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Conservation Status and Sex Ratios of the Coahuila Box Turtle (Terrapene coahuila) in the Cuatro Ciénegas Valley of Coahuila, Mexico, 2011–2018
Abstract
The Coahuila box turtle (Terrapene coahuila) is an endangered species of chelonian endemic to the Cuatro Ciénegas valley in northern Mexico. It is the only aquatic member of the genus Terrapene and is dependent on permanent and seasonal wetlands. Over the past several decades, T. coahuila populations have declined from habitat loss as the wetlands have dried due to human modification of the valley. We conducted a survey of the status of the species from 2011 to 2018, updating previous estimates of population density and overall population size. We also collected data on sex ratio in each of the 8 wetland study areas in the valley and report a strongly male-biased sex ratio. Our results indicate a total population size of approximately 1791 individuals, based on recorded densities from 0.24 to 3.3 individuals/ha among 539.76 ha of suitable habitat in the 8 wetland areas. This estimate is lower than previous studies indicated, implying direct effects of habitat loss on T. coahuila. If habitat loss due to lowering of the water table continues, this species will become extinct. We recommend conservation measures including upgrading the species' International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List status to Critically Endangered, protecting and restoring key wetlands in the valley, and establishing captive assurance colonies in Mexico.
... Current ecological information about the Coahuila Box Turtle indicates an ~90% decline in the populations over the past 50 years (Brown 1974, Castañeda Gaytan et al. 2020. The wetlands, highly dependent on annual precipitation (Castañeda Gaytán et al. 2020), have also been much reduced (Torres-Vera 2012). ...
Turtle movement patterns are influenced by foraging, searching for mates, shelter, and thermoregulating. Movements can be influenced by intrinsic characteristics of the organisms, such as sex and age, but also by extrinsic factors such as seasonal changes, availability of food, and the need to find microhabitats for long inactive periods such as estivation and brumation. Terrapene coahuila (Coahuila Box Turtle) is the only aquatic species of Terrapene and inhabits the wetlands of Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila, in northern Mexico. This study describes the movement patterns and the home range of adult Coahuila Box Turtles, and the influence of pronounced seasonality in the wetland system of the Cu-atro Ciénegas Valley on the species' behavioral ecology. The average daily linear distances traveled by adults during the wet-warm, wet-cold, and dry-warm seasons were 36.76, 21.38, and 32.18 m, respectively. The daily distance travelled was not statistically different between males and females or among seasons. The average number of movements was affected by seasonal conditions, with a marked reduction in the wet-cold season. The average home ranges for wet-warm, wet-cold, and dry-warm seasons were 0.91, 0.60, and 0.25 ha, respectively, using the fixed kernel method (FK), and 4.68, 1.48, and 5.09 ha, respectively, using the minimum convex polygon method (MCP). There were no significant differences in home-range size between sexes or among seasons using FK but there were using MCP (the latter being smaller during the wet-cold season). Seasonal differences in movement patterns may reflect seasonal changes in the habitat as well as other landscape attributes that might be involved in the spatial ecology of the species.
Even without the extensive evidence and modeling on the number of species lost every year, we believe that microorganisms face many of the same extinction risks as “visible” organisms. It has recently been shown that extant bacterial populations result from speciation processes and extinction events. Bacterial lineage replacement is well understood at the intra-population scale, and periodic selection in clonal populations can lead to local extinctions. In Cuatro Ciénegas, natural seasonality has been observed to influence the Pseudomonas community composition. However, this site is under drastic changes due to anthropogenic disturbance, mainly from water overexploitation in the wetland. In this site, as the water receded, Pseudomonas otitidis from the Churince hydrological system went from being a successful generalist to losing a great portion of its metabolic flexibility and variation after an evolutionary rescue event that allowed it to survive for a while. However, one year before the water was depleted, the P. otitidis population became extinct. Furthermore, the endemic auxotrophic specialist Bacillus coahuilensis also went extinct after desiccation drastically altered its original community, on which it was highly dependent on for basic biological functions. The high endemicity and local distribution of the hyper-diverse Cuatro Ciénegas make this site very vulnerable to extinctions, risking its unique microbiota that has survived eons.
