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R E S E A R C H Open Access
Science identity and metacognitive
development in undergraduate mentor-
teachers
Hannah Huvard
*
, Robert M. Talbot, Hillary Mason, Amreen Nasim Thompson, Michael Ferrara and Bryan Wee
Abstract
Background: A growing part of the efforts to promote student engagement and success in undergraduate STEM
are the family of Student Support and Outreach Programs (SSOPs), which task undergraduate students with
providing support and mentoring to their peers and near-peers. Research has shown that these programs can
provide a variety of benefits for the programs’recipients, including increased academic achievement, satisfaction,
retention, and entry into STEM careers. This paper extends this line of inquiry to investigate how participation in
these programs impacts the undergraduate STEM students that provide the mentoring (defined here as
undergraduate mentor-teachers or UMTs). We use activity theory to explore the nature of metacognition and
identity development in UMTs engaged in two programs at a public urban-serving university in the western USA: a
STEM Learning Assistant program and a program to organize middle and high school STEM clubs. Constructs of
metacognition and identity development are seen as critical outcomes of experiential STEM inreach and outreach
programs.
Results: Written reflections were collected throughout implementation of two experiential STEM inreach and
outreach programs. A thematic analysis of the reflections revealed UMTs using metacognitive strategies including
content reflection and reinforcement and goal setting for themselves and the students they were supporting.
Participants also showed metacognitive awareness of the barriers and challenges related to their role in the
program. In addition to these metacognitive processes, the UMTs developed their science identities by attaching
different meanings to their role as a mentor in their respective programs and setting performance expectations for
their roles. Performance expectations were contingent on pedagogical skills and the amount and type of content
knowledge needed to effectively address student needs. The ability to meet students’needs served to validate and
verify UMTs’role in the program, and ultimately their own science identities.
Conclusion: Findings from this study suggest that metacognitive and identity developments are outcomes shaped
not only by undergraduate students’experiences, but also by their perceptions of what it means to learn and teach
STEM. Experiential STEM inreach and outreach programs with structured opportunities for guided and open
reflections can contribute to building participants’metacognition and enhancing their science identities.
Keywords: Experiential, Inreach, Outreach, Metacognition, Identity
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* Correspondence: hannah.huvard@ucdenver.edu
University of Colorado Denver, Denver, USA
International Journal of
STEM Education
Huvard et al. International Journal of STEM Education (2020) 7:31
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00231-6
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Introduction
According to the President’s Council of Advisors on Sci-
ence and Technology, the USA workforce will employ
an additional one million STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics) professionals within this
decade (PCAST (President’s Council on Science and
Technology), 2012). Roughly 42% of jobs in STEM fields
require at least a bachelor’s degree in STEM (Wang,
Chan, Soffa, & Nachman, 2017), but recruitment and re-
tention of STEM undergraduates remains a multifaceted
challenge for most 4-year universities in the USA
(American Association for the Advancement of Science,
2011,2019). The National Science and Technology
Council (Holdren, Marrett, & Suresh, 2013)andnumer-
ous other entities have identified that any solution to these
challenges will hinge on systemic efforts to improve
STEM education. Such improvements include classroom
interventions, such as an increased implementation of ac-
tive learning (American Association for the Advancement
of Science, 2019), student support services, such as indi-
vidual or group tutoring (Topping, 1998)orpeerinreach
programs (e.g., supplemental instruction, Learning Assist-
ant programs), and rich K-12 STEM outreach opportun-
ities. Of these, peer inreach and K-12 STEM outreach
programs are increasingly recognized as crucial elements
of the STEM pipeline to and through the undergraduate
degree (Augustine et al., 2005; Chubin, Donaldson, Olds,
&Fleming,2008; Pierre & Christian, 2002).
This paper is focused on academic support and enrich-
ment programs that task undergraduate students with
providing academic support and mentoring to their peers
and near-peers. In peer inreach programs, undergraduate
students provide support and mentoring to undergraduate
peers or near-peers at their home university. In K-12 out-
reach programs, undergraduate STEM students act as
coaches and mentors that facilitate activities and explora-
tions for K-12 students within their communities. We col-
lectively refer to inreach and outreach programs as
Student Support and Outreach Programs (SSOPs).
