan terhadap

gangguan tanpa kehilangan semua populasi; pada kondisi normal, karang yang

tumbuh cepat akan mendominasi ruang tetapi akan menjadi minoritas ketika

terjadi gangguan. Ukuran fragmen dan metode transplantasi juga menentukan

tingkat pertumbuhan transplan yang pada akhirnya berpengaruh pada tutupan

karang hidup.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Gambar 11. a) Partisipasi masyarakat dalam kompetisi terumbu buatan, b) terumbu

buatan berbentuk kubah; c) tranplantasi Acropora dengan rak besi; d) transplantasi

dengan struktur jaring laba-laba (credit Alicia McArdle); e) biorock; f) restorasi terumbu

dari hasil tranplantasi

a b

c d

e f

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Transplantasi karang efektif dilakukan jika rekrutment rendah. Hal ini

menunjukkan bahwa karang rekruit tidak cukup untuk proses pemulihan alami.

Beberapa penyebabnya adalah kurangnya individu dewasa untuk menghasilkan

karang rekruit mandiri, rekrutmen eksternal yang kurang dari terumbu-terumbu

sekitar, dan substrat yang kurang stabil. Di sisi lain, jika rekrutmen terhambat

karena kondisi lingkungan yang tidak mendukung (salinitas rendah, kekeruhan

tinggi, pengayaan nutrient, dominasi alga), maka transplantasi karang tidak

tepat dilakukan. Selain itu, di daerah dengan energi gelombang yang besar,

transplantasi juga tidak cocok karena banyak karang transplan akan rusak dan

hilang. Apabila kondisi lingkungan mendukung dan rekruitment tinggi, maka

terumbu buatan atau modikasi substrat lebih cocok daripada transplantasi

karang.

Transplantasi karang telah dilakukan di banyak lokasi dengan tujuan yang

berbeda-beda, misalnya restorasi, pariwisata dan perdagangan. Dalam hal ini,

transplantasi karang tidak hanya mengembalikan kondisi terumbu karang,

tetapi juga memiliki manfaat langsung bagi masyarakat setempat yaitu salah

satunya dengan melibatkan mereka sehingga diharapkan transplantasi akan

terus berkelanjutan. Bali dan Sulawesi adalah daerah yang paling aktif karena

mereka memiliki sumber daya alam dan manusia serta perawatan berkala

untuk memastikan bahwa transplantasi karang berjalan dengan baik.

Monitoring sangat penting bagi pengelola untuk memahami apakah

restorasi karang berjalan dan berfungsi dengan baik atau tidak. Terlepas dari

kondisi lingkungan, restorasi terumbu karang tergantung pada keterlibatan

masyarakat setempat, regulasi, keadaan ekonomi dan politik. Hal-hal tersebut

harus terintegrasi dengan baik dan keberlanjutan restorasi terumbu karang

(yang sering terabaikan) harus dipertahankan untuk mencapai tujuan jangka

panjang.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Ternate, Maluku Utara

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Kesimpulan

VII

Secara umum, monitoring jangka panjang menunjukkan bahwa kondisi

terumbu karang di Indonesia relatif stabil, terutama untuk terumbu kondisi

baik dan sangat baik. Sebaliknya, terumbu karang kondisi buruk dan cukup

terlihatberuktuasi; proses pemulihan dapat terjadi ketikakarangmenderita

stres akut tetapi gagal ketika tekanan kronis yang intens muncul. Mengelola

terumbu karang melalui penetapan kawasan konservasi laut adalah pilihan

terbaik yang bisa dilakukan, yaitu tidak hanya mengelola ekosistem tetapi

juga aktivitas masyarakat (meminimalisir dampak faktor antropogenik

disamping mempertahankan produktivitas ekosistem). Meningkatkan

kesadaran masyarakat dan menjadikan mereka sebagai aset berharga harus

menjadi prioritas utama sistem manajemen, mengingat bahwa mereka dapat

berpartisipasi aktif dan berkontribusi dalam menjaga dan mempertahankan

ekosistem. Namun, gangguan faktor alam tidak dapat dihindari dan dampaknya

sangat besar dan luas. Dengan demikian, keterlibatan masyarakat diperlukan

untuk membantu pengelola kawasan untuk meminimalisir dampak dan

mendorong pemulihan ekosistem. Dukungan nasional secara penuh tentu

diperlukan untuk mengorganisasi elemen-elemen pemerintah pusat dan daerah

serta elemen-elemen masyarakat di seluruh Indonesia untuk bekerja bersama

mengikuti sistem manajemen terpadu yang tidak hanya mempertimbangkan

keberlanjutan ekosistem tetapi juga manfaat bagi masyarakat.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Lombok, NTB

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

VIII Ucapan terima kasih

Pertama dan terutama kami ingin mengucapkan terima kasih kepada Allah

SWT atas rahmatNya serta ilmu pengetahuan, kemampuan dan kesempatan

kepada kami sehingga dapat menulis buku ini. Kami berterima kasih kepada

COREMAP - CTI dan Bank Dunia yang telah sepenuhnya mendukung proyek ini.

Kami juga berterima kasih kepada tim monitoring (sekretariat, peneliti, teknisi,

staf administrasi), Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan (KKP), Kementerian

Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan (KLHK), Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan

Nasional (Bappenas), Badan Informasi Geospasial (BIG), Lembaga Pemerintah

Provinsi, Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji (UMRAH), Universitas Bung Hatta

(UBH), Universitas Diponegoro (UNDIP), Universitas Hasanuddin (UNHAS),

Universitas Mataram (UNRAM), Universitas Sam Ratulangi (UNSRAT), Universitas

Halu Oleo (UHO), Universitas Syiah Kuala (UNSYIAH), Asosiasi Karang, Kerang

dan Ikan Hias Indonesia (AKKII), Terangi, Minang Bahari, Penyelam Rock n Roll

(Buton), Scuba Weh (Sabang), LINI, Karang Nusantara dan Mars Inc.

