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Proximate, Vitamins, Minerals Compositions Together with Mineral Ratios and Mineral Safety Index of Kilishi (Beef Jerky Meat)
... This is because the non-meat ingredients contain some ingredients that are naturally high in protein. Ogunsola and Omojola (2008), Emmanuel et al. (2020) and Inusa and Said (2017) reported 59-60%, 64% and 58.33-64.10%, respectively, for protein content in beef kilishi. ...
... There were significant differences (p≤0.05) in the carbohydrate contents of the kilishi, which is a result of differences in the infusion temperature and time and the cooking treatment used. Soriano-Santos (2010) and Emmanuel et al. (2020) reported carbohydrate content of 2.1% and 2.3%, respectively, for chicken meat. However, the values obtained for this study were higher than those reported by Soriano-Santos (2010) and Emmanuel et al. (2020), and this could be attributed to the infusion of the chicken breast in the ingredient-mix for specific temperatures and times. ...
... Soriano-Santos (2010) and Emmanuel et al. (2020) reported carbohydrate content of 2.1% and 2.3%, respectively, for chicken meat. However, the values obtained for this study were higher than those reported by Soriano-Santos (2010) and Emmanuel et al. (2020), and this could be attributed to the infusion of the chicken breast in the ingredient-mix for specific temperatures and times. The ingredients in the ingredient-mix formulation might be responsible for the high carbohydrate content. ...
... It is interesting to note that highest carbohydrate levels were observed in the eyes (80.2g/100g) and skin (95.8 g/100g) but lowest in the muscle (6.19g [23,24]. The issue of the crude fat levels needs a further probe from the literature From literature the value of fat in the muscle of turkey was 2.12 g/100g and the skin of turkey was 12.1 g/100g this being opposite to the duck-hen muscle/skin fat; ostrich muscle (with skin) was 12.6 g/100g and beef (22.3 g/100g) [25][26][27]; kilishi (a beef product) (14.2 g/100g) [28]. ...
... [13]. The UEDP% in kilishi was high at 39.2-39.6 [28]. The high UEDP% from many of the samples showed that the greater part of the samples have protein concentration in terms of energy that would be more than enough to prevent protein energy malnutrition in children and adult fed solely on the samples as the main source of protein. ...
... Also, in the African giant pouch rat, weight values were 641-769.8g (adults) and 189.9g (infants) [13]. in kilishi, weight values were 634-760g (adults) and 188g (infants) [28]; in turkey we have 786 -944g (muscle) and 761-913 (skin) to meet adult requirements but 233g (muscle) and 325 (skin) in infants [25]. ...
The proximate compositions of brain (A), eyes (B), tongue (E), liver (D), heart (F), gizzard (C), skin (H) and muscle (G) of Muscovy duck-hen were determined. The proximate composition values ranged as follows (values in g/100g on dry weight basis) ash (0.18 – 3.77 ± 1.40), moisture (0.50 – 4.78± 1.40), protein (3.24 – 79.9 ± 29.7), fat (0.23 – 5.60 ± 2.04), carbohydrate (6.19 – 95.8 ± 33.6), dry matter (95.22 – 99.5± 1.40) and organic matter (91.45 – 99.27± 2.63) with all the parameters being significantly different among the samples. Metabolizable energy contribution from protein, fat and carbohydrate in the samples ranged from (kJ/100g/kcal/100g): 740(180) – 7924(1864). Percentage energy contribution range was 5.53/5.70 – 59.2/59.1. Whereas the crude fat ranged from 0.23 – 5.60 g/100g, the total fatty acid (TFA) ranged from 0.217 – 5.08 g/100g or EPg/100g with corresponding energy of (kJ/100g versus kcal/100g): 8.51/2.07 – 207/50.4 and 8.03/1.95 – 188/45.7 respectively. UEDP% (assuming 60% energy utilization) range was 1.95/1.96 – 49.0/48.9. Approximate sample weight equivalents to the energy requirements of adults and infants had ranges of : for 2500kcal per day, sample range was 617 – 644g (adults) and at 3000kcal per day, requirement was 741 – 773g (adults); infant at 740kcal would require 183 – 191g. Water balance for protein metabolism had value range of 6.48 – 160ml. Correlational analyses of samples at r=0.01 gave these results: A/B (0.3024), B/E (0.1794), A/E (0.9916), C/D (0.9994), D/F (0.9892), C/F (0.9923) and G/H (-0.2014). Hence, Muscovy duck-hens are good sources of protein, metabolizable energy and low fat.