Both of these classes of SSOPs have been shown to be
beneficial for the participants (i.e., having positive impacts
on the students that receive the mentoring or coaching)
(Aschbacher, Li, & Roth, 2010; Hayden, Ouyang, Scinski,
Olszewski, & Bielefeldt, 2011; McGee-Brown, Martin,
Monsaas, & Stombler, 2003; Otero, Finkelstein, McCray,
& Pollock, 2006; Pollock & Finkelstein, 2013;Sahin,2013;
Talbot, Hartley, Marzetta, & Wee, 2015). However, there
is a relative dearth of research on the experiences and
benefits to the undergraduate students that provide the
mentoring or coaching. This might be attributed to the as-
sumption that mentors or coaches are intrinsically moti-
vated to engage in these activities, e.g., this work validates
and supports their interests in the subject. We define the
undergraduate students that provide support to either
their peers or K-12 students within an SSOP as under-
graduate mentor-teachers (UMTs). In this paper, we ex-
plore the experiences of a diverse sample of UMTs across
two SSOPs in order to identify and compare potential
benefits for UMTs within and across these programs.
Undergraduate mentor-teachers
The UMTs in this study were participants in one of
two SSOPs at a mid-sized public urban-serving uni-
versity in the western USA: The Learning Assistant
(inreach) program or the Community STEM Clubs
(outreach) program.
The learning assistant (LA) program is a nationwide
peer inreach program in which undergraduates provide
in-class support and mentorship for peers and near-
peers in undergraduate STEM courses (Otero, 2006).
Learning assistants (LAs) are undergraduate STEM stu-
dents who have previously succeeded in the course that
they support and have an interest in teaching or other-
wise supporting the learning of their peers (Otero et al.,
2006). LAs are trained to guide students through in-
class activities and provide student-specific support (Tal-
bot et al., 2015). At our institution, all first time LAs
take a two-credit course through the School of Educa-
tion where they learn about educational theories and ef-
fective, research-based pedagogies relevant to teaching
and learning in undergraduate STEM (Table 1). See
Thompson et al. (2020) for the course syllabus. LAs at-
tend all class sessions for the courses they support and
generally hold weekly office hours and/or study groups.
The Community STEM Clubs (CSC) Program is a K-12
outreach program in which undergraduate STEM stu-
dents, designated CSC fellows, develop and facilitate in-
school or afterschool STEM clubs or teams at a local mid-
dle or high school (Ferrara et al., 2018). Fellows work in
interdisciplinary teams of two to three undergraduates
and receive support from faculty mentors and the lead
teachers in their host schools. Fellows also participate in a
one-credit hour STEM Communication course focused
on understanding and improving STEM communication
in a changing global society (Table 1). See supplementary
information and Table S1 for the course syllabus. The
course is intended to dually support the design and refine-
ment of effective outreach activities and to nurture the fel-
lows’growth in communicating STEM to diverse
audiences of all ages. The course is led by faculty from the
CSC program team and considers multiple modes of com-
munication, including popular science writing, videos,
podcasts, museum displays, and children’stoys.
Both the LA and CSC programs at this university were
supported by multi-year grants funded by U.S. National
Science Foundation (NSF) and have since been institu-
tionalized through a variety of ways, albeit in different
forms. For example, STEM outreach programs with K-
Huvard et al. International Journal of STEM Education (2020) 7:31 Page 2 of 17
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12 schools exists at smaller scales, and the STEM Com-
munication course has been offered to students outside
the scope of the NSF grant. We have a prior publication
(Ferrara et al., 2018) that describes the impact of SSOPs on
UMTs experiences, but it did not specifically explore areas
of overlap and synthesis between science identity and meta-
cognitive development. The UMTs in both LA and CSC
SSOPs meet regularly with presiding faculty to reflect on
and discuss the challenges and successes they encounter in
their UMT roles. These meetings and group discussions
within the LA and CSC training courses provide multiple
opportunities for UMTs to reflect on their experiences
within each SSOP. These reflections are a natural and rich
source for gaining understanding of what it is like to be a
UMT and how being a UMT is valuable for the STEM
undergraduate experience and can also promote metacog-
nitive growth. This body of research presents the first step
towards understanding the experiences and potential bene-
fits STEM UMTs gain from participating as a mentor to ei-
ther their peers or younger students within SSOPs. By
focusing on UMTs engaged in both inreach (LAs) and out-
reach (CSC fellows), we are able to analyze a wide variety of
experiences from a diverse population of participants.