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Buleleng, Bali

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Abrar, M. , Siringoringo, R. M., Hadi, T. A., Putra, R. D., Cappenbergh, H. A. W., Sutiyadi,

R., Faricha, A., & Suharsono. (2019). Monitoring kondisi terumbu karang

dan ekosistem terkait di TWP Pulau Pieh dan laut di sekitarnya, Provinsi

Sumatera Barat. COREMAP-CTI, Jakarta: 66 pp.

Adam, T. C., Burkepile, D. E., Ruttenberg, B. I., & Paddack, M. J. (2015). Herbivory

and the resilience of Caribbean coral reefs: knowledge gaps and

implications for management. Marine Ecology Progress Series520: 1-20.

Bachtiar, I. & Jufri, A. W. (2019). Monitoring kesehatan terumbu karang dan ekosistem

terkait lainnya di Teluk Sekotong Kabupaten Lombok Barat tahun 2019.

UNRAM, Mataram: 71 pp.

Cai, W., Sullivan, S., & Cowan, T., (2010). Interaction of ENSO, The IOD, and SAM

in CMIP3. Journal of Climate, 24, 1688-1704.

Ceccarelli,D.M.,Lofer,Z.,Bourne,D.G.,AlMoajil‐Cole, G. S., Boström‐Einarsson,

L., Evans‐Illidge, E., Fabricius, K., Glasl, B., Marshall, P., McLeod, I, Read,

M., Schaffelke, B., Smith, A. K., Jorda, G. T., Williamson, D. H. , & Bay, L.

(2018). Rehabilitation of coral reefs through removal of macroalgae:

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Chou, L. M. (2000). Southeast Asian Reefs-Status update: Cambodia, Indonesia,

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Dharmawan, I. W. E., Utama, R. S., Giyanto, Purwandana, L. A., Makatipu, P. C.,

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Direktorat Jenderal Pengelolaan Ruang Laut, Kementerian Kelautan Perikanan

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ekosistem terkait di Taman Wisata Perairan (TWP) Selat Bunga Laut

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PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

No. Lokasi Jumlah

Stasiun Sangat

baik Baik Cukup Buruk

WILAYAH BARAT

1 Weh, Sabang (Aceh)* 12 0 0 8 4

2 Simeulue Island (Aceh) 5 0 0 3 2

3 Sibolga dan Tapanuli Tengah (Sumatra Utara) 13 0 0 7 6

4 Nias Utara (Sumatra Utara)* 10 0 0 0 10

5 Kepulauan Hinako, Nias Barat (Sumatra Utara) 4 0 0 2 2

6 Teluk Dalam Nias Selatan (Sumatra Utara) 3 0 0 0 3

7 P.P. Batu, Nias Selatan (Sumatra Utara) 9 0 0 0 9

8 Mentawai Islands (Sumatra Barat)* 9 0 0 3 6

9 KKPN Pieh (Sumatra Barat)* 13 1 3 4 5

10 Pieh (Sumatra Barat)* 4 0 0 0 4

11 Enggano (Bengkulu) 12 0 1 3 8

12 Pulau Tikus (Bengkulu) 3 0 0 3 0

13 Kaur (Bengkulu) 7 0 1 3 3

14 Pulau Pisang (Lampung Barat) 14 5 5 4 0

15 Teluk Ratai (Lampung) 4 1 2 0 1

16 Bakauheni (Lampung)* 10 0 2 3 5

17 Lampung Bay (Lampung) 18 5 8 3 2

18 Krakatau (Lampung) 8 0 1 5 2

19 Tambelan Island (Kepulauan Riau) 12 8 3 1 0

20 KKPN Anambas (Kepulauan Riau)* 12 0 1 11 0

21 Natuna Islands (Kepulauan Riau)* 19 0 0 9 10

22 Bintan (Kepulauan Riau)* 14 0 3 10 1

23 Senayang-Lingga (Kepulauan Riau)* 11 0 0 10 1

24 Batam (Kepulauan Riau)* 19 0 3 13 3

25 Bangka (Bangka Belitung) 10 1 3 3 3

26 Belitung (Bangka Belitung)* 11 0 2 7 2

27 Belitung Timur (Bangka Belitung) 10 0 7 3 0

28 Merak (Banten) 5 0 0 1 4

29 Ujung Kulon Selat Sunda (Banten) 16 0 1 6 9

30 Teluk Banten (Banten) 4 0 4 0 0

Lampiran 1.