... The crude fat content of the stockfish samples reported by Adeyeye and Olaleye, [14] was relatively low in the range of 2.55 -3.85 g/100 g with a mean value of 3.80±0.492. These values were lower than 5.35 g/100 g and 6.26 g/100 g in adult bee and maize weevil respectively [15], 14.2 g/100 g in beef jerky meat [16] and 18.4 g/100 g in Nigerian local cheese [17]. Crude fats in this study are cod (2.63%), apama (12.12%) and ramsi black cod (1.44%). ...
... The levels of moisture content in the samples; 13.87%, 13.50% and 10.83% for ramsi black cod, apama and cod respectively were comparatively higher than the following literature values (g/100 g): mean values of organs of duck (2.88 ± 1.40) [16], pouch rat (3.23 ± 2.02) [20] and Numidia meleagris (2.99 ± 1.75) [21]. High levels of moisture content in the stockfish samples would affect the preservation quality of the samples as high moisture content promotes microbial activities in the samples during storage thereby exposing the samples to microbial attack. ...
Fishes are consumed for their taste, high protein content, amino acids and saturated fatty acids. However, nutritional information on stock fish consumed in Bayelsa State is limited. In this study, proximate, amino acid and fatty acid compositions of three stock fish species (cod, apama and ramsi black cod) from three different markets in Bayelsa State were determined using standard methods. The proximate composition revealed that fibre was high (8.87%) in Apama when compared to Cod (3.85%) and Ramsi black cod (6.73%). Protein content was higher in Cod (13.30%) compared to Apama and Ramsi black cod with values of 11.20% and 10.50% respectively. The carbohydrate content was 60.85% for Ramsi black cod, 60.83% for cod and 46.86% for Apama. Eighteen amino acids were screened in the stockfish samples and glutamate was seen to be higher in all the stockfish samples (14.70, 15.23 and 14.67 g/100 g of Protein) followed by aspartate (12.20, 12.09 and 12.07 g/100 g of Protein) for cod, apama and ramsi black cod respectively when compared with the other amino acids. The result of the fatty acids revealed that twelve fatty acids were seen in the stockfish samples analysed. For cod, Hexadecanoic acid was seen to be higher (21.84 µg/ml), apama, omega 3 fatty acid and Linoleic acid (34.15 µg/ml) while ramsi black cod had oleic acid (41.05 µg/ml) to be higher. The results showed that the fish species are nutritious as they had high protein content, essential and non-essential amino acids and saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
... The increase in ash content is in agreement with the results reported by Olaniyan and Omoleyomi (2013) for osmo-dehydrated okra, Sethi and Kaur (2019) in pineapple. According to Adeyeye et al. (2020), the likely mineral composition of every material is estimated by the ash and a moderate concentration of mineral components probably result from the ash content. In the osmo-dehydration of coconut haustorium, an increase in total mineral content was observed which might be due to the increase in ash content of osmo-dehydrated haustorium. ...