• Long‐term evolutionary history and demographic processes shape current patterns of genetic variation in natural populations. Genetic diversity is of prime importance for the long‐term survival of species, especially those threatened or endangered, which can be lost in a few generations and can take hundreds to recover. Notably, turtles are among the most endangered vertebrate taxa in the world. The Coahuilan box turtle Terrapene coahuila is the only aquatic species within the genus, microendemic to the desert‐spring ecosystem of the Cuatrociénegas Basin (CCB). The CCB has experienced significant habitat changes during recent decades, fragmenting otherwise interconnected wetlands systems. We aimed to perform a detailed evaluation of the evolutionary and genetic patterns of T. coahuila, both historical and contemporary, linked to the biogeography of the CCB and processes governing the species distribution.
• We assessed the contributions of historical and contemporary population demographic processes to genetic diversity and structure, by using two mitochondrial DNA genes (cytochrome b and d‐loop), one nuclear gene (GAPD), and 12 nuclear microsatellite loci. We comprehensively analysed these data to address historical patterns of demography, migration, genetic diversity, and times of divergence across the valley for T. coahuila. We also evaluated recent patterns of genetic variation and structure, inbreeding, bottleneck signals, and effective population size.
• Our results dated the time to the most recent common ancestor for T. coahuila in the CCB at c. 10.1 million years ago, with highest diversification during the Holocene. Structure consistently comprised two genetic clusters, Cuatrociénegas East and Cuatrociénegas West on either side of the main historical barrier, the Sierra San Marcos. Demographic results supported a divergence between western and eastern populations from 47,500 to 110,950 years ago, and colonisation of the southernmost Cuatrociénegas West distribution (Churince) 28,500–66,500 years ago, which experienced a recent bottleneck. All populations showed low values of haplotype and nuclear genetic diversity, migration, effective population size, and relatedness; significant inbreeding and bottleneck signals were also identified within genetic clusters.
• In accordance with the biogeographic history of the basin, our results show that T. coahuila’s diversification across the Cuatrociénegas valley continued throughout the Pleistocene, peaking during the Holocene, when the valley started to gradually dry. As predicted, T. coahuila exhibited an overall, long‐term, and probably continuing decrement in genetic variation, increased genetic differentiation, and low population sizes, as a consequence of contemporary habitat loss and fragmentation across the CCB.
• Changes in species demography and population connectivity have the potential to permanently alter the genetic patterns of freshwater species. Hence, given its restricted distribution, high habitat specificity and habitat loss, Terrapene coahuila is at utmost risk of extinction. Captive breeding programmes of the Coahuilan box turtle should consider our results, to prevent further loss of genetic diversity and truly expect reintroduction success. Also, it is crucial to restore connectivity among wetlands, for the conservation of species and the Cuatrociénegas valley altogether.
Climate surfaces are digital representations of climatic variables from a region in the planet estimated via geographical interpolation techniques. Climate surfaces have multiple applications in research planning, experimental design, and technology transfer. Although high-resolution climatologies have been developed worldwide, Mexico is one of the few countries that have developed several climatic surfaces. Here, we present an updated high-resolution (30 arc sec) climatic surfaces for Mexico for the average monthly climate period 1910–2009, corresponding to monthly values of precipitation, daily maximum, and minimum temperature, as well as 19 bioclimatic variables derived from the monthly precipitation and temperature values. To produce these surfaces we applied the thin-plate smoothing spline interpolation algorithm implemented in the ANUSPLIN software to nearly 5000 climate weather stations countrywide. As an additional product and unlike the previous efforts, we generated monthly standard error surfaces for the three climate parameters, which can be used for error assessment when using these climate surfaces. Our climate surface predicted slightly drier and cooler conditions than the previous ones. ANUSPLIN diagnostic statistics indicated that model fit was adequate. We implemented a more recent error assessment, a set of withheld stations to perform an independent evaluation of the model surfaces. We estimate the mean absolute error and mean error, with the withheld data and all the available data. Average RTGCV for monthly temperatures was of 1.26–1.12 • C and 24.67% for monthly precipitation, and a RTMSE of 0.48–0.56 • C and 11.11%. The main advantage of the surfaces presented here regarding the other three developed for the country is that ours cover practically the entire 20th century and almost the entire first decade of the 21st century. It is the most up to date high-resolution climatology for the country.