Kondisi terumbu karang Indonesia tahun 2019

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

31 Kepulauan Seribu (Jakarta) 52 0 16 12 24

32 Indramayu (Jawa Barat) 10 6 1 2 1

33 Nusakambangan Islands (Jawa Tengah) 3 0 0 1 2

34 Jepara (Jawa Tengah) 7 0 1 3 3

35 Karimun Jawa (Jawa Tengah) 38 10 15 12 1

36 Pantai Wediombo Gn Kidul (Jogjakarta) 3 0 0 2 1

37 Trenggalek (Perigi Bay) (Jawa Timur) 5 0 0 0 5

38 Madura Island (Jawa Timur) 12 2 8 2 0

39 Kangean Islands (Jawa Timur) 7 0 4 3 0

40 Bawean Islands (Jawa Timur) 8 0 2 6 0

41 TN. Baluran, Situbondo ( Jawa Timur) 5 1 0 2 2

42 Pasir Putih Situbondo (Jawa Timur) 4 0 2 2 0

43 Karimata Islands (Kalimantan Barat) 4 0 1 3 0

WILAYAH TENGAH

44 Kepulauan Matasiri (Kalimantan Selatan) 5 0 0 1 4

45 Sangkulirang (Kalimantan Timur) 3 0 1 1 1

46 Kutai Timur (Kalimantan Timur) 9 2 3 4 0

47 Kota Bontang (Kalimantan Timur) 11 0 0 5 6

48 Kab. Kutai Kartanegara (Kalimantan Timur) 1 0 0 0 1

49 Kab. Penajam Paser Utara (Kalimantan Timur) 3 0 0 1 2

50 Derawan Islands (Kalimantan Timur)* 11 0 0 5 6

51 Gilimanuk Bay (Bali) 6 0 1 1 4

52 Bali Island (Bali) 19 1 4 2 12

53 KKPN Gili Matra (NTB)* 8 0 1 2 5

54 Lombok Island (NTB) 36 2 7 9 18

55 Sekotong, Lombok (NTB)* 12 0 0 2 10

56 Pulau Keramat, Sumbawa (NTB) 12 5 4 3 0

57 Sumbawa Islands (NTB) 9 0 1 4 4

58 Komodo Islands (NTT)* 12 0 1 8 3

59 Sumba (NTT)* 10 0 0 2 8

60 Kab. Sikka, Maumere (NTT)* 14 0 0 3 11

61 Flores Timur (NTT) 10 0 7 2 1

62 Lamalera, Lembata (NTT) 8 0 5 2 1

63 Perairan Lamalera (NTT) 8 0 5 2 1

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

64 Tablolong dan Semau, Kupang KKPN Laut Sawu (NTT)* 6 0 0 2 4

65 Rote Ndao, KKPN Laut Sawu (NTT)* 6 0 2 0 4

66 Kota Makassar (Sulawesi Selatan)* 13 0 1 6 6

67 Pangkep (Sulawesi Selatan)* 15 1 3 6 5

68 Selayar Islands (Sulawesi Selatan)* 15 0 0 9 6

69 KKPN Kapoposang (Sulawesi Selatan)* 13 0 6 7 0

70 Taka Bonerate Islands (Sulawesi Selatan)* 12 0 0 5 7

71 Kendari (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 9 0 3 3 3

72 Buton Islands (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 5 0 1 3 1

73 Buton Tengah (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 5 0 0 2 3

74 Buton Selatan (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 5 0 1 3 1

75 Wakatobi (Sulawesi Tenggara)* 15 0 0 9 6

76 Kabupaten Konawe (Sulawesi Tenggara) 3 0 0 3 0

77 Labengke Island (Sulawesi Tenggara) 10 1 5 4 0

78 Tiga Islands (Sulawesi Tengah) 6 0 0 6 0

79 Togian Island (Sulawesi Tengah) 8 0 4 4 0

80 Banggai (Sulawesi Tengah) 9 1 3 3 2

81 Luwuk (Sulawesi Tengah) 10 2 5 3 0

82 Palu (Sulawesi Tengah) 8 0 6 2 0

83 Kwandang Bay (Gorontalo) 4 0 2 2 0

84 Dulupi Island (Gorontalo) 4 0 0 3 1

85 Pantai Manado (Sulawesi Utara) 3 0 0 3 0

86 Minahasa (Sulawesi Utara) 3 0 2 0 1

87 Bunaken & Siladen (Sulawesi Utara) 10 4 3 2 1

88 Selat Lembeh, Bitung (Sulawesi Utara) 13 2 6 2 3

89 Kumeke Islands (Sulawesi Utara) 9 1 2 2 4

90 Kepulauan Tagulandang (Sulawesi Utara) 3 1 1 1 0

WILAYAH TIMUR

91 Ternate (Maluku Utara)* 5 0 0 1 4

92 Tidore (Maluku Utara)* 6 0 1 4 1

93 Halmahera Barat (Maluku Utara)* 3 0 1 1 1

94 Tobelo Halmahera Utara (Maluku Utara) 14 0 4 2 8

95 Jiew Island (Maluku Utara) 3 0 0 3 0

96 Ambon Bay (Maluku) 10 1 5 2 2

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

97 Bagian Barat Seram (Maluku) 4 0 3 1 0

98 Bagian Timur Seram (Maluku) 16 0 3 8 5

99 Kepulauan Kei (Maluku) 17 2 3 7 5

100 Tual (Maluku)* 10 0 2 4 4

101 Kepulauan Leti (Maluku) 7 0 3 3 1

102 KKPN Aru Tenggara (Maluku)* 12 0 2 6 4

103 KKPN Laut Banda (Maluku)* 12 0 4 3 5

104 Lucipara Islands (Maluku) 8 5 3 0 0

105 Pulau Wetar (Maluku) 8 0 1 5 2

106 Morotai (Maluku) 14 0 0 1 13

107 Maluku Tengah (Maluku) 4 0 1 3 0

108 Misool Raja Ampat (Papua Barat) 7 0 1 5 1

109 KKPN Kab. Raja Ampat (Papua Barat)* 9 0 2 4 3

110 Cendrawasih Bay (Papua Barat) 12 1 7 4 0

111 KKPN Waigeo Barat (Papua Barat)* 8 0 0 4 4

112 Selatan Waigeo Kab Raja Ampat (Papua Barat) 7 0 1 4 2

113 Batang Pele, Kab Raja Ampat (Papua Barat) 5 0 2 3 0

114 Salawati & Batanta, Kab Raja Ampat (Papua Barat)* 12 0 0 7 5

115 Bras Fanildo Island (Papua Barat) 3 0 3 0 0

116 Fani Island (Papua Barat) 4 0 4 0 0

117 Ayau Islands (Papua Barat) 6 0 0 5 1

118 Biak (Papua)* 13 0 0 3 10

119 Liki Island (Papua) 6 0 2 3 1

120 Bepondi Island (Papua) 3 0 0 1 2

121 Miosnum Island (Papua) 4 1 1 1 1

122 KKPN Padaido (Papua)* 13 1 3 4 5

Total 1153 74 258 431 390

Persentase (%) 6,42% 22,38% 37,38% 33,82%

*Lokasi monitoring COREMAP-CTI

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Lampiran 2.