Background: Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is considered a highly valuable and beneficial perennial crop in our country. The basal portion of the coconut embryo enlarges during germination and forms a spongy structure, haustorium, which is an excellent source of essential nutrients. Since consumer preference is shifting towards healthy food and processed coconut products have immense scope in this sector, the study was conducted to standardize the process variables for osmo-dehydration of coconut haustorium and to evaluate the nutritional qualities of the osmo-dehydrated product. Methods: The present study involved the development of osmo-dehydrated coconut haustorium by standardizing the process variables, viz., osmotic solution concentration and immersion time. Mass transfer, physical, biochemical and sensory parameters were analysed to evaluate the nutritional qualities and consumer acceptance. Result: The results on biochemical properties revealed that an increase in concentration and time of immersion increased TSS, total sugar, reducing sugar, ash and mineral content. The process variables were standardized for the development of osmo-dehydrated coconut haustorium with optimum mass transfer characters, better nutritional qualities and consumer acceptance, which has application in the food industry.
... Beef meat holds a prominent position as one of the most important, nutritious and widely consumed products available (Adesina et al., 2020). Given its significance, meat remains a popular dietary choice for many people and its demand continues to rise due to factors such as increasing income, population growth and evolving preferences (Scozzafava et al., 2016). ...
... Beef meat holds a prominent position as one of the most important, nutritious and widely consumed products available (Adesina et al., 2020). Given its significance, meat remains a popular dietary choice for many people and its demand continues to rise due to factors such as increasing income, population growth and evolving preferences (Scozzafava et al., 2016). ...
Background: Meat plays a crucial role in the human diet as it is a rich source of micronutrients and helps combat malnutrition. The objective of this research was to examine the mineral and vitamin compositions of three different cattle. Methods: Two methods, Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AES) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES), were employed to evaluate the mineral concentrations present in the meat samples. Result: The ranges of concentrations of the minerals were Cu (0.001±0.00-0.002±0.00), Fe (0.107±0.00-0.127±0.01), Na (0.469±0.06-0.620±0.06), K (0.054±0.01-0.149±0.02), Zn (0.047±0.01-0.085±0.01), Se (0.040±0.01-0.120±0.03), Mg (0.228±0.02-0.269±0.02) and Ca (0.1108±0.03-0.254±0.01) mg per 100 kilograms. Certain cuts of Ethiopian Boran beef have been shown to contain an abundance of essential minerals, nutrients and fat-soluble vitamins. The ranges for vitamin A, vitamin D and vitamin E are 10.34±0.86 to 17.14±2.39), 0.45±0.06 to 0.89±0.13) and 9.55±1.92 to 15.46±1.86), respectively. The results of the study showed that the sheko cattle variety had higher levels of vitamin D and E than other types of cattle and meat cuts.
... As reported by Adeyeye and Olaleye (2016), an increase in calories from carbohydrate causes hydration; whereas an increase in calories from proteins causes dehydration. Hence, the energy values found in these imported shellfish species were better than those noted for beef jerky meat (1,659 kJ 100/g) (Adeyeye et al., 2020). ...
Shellfish is a major component of our global aquatic food supply, which includes the molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the weight yield factor, chemical composition and energy value in three imported shellfish species (Palinurus regius, Sepia officinalis and Farfantepenaeus notialis) in Nigeria. The physical and chemical determinations were in accordance with the official methods. The results showed that all the shellfish species had weight yield factor less than 1, and the weights obtained for the samples showed no statistically significant differences before and after boiling. In raw samples, S. officinalis had significant (p<0.05) higher protein and crude fat values of 20.41±0.63 g/100 g and 2.67±0.68 g/100 g respectively. In boiled samples, high protein levels (15.21-19.22 g/100 g) with no significant difference characterized the overall proximate profile of shellfish species studied herein. In terms of minerals, all investigated elements (calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus and sodium) were generally found at lower levels in boiled samples when compared with the mineral contents of the raw shellfish samples. S. officinalis had the higher total energy value in both raw (344.94 kJ 100/g) and boiled samples (373.96 kJ 100/g). All the species can be considered as