In this paper, we are interested in two constructs that
may better inform and explain the experiences of STEM
UMTs: science identity, which is broadly how the UMTs
view themselves as scientists, engineers and other STEM
professionals, and metacognition, which is broadly how
the UMTs think about their own thinking, problem solv-
ing and general cognition. Accordingly, our research
question is the following: what metacognitive and iden-
tity development processes are evident in undergraduate
students’efforts to facilitate SSOPs?
There is strong evidence that UMTs self-reported in-
creases in STEM content knowledge and interest in STEM
career choices may be linked to their metacognitive
growth and development of a strong science identity (Car-
penter, 2015;Nelsonetal.,2017). And although the
UMTs in this study are typically seen as already successful
students, it is worth looking into the potential benefits
they may experience as mentor-teachers in order to more
fully understand the processes that aid in their individual
and continued success in college, STEM retention, and
matriculation. In our study, the population of UMTs en-
gaged in the SSOPs under consideration is more diverse
than the population of STEM majors as a whole. This
aligns with research that indicates that students from un-
derrepresented populations are often overrepresented in
outreach efforts (Thiry, Laursen, & Liston, 2007). This
phenomenon adds additional value to understanding the
experiences of UMTs, as these programs have the poten-
tial to serve as conduits for equity within undergraduate
STEM, and therefore the STEM workforce.
Framing the study
The LAs and CSC fellows in this study are part of separate
(though similar) communities, which results in complex
systems and interactions. What is needed is a framework
which can help explain the experiences of LAs and fellows
in relation to identity and metacognition across different
socio-cultural landscapes. For this, we rely on the
metatheoretical framework of Cultural Historical Activity
Theory or CHAT (Engeström, 1987,2001). In this paper,
we use the term “STEM”when discussing the SSOPs, as
one of our programs involves technology and engineering,
and both of the programs involve science and math. We
use the term “science”when discussing the construct of
identity, because our framing of identity is based specific-
ally on the literature around science identity.
Theoretical framing: cultural historical activity theory
The larger STEM community in which the SSOPs in our
study operate are historically and culturally bound by
discipline and structure, which influence (if not deter-
mine) how many of the interactions take place. CHAT
helps us make this explicit. More importantly, it causes
us to focus on the tensions and interactions between
parts of a complex activity system (see Fig. 1).
In this system, the subject > object > outcome space
could be interpreted from a purely cognitive perspective in
the sense that the subject (a UMT) receives some treatment
or exposure (engagement in the LA or CSC program), after
which we characterize or measure the object of interest (de-
velopment of science identity and metacognition) in some
Table 1 Learning assistant pedagogy and STEM clubs communication course information
LA pedagogy course CSC STEMmunication course
Credit hours 21
Department offering course School of education and human development Interdisciplinary studies (arts and sciences)
Instructors Faculty and/or PhD students Faculty
Topics Questioning, listening, assessment, metacognition,
activity development
Written and visual science communication, audio
and video communication, communicating in
informal settings, social media
Major assignments Development of active learning assignment for
students, reflection on implementation of activity,
reflection on the overall LA experience
Creation of table-top and long-form outreach
activities, implementation of designed activities
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measurable way (the outcome). However, in a complex en-
vironment such as those in which our UMTs work, these
cognitive processes are mediated by many other factors
(shown as the vertices in Fig. 1). In the activity system,
these factors include mediating artifacts (e.g., texts, modes
of representation, manipulatives, etc.), rules, and norms of
behavior (e.g., taking notes, listening, engaging in dis-
course), division of labor (e.g., how community members
interact, how they learn), and community (e.g., the ac-
tors themselves). To the activity theorist, the primary
reason to take this systems approach is to shift the
focus to the interactions between these factors, and
how those interactions change as the system is per-
turbed. All of these interactions are historically and
culturally bound by the nature of the discipline in
which the UMTs are working (e.g., biology) and by
the structures in place surrounding and defining their
community (e.g., higher education progress towards
degree, “traditional”schooling).
Unlike much of the research conducted on similar
SSOPs that focus solely on the knowledge or skills
gained (the object) for the students within these commu-
nities, this study instead focuses on what specific mem-
bers of complex activity systems (the UMTs) do and
gain from their participation as mentors. We posit that
this growth comes through enacting and shaping the
rules, engaging in the community, shaping the division
of labor, and designing and working around the mediat-
ing artifacts in our activity system.