Kondisi terumbu karang di Indonesia dan ancaman-ancamannya

(kategori terumbu: merah = Buruk; kuning = cukup; hijau = baik; biru = sangat baik)

Kondisi terumbu karang di Indonesia

!(!(

!(!(!(

!(!(

!(!(!(

!(!(!(!(

!(!(!(!(!(

!(!(

1,200

Kilometer

Pusat Pene litian Osean ografi

Kondisi Terumbu Karang

di Indonesia 2019

1 : 20.000.000

Kondisi Umum

Sangat baik

Baik

Cukup

Buruk

Sources: Esri, HERE, Garmin,

USGS, Intermap,

INCREMENT P, NRCan, Esri

Japan, METI, Esri China

(Hong Kong), Esri Korea, Esri

Arafura Sea

East Sea

Banda Sea

Sulawesi Se a

Java Sea

Natuna Sea

Habitat bentik

Terumbu Karang

150°0’0’’BT

150°0’0’’BT 120°0’0’’BT 135°0’0’’BT

120°0’0’’BT 135°0’0’’BT

10°0’0’’LS 5°0’0’’LS 0°0’0’’ 5°0’0’’LU

10°0’0’’LS 5°0’0’’LS 0°0’0’' 5°0’0’’LU

Sistem Grid

Datum Horizontal

Grid Geografi

WGS 1984

1. Peta RBI

2. Citra Satelit

3. Survei Lapang (Terumbu Karang)

Sumber Peta

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Wilayah berpotensi bleaching (berdasarkan peristiwa bleaching tahun 1983, 1997, 2010 and 2015)

Gelombang berenergi tinggi

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Salinitas rendah

Sedimentasi

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Daerah berkembang dan wisata

Penangkapan ikan dengan bahan peledak (berdasarkan hasil observasi dan

wawancaran penduduk setempat)

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Pencemaran

Kegiatan penambangan

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Ancaman-ancaman terhadap terumbu karang di Indonesia

1. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang

berenergi tinggi, area berkembang dan wisata

2. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, kegiatan penambangan, sedimentasi,

area berkembang dan wisata

3. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang

berenergi tinggi

4. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, area berpotensi bleaching, area

berkembang dan wisata

5. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, kegiatan penambangan, area

berkembang dan wisata

6. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, kegiatan penambangan, sedimentasi

7. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, pencemaran, area berkembang dan

wisata

8. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, sedimentasi, area berkembang dan

wisata

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

9. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, area berpotensi bleaching

10. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, kegiatan penambangan

11. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak, area berkembang dan wisata

12. Area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang berenergi tinggi, pencemaran,

sedimentasi, area berkembang dan wisata

13. Area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang berenergi tinggi, sedimentasi, area

berkembang dan wisata

14. Area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang berenergi tinggi, kegiatan

penambangan, area berkembang dan wisata

15. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah, pencemaran, area berkembang

dan wisata

16. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah, pencemaran, sedimentasi

17. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah, sedimentasi, area berkembang

dan wisata

18. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah, kegiatan penambangan, area

berkembang dan wisata

19. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah, kegiatan penambangan,

sedimentasi

20. Area berpotensi bleaching, kegiatan penambangan, sedimentasi, area

berkembang dan wisata

21. Area berpotensi bleaching, pencemaran, sedimentasi, area berkembang dan

wisata

22. Area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang berenergi tinggi, sedimentasi

23. Area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang berenergi tinggi, area berkembang

dan wisata

24. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah, sedimentasi

25. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah, area berkembang dan wisata

26. Area berpotensi bleaching, sedimentasi, area berkembang dan wisata

27. Area berpotensi bleaching, gelombang berenergi tinggi

28. Area berpotensi bleaching, salinitas rendah

29. Area berpotensi bleaching, sedimentasi

30. Area berpotensi bleaching, area berkembang dan wisata

31. Salinitas rendah, pencemaran, area berkembang dan wisata

32. Salinitas rendah, sedimentasi, area berkembang dan wisata

33. Salinitas rendah, sedimentasi

34. Salinitas rendah, area berkembang dan wisata

35. Kegiatan penambangan, sedimentasi, area berkembang dan wisata

36. Kegiatan penambangan, sedimentasi

37. Pencemaran, area berkembang dan wisata

38. Sedimentasi, area berkembang dan wisata

39. Area berpotensi bleaching

40. Salinitas rendah

41. Kegiatan penambangan

42. Area berkembang dan wisata

43. Sedimentasi

44. Penangkapan dengan bahan peledak

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT Tubastrea micrantha, Pulau Weh - Sabang

PADAR ISLAND, KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, NTT

Belitung, Bangka Belitung

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Full-text available

Dec 2023

Coral reefs are under pressure from climate change and various factors, putting them at risk of a decline in resilience. This heightened vulnerability increases the likelihood of reaching a tipping point with the next shock or stressor. Identifying early warning indicators for tipping points is crucial for proactive coral reef management. Therefore, this study aims to comprehend the coral reef health parameters considered important and feasible for collection by local stakeholders, as well as identify factors facilitating the implementation of a community-based monitoring and early warning system in a fishers-dominated community. The approach used was Participatory Action Research. The results reveal twelve priority parameters deemed necessary by the local community and feasible for collection by local stakeholders, including the local community, university, and non-governmental organization. The identified parameters are: coral bleaching, visibility, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, current, coral percent cover, fish community, macroalgal canopy cover and composition, benthic composition, and plankton. Interpretive structural model and MICMAC analysis show nine enabling factors supporting the development of a community-led coral reef health monitoring and early warning system. These factors include team motivation, training and team capacity, connection with government, connection with university, facilitation by NGOs, supporting regulations, operational funds, access to equipment, and operation and maintenance of equipment. Team motivation stands out as the most influential factor, with strong driving power and dependence, making it crucial to manage as actions on it will have ripple effects on other factors.