food items with interesting dietetic properties due to high contents of proteins, minerals and useful energy values. Les mollusques et crustacés sont une composante importante de notre approvisionnement alimentaire aquatique mondial, qui comprend les mollusques, les crustacés et les échinodermes. L'objectif de cette étude était d'évaluer le facteur de rendement pondération, la composition chimique et la valeur énergétique de trois espèces importées de mollusques et crustacés (Palinurus regius, Sepia officinalis et Farfantepenaeus notialis) au Nigéria. Les déterminations physiques et chimiques étaient conformes aux méthodes officielles. Les résultats ont montré que toutes les espèces de mollusques et crustacés avaient un facteur de rendement de poids inférieur à 1, et les poids obtenus pour les échantillons n'ont montré aucune différence statistiquement significative avant et après l'ébullition. Dans les échantillons crus, S. officinalis avait des valeurs significatives (p<0.05) de protéines et de matières grasses brutes de 20.41±0.63 g/100 g et 2.67±0.68 g/100 g respectivement. Dans les échantillons bouillis, des niveaux élevés de protéines (15.21-19.22 g/100 g) sans différence significative ont caractérisé le profil proximate global des espèces de mollusques et crustacés étudiées dans le présente. En ce qui concerne les minéraux, tous les éléments étudiés (calcium, magnésium, potassium, phosphore et sodium) ont généralement été trouvés à des niveaux inférieurs dans les échantillons bouillis par rapport au contenu minéral des échantillons de mollusques et crustacés crus. S. officinalis avait la valeur énergétique totale la plus élevée dans les échantillons bruts (344.94 kJ 100/g) et bouillis (373.96 kJ 100/g). Toutes les espèces peuvent être considérées comme des aliments aux propriétés diététiques intéressantes en raison de la teneur élevée en protéines, minéraux et valeurs énergétiques utiles.
Production and consumption of dried meat products is increasing geometrically across all nations because they are nutritious, low in fat, easily accessible, and convenient for customers to eat. Over the years, its roles are indispensable in human diet as they are consumed to combat protein malnutrition and boost food security of under nourished people in underdeveloped and developing nations. Originally, dried meat products are made to satisfy consumer expectations for sensory and nutritional attributes as well as to reduce meat wastage and increase the meat shelf life during prolonged transportation and storage. Recently, the discovery of contamination that is above the minimal threshold advised for meat safety has made the safety of dried meat products the focus of microbiological evaluation. It is well recognized that eating meat products with poisoning microorganisms could put customers at risk for health problems. As a result, it is critical to refocus research to determine the viability of dried meat products for eating after production by evaluating the production processes, nutritional quality, and microbial safety. Therefore, the aim of this review was to highlight the production procedures, nutritional quality and microbial safety of dried meat products and their suitability for consumption after production.
The innards of the male and female Neopetrolisthes maculatus were used for the analyses of the proximate, minerals and vitamins compositions,as well as calculations of mineral ratios and mineral safety index (MSI).Total ash and crude protein were high at corresponding levels (g/100g) of 10.8-13.0 and 55.5-56.8. Crude fibre and carbohydrate were low(g/100g):1.60-1.80 and 3.80-3.90 respectively. Crude fat was average at 11.8-12.5g/100g. Samples were good sources of energy with total metabolizable energy of 1.45-1.49MJ and also very high levels of utilizable energy due to protein (60% utilization) with values of 38.8 – 39.1. These mineral parameters were high (mg/100g):Cu17.4-18.6),Mn (5.32-8.53), Ca (428-446), Mg (594-614), K (280-322), Na (349-390) and P(969-1144) but low in Fe, Zn, Se, Cd, Pb and Ni. The mineral were more concentrated in female than the male by a level of 13/14 or 92.9%. The following mineral ratios were lower than the reference balance (ideal) and also lower than the minimum in the acceptable ideal range:Ca/Mg, Na/K, Ca/K, Na/Mg, Zn/Cu, Ca/P, Fe/Cu, Zn/Cd, Fe/Co and K/Co whereas Ca/Pb and Fe/Pb were thousands of levels higher than the standards; this could be due to very low level of Pb (0.0005 – 0.0006 mg/100g). In the MSI, the following minerals were lower than the standard values (hence, no deleterious action is expected from them): Fe, P, Zn, Se and Na whereas Mg and Cu were higher in both sexes. The total vitamins content ranged from 11.7-13.1mg/100g with B3, vitamin C and E predominating and slightly followed by B6,B5. Results were significantly different at r=0.01 in proximate, metabolizable energy, minerals MSI and vitamins.