Ecological diversification is a central topic in ecology and evolutionary biology. We undertook the first comprehensive species-level phylogenetic analysis of Emydidae (an ecologically diverse group of turtles), and used the resulting phylogeny to test four general hypotheses about ecological diversification. Phylogenetic analyses were based on data from morphology (237 parsimony-informative characters) and mitochondrial DNA sequences (547 parsimony-informative characters) and included 39 of the 40 currently recognized emydid species. Combined analyses of all data provide a well-supported hypothesis for intergeneric relationships, and support monophyly of the two subfamilies (Emydinae and Deirochelyinae) and most genera (with the notable exception of Clemmys and Trachemys). Habitat and diet were mapped onto the combined-data tree to test fundamental hypotheses about ecological diversification. Using continuous coding of ecological characters showed that lineages changed in habitat before diet, ecological change was most frequently from generalist to specialist, and habitat and diet rarely changed on the same branch of the phylogeny. However, we also demonstrate that the results of ancestral trait reconstructions can be highly sensitive to character coding method (i.e. continuous vs. discrete). Finally, we propose a simple model to describe the pattern of ecological diversification in emydid turtles and other lineages, which may reconcile the (seemingly) conflicting conclusions of our study and two recent reviews of ecological diversification. © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2003, 79, 577–610.
Ecological diversification is a central topic in ecology and evolutionary biology. We undertook the first comprehensive species-level phylogenetic analysis of Emydidae (an ecologically diverse group of turtles), and used the resulting phy-logeny to test four general hypotheses about ecological diversification. Phylogenetic analyses were based on data from morphology (237 parsimony-informative characters) and mitochondrial DNA sequences (547 parsimony-infor-mative characters) and included 39 of the 40 currently recognized emydid species. Combined analyses of all data pro-vide a well-supported hypothesis for intergeneric relationships, and support monophyly of the two subfamilies (Emydinae and Deirochelyinae) and most genera (with the notable exception of Clemmys and Trachemys). Habitat and diet were mapped onto the combined-data tree to test fundamental hypotheses about ecological diversification. Using continuous coding of ecological characters showed that lineages changed in habitat before diet, ecological change was most frequently from generalist to specialist, and habitat and diet rarely changed on the same branch of the phylogeny. However, we also demonstrate that the results of ancestral trait reconstructions can be highly sen-sitive to character coding method (i.e. continuous vs. discrete). Finally, we propose a simple model to describe the pat-tern of ecological diversification in emydid turtles and other lineages, which may reconcile the (seemingly) conflicting conclusions of our study and two recent reviews of ecological diversification.
The evolution of ecological trade-offs is an important component of ecological specialization and adaptive radiation. However, the pattern that would show that evolutionary trade-offs have occurred between traits among species has not been clearly defined. In this paper, we propose a phylogeny-based definition of an evolutionary trade-off, and apply it to an analysis of the evolution of trade-offs in locomotor performance in emydid turtles. We quantified aquatic and terrestrial speed and endurance for up to 16 species, including aquatic, semi-terrestrial and terrestrial emydids. Emydid phylogeny was reconstructed from morphological characters and nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. Surprisingly, we find that there have been no trade-offs in aquatic and terrestrial speed among species. Instead, specialization to aquatic and terrestrial habitats seems to have involved trade-offs in speed and endurance. Given that trade-offs between speed and endurance may be widespread, they may underlie specialization to different habitats in many other groups.