From an activity system point of view, UMTs have spe-
cific and unique roles that impact the communities and
the systems in which they exist. For this study, we were in-
terested in how these unique roles and positions of the
UMTs impacted the outcomes UMTs experience. By
looking at an activity system from the UMTs’perspectives,
we were able to hone in on specific outcomes, science
identity and metacognitive development, that are shaped
by their perceived roles and participation in these systems.
Science identity
Identities are developed and shaped by different experi-
ences influencing how we perceive and relate to the
world around us. Identity theory states that our iden-
tities are filled with meaning based on how we perceive
our roles as an individual and within the larger cultural
groups we are part of within society (Burke & Stets,
2009). An individual person holds multiple identities,
and each identity is attributed a specific set of meanings.
Science identity is one identity that science students may
hold to varying degrees depending on the situation. Car-
lone and Johnson (2007) developed a model with three
components that contribute to a strong science identity:
performance, recognition, and competence. Within this
model, a person will identify as a scientist if they act,
think, and explore like a scientist (i.e., use scientific vo-
cabulary, tools, and think about the world from a scien-
tific standpoint). Additionally, they are regarded as a
“science-person”that “demonstrates meaningful know-
ledge and understanding of science content”(Carlone &
Johnson, 2007, p. 1190). Thus, science identity operates
as a feedback loop between a person acting, thinking,
and exploring like a scientist, and then others under-
standing that meaning and reinforcing that identity back
to the original person (Carlone & Johnson, 2007; Stets,
Brenner, Burke, & Serpe, 2017). Science students with a
strong science identity have been shown to have a higher
interest in science, go on to pursue scientific careers or
graduate degrees, and act in ways that others also per-
ceive them as scientists outside of school (Merolla &
Serpe, 2013; Stets et al., 2017).
A unique aspect of our study is that it questions the
assumption that mentors or coaches intrinsically hold a
science identity that is consistently verified and rein-
forced as a result of engagement in SSOPs. While this
may be the case, it is important to understand if and
how this happens in complex systems. Engaging in sci-
ence activities in post-secondary education has a direct
influence not only on retention in STEM careers, but
Fig. 1 The activity system (Engeström, 1987)
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also the science identities of undergraduate students
(Merolla & Serpe, 2013; Stets et al., 2017). Aspects of
science identity, including positive associations with and
intenttopersistinSTEM,havebeenshowninunder-
graduate students participating in STEM enrichment
programs (Merolla & Serpe, 2013). In these and
similar programs, students provided with opportun-
ities for research, mentorship from faculty, and a sup-
portive peer network of STEM-minded individuals
maintained a commitment to their science identities
over time (Carlone & Johnson, 2007;Hunter,Laursen,
& Seymour, 2007; Lee, 2002).
Metacognition
Metacognition, often described as “second-order”cogni-
tion, thinking about thinking, or reflections upon one’s
actions has been shown to play a crucial role in success-
ful learning. Activities such as planning how to approach
a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and
evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are
metacognitive in nature, and contribute to successful
problem-solving in STEM learning contexts (Schoenfeld,
1987). Flavell (1979) defined two key aspects of metacog-
nition: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
regulation. Metacognitive knowledge refers to any ac-
quired or stored knowledge a person has regarding how
they learn and process new information. Metacognitive
regulation refers to how an individual reflects on and as-
sesses their learning, knowledge, or comprehension. This
assessment may be a fleeting moment or a lengthy in-
ternal reflection and is subjective to the individual re-
garding cognitive elements such as content, goals, or
strategies (Flavell, 1979). Reflection is especially import-
ant when connecting new information with knowledge
previously attained, which aids in the individual’s learn-
ing process. Flavell explains:
Metacognitive [reflections] are especially likely to
occur in situations that stimulate a lot of careful,
highly conscious thinking: in a job or school task
that expressly demands that kind of thinking; in
novel roles or situations, where every major step
you take requires planning beforehand and evalu-
ation afterwards; where decisions and actions are at
once weighty and risky…Such situations provide many
opportunities for thoughts and feelings about your
own thinking to arise. (Flavell, 1979,p.908)
Thus, metacognitive reflection is theorized to be a
major part of one’s learning process, as the learner con-
templates their level of comprehension of both new and
old content in order to complete tasks and goals.