Pengaruh Sedimentasi terhadap Tutupan Teumbu Karang di Perairan Arfai, Manokwari Indonesia

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Full-text available

Jun 2024

Sedimentation adversely affects corals by impeding recruitment, hindering growth, and inducing stress, ultimately leading to degradation. This study aims to ascertain the correlation between sedimentation and coral cover. Five stations were sampled in Arfai waters in May 2023, with sedimentation rates measured using traps over 14 days. Coral reef conditions were assessed via the Point Intercept Transect (PIT) method, revealing a 'good' coral cover of 51%, dominated by Acropora submassive (ACS), Acropora branching (ACB), and Coral branching (CB). Sedimentation rates ranged from 6.26 to 33.92 mg/cm²/day, with impacts categorized from mild to moderate and moderate to heavy. Analysis confirms sedimentation's influence on coral reef life. Despite its significance for management strategies, long-term studies tracking coral reef structure and function in response to sediment influx are lacking. Further research on coral reef recovery post-sediment exposure is imperative.

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Full-text available

Apr 2023

Terumbu karang merupakan salah satu ekosistem pada daerah tropis dan subtropis. Ekosistem ini terbentuk dari kegiatan biologis hewan karang yang hidup di dasar perairan laut dangkal. Komponen utama yang menyusun ekosistem ini adalah karang keras, sehingga tutupan karang keras dapat dijadikan sebagai indikator untuk menilai kesehatan terumbu karang. Selain itu, kondisi tutupan substrat dasar atau komponen bentik juga menjadi salah satu aspek penilaian kondisi kesehatan terumbu karang. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan kondisi kesehatan ekosistem terumbu karang di Taman Wisata Perairan Kepulauan Anambas. Penelitian dilakukan pada tahun 2021 pada 21 stasiun pengamatan di lokasi penelitian yang terdiri dari zona inti, pemanfaatan, perikanan berkelanjutan dan luar kawasan. Persentase tutupan karang dihitung menggunakan metode Underwater Photo Transect (UPT) dan analisis dilakukan dengan aplikasi CPCe. Hasil pengamatan menunjukkan adanya penempelan larva karang (Coral Recruitment) pada lokasi penelitian. Kategori tutupan bentik didominasi oleh Dead Coral with Algae (DCA) dengan persentase rata-rata yaitu 42,83%. Kondisi kesehatan terumbu karang menunjukkan terdapat empat stasiun dengan kategori baik (ANBC007, ANBC045, ANBC072 dan ANBC110), empat stasiun masuk dalam kategori buruk (ANBC003, ANBC010, ANBC069 dan ANBC122), sedangkan 13 stasiun lainnya masuk dalam kategori sedang. Kondisi kesehatan terumbu karang di Taman Wisata Perairan Kepulauan Anambas termasuk dalam kategori cukup/sedang, dengan persentase rata-rata tutupan karang keras hidup sebesar 37,83%.

Spatial variability of aragonite saturation state (Ωarag) in Indonesian coastal waters

Article

Mar 2024
MAR ENVIRON RES

The effects of Ocean acidification (OA) on the coastal waters of small islands in Indonesia have yet to be extensively studied. This research aims to investigate the process of OA in the coastal waters of small Indonesian islands and examine how land-sea interactions impact carbonate mineral saturation. We collected seawater samples from seven locations on small islands in Indonesia between 2015 and 2021 to analyze the aragonite saturation state. The result shows that most of Indonesia's coastal waters are accompanied by supersaturation of aragonite saturation state (Ωarag>1). Selayar Island's waters had the highest aragonite saturation, averaging 4.96 ± 0.48, while Pari Island's coastal waters had the lowest, averaging 2.49 ± 0.50. Salinity had the greatest effect on Ωarag in all of the sampling sites, ranging from 24.13% to 52.92%, except Aceh Island, where temperature had a greater impact (34.35%) than salinity (26.99%). By the end of this century, Ωarag is predicted to decline based on projections related to climate change. Small island coastal waters are expected to experience a more substantial decline compared to those near the mainland, ranging from 4.71% to 79.58%. The coastal waters of Weh and Selayar Island are probably going to decline the greatest, while the coastal waters of Sorong (mainland) are probably going to decline the least. All seven sampling locations are expected to observe the decrease. This decline will be observed at all seven sampling locations, with Ωarag values ranging from 1.91 and 3.35.

First assesment of coral Mussidae in Kelagian Island waters, Lampung

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Dec 2023

Coral reefs are marine ecosystems located in the tropics in shallow waters. Coral from the Mussidae family becomes one of the corals that are widely exploited as ornamental corals. Kelagian Island waters have a high coral cover, so the identification of the Mussidae group is needed as an assessment of this type of coral. This study aimed to analyze Mussidae coral cover in the waters of Kelagian Island. The data collection took place in December 2018 at two locations. Physical-chemical parameters of waters taken using porTABLE tools include salinity, temperature, pH, Dissolved oxygen, brightness and water current, while nitrates and phosphates were analyzed in the laboratory. Coral cover data was taken using UPT (Underwater Photo Transect) on a fifty-meter square transect. Photos were taken every one meter and then analyzed with CPCe software. Mussidae corals identified were species L. corymbose and A. faviaformis. Total coral cover in the waters of Kelagian Island were in moderate condition except at S1-7m was poor conditions. The results of measurements of aquatic parameters revealed that the environmental conditions of this area were still in good condition. All parameters were measured under normal circumstances to support the life of the coral reef ecosystem biota. However, this may indicate that the hard corals in this region are generally threatened.