Estimation of nutrition profile of edible fishes is essential and thus a bio-monitoring study was carried out to find out the nutritional composition of commonly available fishes in Agatti Island water of Lakshadweep Sea. Protein, carbohydrate, lipid, ash, vitamin, amino acid and fatty acid composition in the muscle of ten edible fish species were studied. Proximate analysis revealed that the protein, carbohydrate, lipid and ash contents were high in Thunnus albacares (13.69 %), Parupeneus bifasciatus (6.12 %), Hyporhamphus dussumieri (6.97 %) and T. albacares (1.65 %), respectively. Major amino acids were lysine, leucine and methionine, registering 2.84 - 4.56 %, 2.67 - 4.18 % and 2.64 - 3.91 %, respectively. Fatty acid compositions ranged from 31.63 % to 38.97 % saturated (SFA), 21.99 - 26.30 % monounsaturated (MUFAs), 30.32 - 35.11 % polyunsaturated acids (PUFAs) and 2.86 - 7.79 % branched fatty acids of the total fatty acids. The ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs were ranged 13.05 - 21.14 % and 6.88 - 9.82 % of the total fatty acids, respectively. Hence, the fishes of Lakshadweep Sea are highly recommended for consumption, since these fishes are highly enriched with nutrition. The results can be used as a baseline data for comparing the various nutritional profiles of fishes in future.
Two studies (Shah et al., 2009; Mastrogiannaki et al., 2009) show that the hypoxia inducible factor HIF-2alpha is a major player in regulating iron absorption by directly controlling the transcription of iron transporters in the intestine in response to changes in mucosal iron or oxygen levels. The HIF-2alpha mechanism has major effects on iron metabolism which can override the well-known hepcidin-ferroportin regulatory axis.
Abnormalities of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus are common in hospitalized patients. Infrequently patients might present in the outpatient settings with non-specific symptoms that might be due to abnormalities of divalent cation (magnesium, calcium) or phosphorous metabolism. Several inherited disorders have been identified that result in renal or intestinal wasting of these elements. Physicians need to have a thorough understanding of the mechanism of calcium, magnesium and phosphorous metabolism and diagnoses disorders due to excess or deficiency of these elements. Prompt identification and treatment of the underlying disorders result in prevention of serious morbidity and mortality.
Volatile compounds in Chinese mitten crab (whole crab and crab meat) were investigated. Samples were extracted by simultaneous distillation-extraction (SDE) and then analyzed by Gas Chromatography/ Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). A total of 94 volatile compounds were identified and quantified in this study. 86 and 83 compounds were found in whole crab and crab meat, respectively. 76 compounds were found in both, including the 5-9 carbons aldehydes, methyl ketones, 2,3-butadione, 1-octen-3-ol, amines, pyrazines, thialdine and thiazoline, etc. In general, the concentrations of volatile compounds in whole crab were considerably greater than in crab meat, and SDE-GC/MS could be used to extract, separate and identify the volatile compounds in this study.
Background The purpose of this study was to assess relations to blood pressure (BP) in individuals of markers of dietary protein in their 24-hour urine collections.