An ecological study of the Coahuilan Box Turtle, Terrapene coahuila, was undertaken between December 1964 and November 1967 in its natural habitat on the northern Mexican Plateau. The species is endemic to an intermontane basin of the Chihuahuan Desert near Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila. Its geographic range consists of disjunct populations in an area that does not exceed 800 km2. Preferred habitats of T. coahuila in the area studied are small, north-south trending, spring-fed marshes, characterized by mud bottoms, shallow water, and dense aquatic vegetation, principally Chara spp., Eleocharis rostellata, and Scirpus olneyi. Marshes are distinct aquatic communities surrounded by desert grassland and shrub communities. Ecological adaptations of this species more closely resemble those of other North American aquatic turtles than of terrestrial members of its own genus. Population densities, foraging behavior, food habits, and thermal relationships best exemplify the aquatic mode of life of T. coahuila. T. coahuila remains active throughout the year except for short periods of environmental extremes. Mating occurs from September to June and appears concentrated in spring. Copulating pairs of box turtles were found in October, November, December, and April, frequently in shallow water. The ovarian cycle appears to be intermediate between the lengthy cycle of tropical emydid species and the compressed cycle of northern species caused by cold weather. Follicle enlargement occurs between late August and early April when ovulation begins. Egg laying begins in May and continues to September. Complements of 2 or 3 eggs are produced most frequently. An estimated half of the females can produce second clutches, and about one-third may deposit three sets annually. These females produce a mean of 6.8 eggs/female per season, a higher reproductive potential than in certain northern populations of Terrapene. Coahuilan box turtles forage in shallow water, with the carapace usually above the surface and dry, and the head extended underwater. T. coahuila is opportunistic and omnivorous, feeding extensively on aquatic plants (Eleocharis) and insects (stratiomyid fly larvae, beetles, hemipterans, dragonfly nymphs). Foraging behavior and food habits of T. coahuila are comparable to other aquatic or semiaquatic emydids (Chrysemys picta, Clemmys muhlenbergi). Cloacal temperatures of T. coahuila active in marshes closely approximate water temperatures at all seasons, as is generally true for most other aquatic turtles while in water. There is wide seasonal and daily variation in the mean cloacal temperature of active turtles, so no single optimum temperature within the activity range is reported. In summer, when water temperatures can exceed tolerable levels, activity occurs mainly in early morning, late afternoon, and at night. Marsh bottoms provide a cool refuge into which a turtle can burrow to avoid potentially harmful midday surface temperatures. Most T. coahuila presumably undergo temporary states of winter inactivity, although some remain active in water despite low air temperatures. In December, when several individuals on land had cloacal temperatures elevated well above air temperatures, basking was indicated. Most T. coahuila remain within a given marsh for relatively long periods, but about 20% of recaptured turtles had moved longer distances, possibly overland, from one marsh to another. Within marshes, movements between successive points of capture averaged about 13 m. Box turtles move in a sinuous fashion over mats of Chara and around sedge tussocks. Individuals seemed socially tolerant of others in nature, and were occasionally close together; no aggressive encounters were observed. Three mark-recapture census techniques were used to estimate the population size in the study area. Population densities ranged from 54 to 63 adult turtles per marsh acre (133-156/ha). T. coahuila occurs in relatively higher numbers and is restricted to smaller areas of activity than its terrestrial congeners, T. carolina and T. ornata. Its population density is more comparable to certain aquatic species, such as Chrysemys picta and Pseudemys scripta. Although populations of the Coahuilan Box Turtle are relatively dense in many marsh communities in the Cuatro Ciénegas basin, T. coahuila can be considered a rare species by virtue of its restricted aquatic habitat. Destruction of marshes by draining and excessive collecting of specimens clearly represents threats to the turtle's existence. Terrapene coahuila should be obtained, therefore, only by those seriously investigating its biology.