Ekosistem Terumbu Karang di Pantai Tawang, Kabupaten Pacitan

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Ekosistem terumbu karang merupakan ekosistem yang rentan terdegredasi. Pemanfaatan wilayah sekitaran Pantai Tawang untuk kegiatan wisata, pelelangan ikan dan pembangunan tambak intensif berpotensi menurunkan tutupan karang hidup dan mengganggu fungsi ekologis terumbu karang. Hal ini tentu meningkatkan kerentanan ekosistem karang, selain akibat kenaikan suhu perairan dan faktor hidrooseanografi lainnya. Tutupan karang di pantai Tawang yang terus mengalami penurunan menjadinan alasan perlu upaya pengkajian yang presisi terhadap indeks ekologisnya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji kondisi ekosistem terumbu karang di Pantai Tawang berdasarkan indeks keanekaragaman, keseragaman dan dominansi. Pengambilan data lifeform, tutupan dan jenis karang dilakukan dengan metode LIT (Intercept Transect). Tutupan rata-rata substrat karang hidup pada tiga lokasi sampling sebesar 33,7% yang berarti bahwa sustrat pada kondisi penilaian yang sedang. Padahal, nilai tutupan karang tahun 2020 sebesar 41,2%. Nilai indeks keanekaragaman karang (H’) pada titik I, II dan III berada pada kelas kisaran 1-<3,0 yang berarti ekosistem memiliki keragaman jenis yang rendah. Indeks keseragaman (E) ketiga titik mendekati 1, yang berarti bahwa jenis karang di ekosistem tersebut cenderung seragam. Sedangkan indeks dominansi (D) di semua titik berada pada kisaran <0,5 dan cenderung mnedekati 1. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa tidak terdapat spesies yang mendominasi pada komunitas karang di Pantai Tawang.Pelestarian sumberdaya karang penting dilakukan untuk menjaga plasma nutfah yang ada di dalam ekosistem tersebut. Coral reef ecosystems are ecosystems that are potentially degraded. Coastal land use around of Tawang Beach for tourism activities, fish auctions and the intensive aquaculture has the potential to reduce live coral cover and disrupt the ecological functions of coral reefs. Certainly, it was increasing the vulnerability of coral ecosystems, apart from the effects of warming water temperatures and other hydro-oceanographic factors. The coral cover on the Tawang coast continues to decline every year, and it is the reason why precise assessment ecological index needed. This study aims to evaluate coral reef ecosystem in Tawang Beach based on diversity index, uniformity index and dominance index. Collecting data of coral lifeform, cover and species was using the LIT (Intercept Transect) method. The average live coral substrate cover at the three sampling locations was 33.7%, which means that the substrate was in moderate assessment conditions. In fact, the value of coral cover in 2020 was 41.2%. Diversity index (H') values at stations I, II and III are in the 1-<3.0 range, which means that the ecosystem has low species diversity. Evenness index (E) of all stations is close to 1, which means that the types of coral in these ecosystems tend to be uniform. Dominance index (D) at all stations is in <0.5 range and tends to be close to 1. This shows that there are no species that dominate the coral community in Tawang Beach. Conservation of coral resources is important to preserve biodiversity in the ecosystem.

Indonesian marine and its medicinal contribution

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

The archipelagic country of Indonesia is populated by the densest marine biodiversity in the world which has created strong global interest and is valued by both Indigenous and European settlements for different purposes. Nearly 1000 chemicals have been extracted and identified. In this review, a systematic data curation was employed to collate bioprospecting related manuscripts providing a comprehensive directory based on publications from 1988 to 2022. Findings with significant pharmacological activities are further discussed through a scoping data collection. This review discusses macroorganisms (Sponges, Ascidian, Gorgonians, Algae, Mangrove) and microorganism (Bacteria and Fungi) and highlights significant discoveries, including a potent microtubule stabilizer laulimalide from Hyattella sp., a prospective doxorubicin complement papuamine alkaloid from Neopetrosia cf exigua, potent antiplasmodial manzamine A from Acanthostrongylophora ingens, the highly potent anti trypanosomal manadoperoxide B from Plakortis cfr. Simplex, mRNA translation disrupter hippuristanol from Briareum sp, and the anti-HIV-1 (+)-8-hydroxymanzamine A isolated from Acanthostrongylophora sp. Further, some potent antibacterial extracts were also found from a limited biomass of bacteria cultures. Although there are currently no examples of commercial drugs from the Indonesian marine environment, this review shows the molecular diversity present and with the known understudied biodiversity, reveals great promise for future studies and outcomes. Graphical Abstract Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13659-023-00403-1.

Spatio- temporal juvenile corals (Scleractinia) following the 2016 coral bleaching event at the Pieh Islands Marine Tourism Park (PIMTP), West Sumatra Province, Indonesia

Article

Apr 2024

Shifts in dominance of benthic communities along a gradient of water temperature and turbidity in tropical coastal ecosystems

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

Tropical coastal benthic communities will change in species composition and relative dominance due to global (e.g., increasing water temperature) and local (e.g., increasing terrestrial influence due to land-based activity) stressors. This study aimed to gain insight into possible trajectories of coastal benthic assemblages in Raja Ampat, Indonesia, by studying coral reefs at varying distances from human activities and marine lakes with high turbidity in three temperature categories (<31 • C, 31-32 • C, and >32 • C). The benthic community diversity and relative coverage of major benthic groups were quantified via replicate photo transects. The composition of benthic assemblages varied significantly among the reef and marine lake habitats. The marine lakes <31 • C contained hard coral, crustose coralline algae (CCA), and turf algae with coverages similar to those found in the coral reefs (17.4-18.8% hard coral, 3.5-26.3% CCA, and 15-15.5% turf algae, respectively), while the higher temperature marine lakes (31-32 • C and >32 • C) did not harbor hard coral or CCA. Benthic composition in the reefs was significantly influenced by geographic distance among sites but not by human activity or depth. Benthic composition in the marine lakes appeared to be structured by temperature, salinity, and degree of connection to the adjacent sea. Our results suggest that beyond a certain temperature (>31 • C), benthic communities shift away from coral dominance, but new outcomes of assemblages can be highly distinct, with a possible varied dominance of macroalgae, benthic cyanobacterial mats, or filter feeders such as bivalves and tubeworms. This study illustrates the possible use of marine lake model systems to gain insight into shifts in the benthic community structure of tropical coastal ecosystems if hard corals are no longer dominant.