Methods and Results INTERSALT (INTERnational study of SALT and blood pressure) was a cross-sectional study of 10 020 men and women aged 20 to 59 years in 52 population-based samples in 32 countries worldwide, with quality-controlled standardized procedures and assessment of multiple possible confounders. Three measurements of dietary protein in 24-hour urine of each individual participant were studied: total nitrogen and urea as indexes of total protein intake, and sulfate as an index of sulfur-containing dietary amino acids. Repeat examination was performed in a random 8% of participants to assess reliability and to correct for regression-dilution bias. Significant independent inverse relationships were found between BP (systolic and diastolic) and both 24-hour urinary total nitrogen and urea nitrogen, with adjustment for age, sex, alcohol intake, body mass, and 24-hour urinary sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. With adjustment for regression-dilution bias, it was estimated that systolic and diastolic BP were on average 3.0 and 2.5 mm Hg lower, respectively, for persons with dietary total protein intake 30% above the overall mean than for those whose dietary protein intake was 30% below the overall mean (12.94 versus 6.96 g/d urinary total nitrogen, equivalent to 81 versus 44 g/d dietary protein, respectively). For the association of these markers with diastolic BP, results were similar for younger (20- to 39-year-old) and older (40- to 59-year-old) persons and for women and men. For their relation to systolic BP, regression coefficients were larger both for those aged 40 to 59 years than for those aged 20 to 39 years and for women than for men. Nonsignificant inverse relations were recorded for urinary sulfate and BP.
Conclusions These INTERSALT findings lend support to the hypothesis that higher dietary protein intake has favorable influences on BP.
In a world where nearly 30% of humanity is suffering from malnutrition and over 70% of the planet is covered with water, aquatic foods represent an essential component of the global food basket to improve the nutrition, health, and well being of all peoples.It is not by chance that Japan, the country with one of the world's highest reported life expectancies and lowest incidences of obesity and deaths from heart related illnesses, is also one of the world's top consumers of captured and farmed aquatic animal food products and aquatic plants. According to the FAO, in 2009, total captured and farmed aquatic animal food products accounted for 16.6% of the global population's intake of animal protein, providing more than three billion people with almost 20% of their average per capita intake of animal protein, and 4.3 billion people with at least 15% of such protein.This article reviews the nutritional composition of different farmed and captured aquatic food products and compares these with conventional terrestrial meat products. In addition to the superior nutritional profile and benefits of aquatic animal food products, small-sized marine pelagic fish play an important role in the nutrition of the poor as an affordable and much needed source of high quality animal protein and essential amino acids, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. As one of the best aquatic animal foods from a nutritional perspective, the direct consumption of small pelagic fish should be encouraged and promoted, as apposed to the continued targeted use of these species for reduction into fishmeal and fish oil for use in animal feeds.
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the variations in the mineral contents (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Na, K, Ca, Mg and P) and nutritional significance of the minerals of Mediterranean fish, as a function of the presence of bone. The three commercial species analysed were blue whiting (Micromessistius poutassou;R), hake (Merluccius merluccius, L) and sole (Solea vulgaris vulgaris, Q). As small and large species of hake are distinguished commercially, they were analysed as separate types of fish. No variations in the contents Fe, Zn, Cu, Na and K were observed when bone was included, as the content of trace elements were quite low in all the samples assayed. However, significant increases in the Ca and P contents were observed in all the species analysed when bone was included. To ascertain the nutrional significance of the samples they were considered as ingredients of fish-based homogenised weaning foods. According to the Ca and P contents, and to the nutritional density values, the samples could be considered to be good supplements of Ca and P, when bone is present in the flesh.
Lean red meats are: • An excellent source of high biological value protein, vitamin B12, niacin, vitamin B6, iron, zinc and phosphorus • A source of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fats, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, selenium and possibly also vitamin D • Mostly low in fat and sodium • Sources of a range of endogenous antioxidants and other bioactive substances including taurine, carnitine, carnosine, ubiquinone, glutathione and creatine.
Vitamin B6 is a co-enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of thymidine. Thymidine deficiency has been reported to increase DNA replication errors and hence increase mutagenesis. Carcinogenic stimulae increase the rate of DNA repair, and increase cell multiplication, both of which increase the requirement for thymidine. Vitamin B6 deficiency occurring at the same time as contact with carcinogens could well lead to tumour initiation and subsequent cancer development.