The North American box turtles belong to a taxonomically diverse assemblage adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Relationships within the genus are complex, and variation within T. carolina is especially problematic. I analyzed 32 morphological characters phylogenetically to deduce the most parsimonious relationships among the 11 currently recognized taxa. Two species groups, the ornata and carolina groups, are recognized. The ornata group includes T. ornata and T. nelsoni, the carolina group includes T. carolina and T. coahuila. Terrapene coahuila is the basal clade of the carolina group. Within T. carolina, T. c. major is the most basal subspecies with the rest comprising two monophyletic groups: (1) T. c. yucatana, T. c. mexicana, and T. c. triunguis and (2) T. c. carolina and T. c. bauri. Within the ornata group, T. ornata is the sister taxon of T. nelsoni.
Sex allocation is one of the most productive domains of behavioral ecology and has led to a sophisticated understanding of factors influencing an organism's reproductive decisions. The production of strongly female-biased sex ratios, with low between group variance, is selected for when single mothers produce groups of sibmating progeny. Although the sex of progeny is determined at oviposition (primary sex ratio), the selective value of given sexual compositions is often only apparent when offspring mature and mate (secondary sex ratio). As developmental mortality can alter the sexual composition of given offspring groups, its occurrence can select for mothers to adjust their (primary) sex allocation strategies as insurance against female-only secondary sex ratios. Empirical assessment of primary sex ratios is problematic when male and female eggs are indistinguishable. Here, we apply DNA microsatellite markers to evaluate primary sex ratios in the gregarious parasitoid Goniozus legneri Gordh (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) and compare these with secondary sex ratios. We find that sexually differential mortality is absent or weak, but mortality acts to increase sex ratio variance and to obscure initially present relationships between sex ratio and group size. In some groups of offspring, there is a tendency for males and females to be laid in spatial separation. Our direct assessments of the sex of eggs avoid widespread problems inherent in utilizing subsets of matured offspring groups with no mortality as representative of overall primary sex ratios but, in this instance, it also confirms interpretations made by studies constrained to employ methods that are strictly incorrect.
A sample of 164 Terrapene coahuila from marshes in the Cuatro Ciénegas basin, Coahuila, México, was analyzed for size and sexual dimorphism. Bivariate relations between seven carapace and plastron measures indicated strongest sexual dimorphism in the carapce height/length relationship (males 43%, females 46% in relative height). Males averaged 108.9 mm and females 100.9 mm in carapace length. Marsh-inhabiting T. coahuila are smaller than those from river or pool habitats. Dietary differences and/or greater competition in the more densely populated marshes may explain the inter-population differences in size. About 70% of adult turtles possess a vermiculated pattern of small, yellow markings on the carapace. Eleven (5%) of 218 T. coahuila had extra epidermal scutes or had less than the normal number. The hypothesis that T. coahuila evolved as a Pleistocene relict produced by environmental isolation (championed by Milstead) is examined in the light of recent ecological observations coupled with a model of rapid evolutionary change proposed originally by Mosimann. These interpretations do not support the view that T. coahuila is a surviving remnant of an ancestral population of Terrapene but do support the idea of a relatively recent (mid-Pleistocene?) derivation for the species.
In a desert-spring ecosystem, the desert can be a formidable barrier to dispersal for species with sensitivity to desiccation. In the desert-spring ecosystem of Cuatro Ciénegas, México, three endemic turtle species, all of conservation concern, have overlapping ranges but different requirements for aquatic habitat. By using existing genetic markers and generating new ones using next-generation sequencing, I compared the population genetic structure of two of these endemic turtles. The aquatic slider turtle, Trachemys taylori, exhibited significant isolation by distance and genetic differentiation among populations. However, stronger genetic structure was identified for the obligate aquatic softshell turtle, Apalone atra. For Apalone, no correlation of genetic differentiation with geographic distance was observed, as most populations appear genetically distinct from one another. This evidence, combined with allelic and heterozygosity patterns, suggests that the desert matrix is a sufficient barrier to dispersal for the softshell turtles but less of a barrier for the more terrestrial slider turtles. It appears that softshell turtles from each pond may have been relatively isolated from other ponds since the basin became substantially drier near the beginning of the Holocene. This strong population genetic structure of the two aquatic species is in contrast to the near panmixia of the third endemic, the previously studied semi-aquatic box turtle, Terrapene coahuila. Separately, the issue of hybridization of the endemic turtles with invasive congeners has been raised as a conservation concern, but detailed genetic assessment of potential hybridization has not been performed. In this study, hybridization of the endemic slider with its invasive congener was assessed and not detected with genetic data. Also, it appears that different color morphs of Apalone in the basin, which are currently designated as separate species, are not genetically distinct at the loci examined in this work.