Changes in Benthic Habitat Under Climate Pressure in Western Papua, Indonesia: Remote Sensing-Based Approach

Article

Feb 2024
PHOTONIRVACHAK-J IND

This study looks at how the benthic habitat on Ayau Island; one of Indonesia's most significant coral reef habitats has changed from 2015 to 2019 and the linkage with local sea temperature trends. This study used Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration satellite remote sensing data and field data. The Landsat 8 satellite image processing includes atmospheric correction, sunglint correction, water column correction, image classification, and accuracy assessment. These steps were employed to understand change detection. The result revealed that the coral reef and seagrass decreased by 9.9 and 74.9% during the study period. However, the transition change was dynamic, with an annual rate of − 82.5 ha/year for coral reefs and − 108.95 ha/year for seagrass. The highest decrease in both benthic habitats occurred during the El-Nino Event, where the Sea Surface Temperature anomaly reached 1.5 °C. The massive habitat loss is alarming; thus, climate change mitigation and adaptation in the local context must be addressed.

Rehabilitation of coral reefs through removal of macroalgae: State of knowledge and considerations for management and implementation

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2018

Coral reef ecosystems are under increasing pressure by multiple stressors that degrade reef condition and function. Although improved management systems have yielded benefits in many regions, broad‐scale declines continue and additional practical and effective solutions for reef conservation and management are urgently needed. Ecological interventions to assist or enhance ecosystem recovery are standard practice in many terrestrial management regimes, and they are now increasingly being implemented in the marine environment. Intervention activities in coral reef systems include the control of coral predators (e.g. crown‐of‐thorns starfish), substrate modification, the creation of artificial habitats and the cultivation, transplantation and assisted recruitment of corals. On many coastal reefs, corals face competition and overgrowth by fleshy macroalgae whose abundance may be elevated due to acute disturbance events, chronic nutrient enrichment and reduced herbivory. Active macroalgae removal has been proposed and trialled as a management tool to reduce competition between algae and corals and provide space for coral recruitment, in the hope of restoring the spatial dominance of habitat‐forming corals. However, macroalgae removal has received little formal attention as a method of reef restoration. This review synthesises available knowledge of the ecological role of macroalgae on coral reefs and the potential benefits and risks associated with their active removal. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Inventarisasi Bio-Ekologi Terumbu Karang Di Pulau Panjang, Kabupaten Jepara, Jawa Tengah

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2017

The inventarization of coral bioecology is highly needed to identify the real condition of the observed coral, as a database in ecosystem management, as well as an attempt to rehabilitate critical coastal area. Coral condition valuation is conducted by counting the percentage of live coral coverage, by using the Line Intercept Transect method. This research shows that coral condition in Panjang Island falls into moderate category (with 29-49% of live coral coverage), which represent up to 57% from total observed area. Coral that falls under "bad" category (live coral coverage below 20%) is 29%, and only 7% of the observed area can be categorised as good (more than 50% coverage) and "very bad" (less than 5% of coverage). This condition is primarily caused by the decline of water ecology quality caused by sedimentation, west season wave activity, along with human activities like tourism, swimming, fishing, or shellfish gathering. These contributes many instances of coral-breaking caused by gleening. Inventarisasi bio-ekogi terumbu karang sangatlah diperlukan guna mengetahui kondisi nyata terumbu karang yang dilakukan pemantauan, sebagai basis data dalam pengelolaan ekosistem serta upaya rehabilitasi kawasan kritis pesisi. Penilaian kondisi terumbu karang dilakukan dengan perhitungan persentase penutupan karang hidup menggunakan metode LIT (Line Intercept Transect). Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa Kondisi terumbu karang di Pulau Panjang termasuk dalam kategori sedang (dengan persen tutupan karang hidup 29 – 49 %) mencapai 57 % dari keseluruhan area pengamatan. Selanjutnya kondisi terumbu karang dengan kategori buruk (persen tutupan karang hidup 20 %) mencapai 29 % dan hanya 7 % dalam kategori baik (50%) dan buruk sekali (persen tutupan karang hidup 5 %). Kondisi tutupan terumbu karang yang relative buruk diduga diakibatkan oleh menurunnya kualitas ekologi perairan yang diakibatkan oleh sedimentasi, aktivitas gelombang musim barat,serta aktivitas manusia seperti wisata, berenang, memancing ataupun pencari kerang turut serta memicu banyaknya pecahan karang akibat terinjak – injak (gleening).

The Indonesian throughflow, its variability and centennial change

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2018

The Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) is an important component of the upper cell of the global overturning circulation that provides a low-latitude pathway for warm, fresh waters from the Pacific to enter the Indian Ocean. Variability and changes of the ITF have significant impacts on Indo-Pacific oceanography and global climate. In this paper, the observed features of the ITF and its interannual to decadal variability are reviewed, and processes that influence the centennial change of the ITF under the influence of the global warming are discussed. The ITF flows across a region that comprises the intersection of two ocean waveguides—those of the equatorial Pacific and equatorial Indian Ocean. The ITF geostrophic transport is stronger during La Niñas and weaker during El Niños due to the influences through the Pacific waveguide. The Indian Ocean wind variability associated with the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) in many years offsets the Pacific ENSO influences on the ITF geostrophic transport during the developing and mature phases of El Niño and La Niña through the Indian Ocean waveguide, due to the co-varying IOD variability with ENSO. Decadal and multi-decadal changes of the geostrophic ITF transport have been revealed: there was a weakening change from the mid-1970s climate regime shift followed by a strengthening trend of about 1Sv every 10 year during 1984–2013. These decadal changes are mostly due to the ITF responses to decadal variations of the trade winds in the Pacific. Thus, Godfrey’s Island Rule, as well as other ITF proxies, appears to be able to quantify decadal variations of the ITF. Climate models project a weakening trend of the ITF under the global warming. Both climate models and downscaled ocean model show that this ITF weakening is not directly associated with the changes of the trade winds in the Pacific into the future, and the reduction of deep upwelling in the Pacific basin is mainly responsible for the ITF weakening. There is a need to amend the Island Rule to take into account the contributions from the overturning circulation which the current ITF proxies fail to capture. The implication of a weakened ITF on the Indo-Pacific Ocean circulation still needs to be assessed.