To study the relationship between dietary macronutrients and blood pressure.
A cross-sectional study.
Liangshan, southwestern China.
Three hundred and twelve Yi farmers living in a remote mountainous area, and 264 Yi migrants and 251 Han people living in an urban setting.
Blood pressure and dietary nutrient intake, obtained by asking the subjects to recall their nutrient consumption during the previous 24 h, were measured on three consecutive days.
After adjusting for age, body mass index, alcohol use, urinary excretion of sodium, total energy intake and area of residence and after correcting for the effects of regression dilution bias, a 1 SD higher intake of dietary total protein (39 g) was associated with lower systolic (-3.55 mmHg), and diastolic (-2.16 mmHg) blood pressures. Likewise, a 1 SD higher fiber intake (10 g) was significantly associated both with a lower systolic (-2.20 mmHg) and with a lower diastolic (-2.08 mmHg) blood pressure.
Diets higher in protein and fiber content are associated with a lower blood pressure in the present population sample. The present results indicate that dietary intake of macronutrients might be important in the development and prevention of high blood pressure.
For protein, progress is slow in defining quantifiable indicators of adequacy other than balance and growth. As far as current requirements are concerned, only in the case of infants and children is there any case for revision, and this change is to lower values. Such intakes would appear to be safe when consumed as milk formula. In pregnancy, notwithstanding the concern that deficiency may influence programming of disease in later life, there is little evidence of any increased need, and some evidence that increased intakes would pose a risk. For the elderly there is no evidence of an increased requirement or of benefit from increased intakes, except possibly for bone health. For adults, while we now know much more about metabolic adaptation to varying intakes, there would appear to be no case for a change in current recommendations. As far as risks and benefits of high intakes are concerned, there is now only a weak case for risk for renal function. For bone health the established views of risk of high protein intakes are not supported by newly-emerging data, with benefit indicated in the elderly. There is also circumstantial evidence for benefit on blood pressure and stroke mortality. With athletes there is little evidence of benefit of increased intakes in terms of performance, with older literature suggesting an adverse influence. Thus, given that a safe upper limit is currently defined as twice the reference nutrient intake, and that for individuals with high energy requirements this value (1.5 g/kg per d) is easily exceeded, there is a case for revising the definition of a safe upper limit.
The renal water requirement of six rapidly growing small infants on a food mixture composed of solely evaporated milk and water has been compared with the renal water requirement in the same infants on isocaloric feedings of evaporated milk, added carbohydrate and water. The higher protein and mineral intake of the unmodified milk mixture resulted in an 85% increase in the renal solute load compared with the load from the modified mixture. Although this increase in renal load, and hence renal water requirement, may be of little significance under the usual conditions of water intake and expenditure, the margin of safety against dehydration has been decreased. At the same time, this larger renal solute load may be an important factor in compromising water balance and well being unless additional water is supplied whenever the usual intake is appreciably decreased, the extrarenal water expenditure is increased or there is impairment of the ability to produce a concentrated urine.
Thus the practical importance while planning infant feedings of considering properties in addition to purely nutritive factors is emphasized.
Iron deficiency (ID) is common in pregnant women and infants worldwide. Rodent models show that ID during gestation/lactation alters neurometabolism, neurotransmitters, myelination, and gene/protein profiles before and after iron repletion at weaning. Human infants with iron deficiency anemia test lower in cognitive, motor, social-emotional, and neurophysiologic development than comparison group infants. Iron therapy does not consistently improve developmental outcome, with long-term differences observed. Poorer outcome has also been shown in human and monkey infants with fetal/neonatal ID. Recent randomized trials of infant iron supplementation show benefits, indicating that adverse effects can be prevented and/or reversed with iron earlier in development or before ID becomes severe or chronic. This body of research emphasizes the importance of protecting the developing brain from ID.
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