Aridity on the Chihuahuan Desert of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico was relieved at times during the Pleistocene by pluvial periods. These moist periods permitted invasion of the desert by more mesic species from the east, and 14 such species exist on the desert today as relicts. They show little divergence from their main populations to the east. Five areas on the Chihuahuan Desert appear to be particularly suited to the existence of relicts. All of the relicts are in constant danger of extinction by either drought or flash flood.
The evolutionary viability of an endangered species depends upon gene flow among subpopulations and the degree of habitat patch connectivity. Contrasting population connectivity over ecological and evolutionary timescales may provide novel insight into what maintains genetic diversity within threatened species. We employed this integrative approach to evaluating dispersal in the critically endangered Coahuilan box turtle (Terrapene coahuila) that inhabits isolated wetlands in the desert-spring ecosystem of Cuatro Ciénegas, Mexico. Recent wetland habitat loss has altered the spatial distribution and connectivity of habitat patches; and we therefore predicted that T. coahuila would exhibit limited movement relative to estimates of historic gene flow. To evaluate contemporary dispersal patterns, we employed mark-recapture techniques at both local (wetland complex) and regional (intercomplex) spatial scales. Gene flow estimates were obtained by surveying genetic variation at nine microsatellite loci in seven subpopulations located across the species' geographical range. The mark-recapture results at the local spatial scale reveal frequent movement among wetlands that was unaffected by interwetland distance. At the regional spatial scale, dispersal events were relatively less frequent between wetland complexes. The complementary analysis of population genetic substructure indicates strong historic gene flow (global F(ST) = 0.01). However, a relationship of genetic isolation by distance across the geographical range suggests that dispersal limitation exists at the regional scale. Our approach of contrasting direct and indirect estimates of dispersal at multiple spatial scales in T. coahuila conveys a sustainable evolutionary trajectory of the species pending preservation of threatened wetland habitats and a range-wide network of corridors.
The 10 extant species of emydine turtles represent an array of morphological and ecological forms recognizable and popular among scientists and hobbyists. Nevertheless, the phylogenetic affinities of most emydines remain contentious. Here, we examine the evolutionary relationships of emydine turtles using 2092 bp of DNA encoding the mitochondrial genes cyt b, ND4, and adjacent tRNAs. These data contain 339 parsimony informative characters that we use to erect hypotheses of relationships for the Emydinae. Both maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood methods yield a monophyletic Emydinae in which all but three nodes are well resolved. Emys orbicularis, Emydoidea blandingii, and Clemmys marmorata form a monophyletic clade, as do the species of Terrapene. Clemmys muhlenbergii and Clemmys insculpta form a third monophyletic group that may be sister to all other emydines. Clemmys guttata is problematic and probably related to Terrapene. Based on this phylogeny, and previous molecular work on the group, we suggest the following taxonomic revisions: (1) Clemmys should be restricted to a single species, C. guttata. (2) Calemys should be resurrected for C. muhlenbergii and C. insculpta. (3) Emys should be expanded to include three species: E. orbicularis, E. blandingii, and E. marmorata. Furthermore, our analyses show that neither kinetic-shelled nor akinetic-shelled emydines form monophyletic groups. Therefore, shell kinesis was either independently gained in Emys and Terrapene or secondarily lost in E. marmorata and C. guttata. Parsimony, paleontological evidence, and the multiple origins of shell kinesis in related turtle lineages (especially geoemydines) support the independent origin of plastral kinesis.
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