Coral reefs in the Anthropocene

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2017
NATURE

Coral reefs support immense biodiversity and provide important ecosystem services to many millions of people. Yet reefs are degrading rapidly in response to numerous anthropogenic drivers. In the coming centuries, reefs will run the gauntlet of climate change, and rising temperatures will transform them into new configurations, unlike anything observed previously by humans. Returning reefs to past configurations is no longer an option. Instead, the global challenge is to steer reefs through the Anthropocene era in a way that maintains their biological functions. Successful navigation of this transition will require radical changes in the science, management and governance of coral reefs.

Kondisi Biofisik dan Sosial Ekonomi Pesisir Bali 2015

Research

Full-text available

Apr 2016

The biophysic and socio economic survey in the coastal area of Bali in 2015 funded by The Nature Conservancy Indonesia and BMU-Germany, in collaboration with Bali Provincial Government - Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan, Udayana University, Warmadewa University, UNDIKSA University, BPSPL Denpasar, and support by volunteers

Herbivory and the Resilience of Caribbean Coral Reefs: Knowledge Gaps and Implications for Management

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2015

Herbivory is a key process on coral reefs that can facilitate reef-building corals by excluding algae that otherwise negatively impact coral settlement, growth, and survivorship. Over the last several decades, coral cover on Caribbean reefs has declined precipitously. On many reefs, large structurally complex corals have been replaced by algae and other non-reef-building organisms, resulting in the collapse of physical structure and the loss of critical ecosystem services. The drivers of coral decline on Caribbean reefs are complex and vary among locations. On many reefs, populations of key herbivores have been greatly reduced by disease and over-fishing, and this has resulted in the proliferation of algae that hinder coral recovery following major disturbances. Yet, evidence that increases in herbivory can promote coral recovery on Caribbean reefs has been mixed. Here, we discuss key contingencies that will modify the relationships between herbivores, algae, and corals and identify critical knowledge gaps that limit our ability to predict when and where herbivores are most likely to facilitate coral persistence and recovery. Impacts of herbivores on coral reef ecosystems will vary greatly in space and time and will depend on herbivore diversity and species identity. While there are still a large number of knowledge gaps, we make several management recommendations based on our current understanding of the processes that structure reef ecosystems. Reversing the fate of Caribbean coral reefs will require the development of integrated management strategies that simultaneously address multiple stressors in addition to the impacts of fisheries on herbivore assemblages.

The reef coral fauna of Bali in the centre of marine diversity.

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jan 2000

Interactions of ENSO, the IOD, and the SAM in CMIP3 models

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2011

Simulations of individual global climate drivers using models from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 3(CMIP3) have been examined; however, the relationship among them has not been assessed. This is carried out to address several important issues, including the likelihood of the southern annular mode (SAM) forcing Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) events and the possible impact of the IOD on El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. Several conclusions emerge from statistics based on multimodel outputs. First, ENSO signals project strongly onto the SAM, although ENSO-forced signals tend to peak before ENSO. This feature is similar to the situation associated with the IOD. The IOD-induced signal over southern Australia, through stationary equivalent Rossby barotropic wave trains, peak before the IOD itself. Second, there is no control by the SAM on the IOD, in contrast to what has been suggested previously. Indeed, no model produces a SAM-IOD relationship that supports a positive (negative) SAM driving a positive (negative) IOD event. This is the case even in models that do not simulate a statistically significant relationship between ENSO and the IOD. Third, the IOD does have an impact on ENSO. The relationship between ENSO and the IOD in the majority of models is far weaker than the observed. However, the ENSO's influence on the IOD is boosted by a spurious oceanic teleconnection, whereby ENSO discharge-recharge signals transmit to the Sumatra-Java coast, generating thermocline anomalies and changing IOD properties. Without the spurious oceanic teleconnection, the influence of the IOD on ENSO is comparable to the impact of ENSO on the IOD. Other model deficiencies are discussed.

Interactive Feedback between ENSO and the Indian Ocean

Article

Full-text available

May 2006

A feedback process of the Indian Ocean SST on ENSO is investigated by using observed data and atmospheric GCM. It is suggested that warming in the Indian Ocean produces an easterly wind stress anomaly over Indonesia and the western edge of the Pacific during the mature phase of El Niño. The anomalous easterly wind in the western Pacific during El Niño helps a rapid termination of El Niño and a fast transition to La Niña by generating upwelling Kelvin waves. Thus, warming in the Indian Ocean, which is a part of the El Niño signal, operates as a negative feedback mechanism to ENSO. This Indian Ocean feedback appears to operate mostly for relatively strong El Niños and results in a La Niña one year after the mature phase of the El Niño. This 1-yr period of phase transition implies a possible role of Indian Ocean-ENSO coupling in the biennial tendency of the ENSO. Atmospheric GCM experiments show that Indian Ocean SST forcing is mostly responsible for the easterly wind anomalies in the western Pacific.

The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas, Part Two

Book

Oct 2023

Located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and between the Asian and Australian continents, the seas of the Indonesian Archipelago have a significant role in global weather patterns and oceanic circulation. The dynamic interplay between geological, physical, chemical, and biological processes, past and present, has given rise to one of the most diverse marine regions on the planet. The exceptional marine and coastal ecosystem diversity of the Indonesian archipelago provides hundreds of habitats that support thousands of species. This treasure-trove of marine biodiversity has sustained the people of the archipelago for thousands of years. Population growth and socio-economic development place many of these resources at increasing risk of overexploitation. Using maps and numerous illustrations, The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas describes the complex and ecologically vulnerable coastal and marine ecosystems of the region in rich detail. Discussion of development, resource use and ecologically sustainable management plans is also incorporated. The first step towards sustainable use of marine and coastal resources, this book will be a valuable tool for ecologists, marine biologists, resource managers, government planners, and all those with an interest in the ecology of the region. Bound in two parts, of which this is the second, The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas is part of The Ecology of Indonesia Series.

The Status of Indonesian Coral Reefs 2019

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