In our framing, metacognition is positioned as an im-
portant construct that student mentors use and
experience when mentoring. Metacognitive knowledge
and reflection have been shown to be critical in the trans-
fer of knowledge or learning (Pintrich, 2002). Accordingly,
reflecting upon and understanding one’sowncomprehen-
sion of content, strategies for problem solving, and cogni-
tive processes are crucial in a teaching or mentoring role.
The student mentors in the present study are positioned
to teach complex scientific skills and content to the stu-
dents they mentor. As such, these student mentors often
think about how they themselves understand these con-
cepts and skills in order to turn around and explain these
concepts and skills to students.
Despite the plethora of research conducted on meta-
cognition and science identity, the characterization of
metacognition and science identity development in ex-
periential inreach and outreach contexts is largely
understudied. This study explores the nature of these
processes as expressed through written reflections by
students participating in STEM inreach and outreach
programs.
Methods
This study explores the metacognitive and identity devel-
opment processes of 20 undergraduate students engaged
as UMTs in two experiential STEM SSOPs at a mid-sized
public urban-serving university in the western USA.
UMTs were part of either the learning assistant program
or the Community STEM Clubs program. Both SSOPs are
part of National Science Foundation funded studies that
examine the impacts of different STEM SSOPs on under-
graduate students’content knowledge, metacognition,
problem solving, communication, and pedagogical skills
(Ferrara et al., 2018;Talbotetal.,2015). These two pro-
grams were not intentionally designed together. Rather,
they represent complementary efforts to improve under-
graduate learning in STEM disciplines on the same cam-
pus, thereby providing a unique opportunity to study
program impacts on a broader scale.
Each SSOP is set in the context of a STEM-based pro-
gram where undergraduate students are tasked with pre-
paring and teaching STEM content to audiences in
middle and high school or college. At the start of these
programs, all undergraduate students were enrolled in a
STEM program of study and recruited by faculty based
on their expressed interest and consistent involvement
in STEM. Table 2shows the demographics, majors, and
program participation of all 20 UMT participants in this
study. Anonymity is maintained with pseudonyms for all
students, adults, and schools.
Data collection
UMT reflections from their respective SSOP training
courses were used as data sources for this study. Data
collection for the LA program consisted of 14 reflections
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completed over a 16-week semester. LAs were given 15
min at the end of class each week to complete a reflec-
tion, and received participation points for submitting a
reflection each week. CSC fellows completed 11 reflec-
tions over two 16-week semesters. Reflections were sub-
mitted monthly for participation credit in the STEM
Communication course.
The reflection prompts for both programs were specific
to the goals of each program and course, but were open
ended and allowed for the student to elaborate and ex-
pand beyond the prompt. For instance, the reflection
prompts for the CSC program focused on summarizing
their planning and activities and solicited Fellows’thinking
about how their work impacted their thinking or practice
surrounding their role in their program, their STEM con-
tent knowledge and communication skills, and their ideas
of STEM as a discipline. The reflection prompts for the
LAs focused on their experiences serving as an LA for a
course in which they had previously completed, engaging
with their peers and probing their thinking and mental
models, and the practice of teaching. Reflection prompts
in both programs were intentionally designed to elicit
deep reflection on the SSOP experience, before moving to
more open-ended responses. Following a sequence of
deep to open-ended reflection allowed for LAs and CSC
Fellows to first practice identifying, accessing, and
articulating their thought processes and feelings about
specific events related to their experience.
Methods for data analysis
Written reflections from the 20 LAs and CSC fellows were
first anonymized and then coded using methods of con-
stant comparison (Creswell, 2003). The coding process
was theory-driven, with the framework for metacognition
arising from Schraw (1998) and the framework for identity
arising from Burke and Stets (2009) and Carlone and
Johnson (2007). Two researchers affiliated with the project
first worked independently to identify pieces of data fitting
within the constructs of metacognition and identity devel-
opment in reflections from three LAs and three CSC fel-
lows. The researchers discussed codes that emerged
within metacognition and identity constructs and their
general observations. The two researchers came to an
agreement on codes within the metacognition and identity
constructs and then applied these codes to all 20 cases in
a second round of coding. After the two researchers coded
all 20 cases independently in this second round of coding,
they met together with a third researcher (who had not
coded any of the data) to confer and come to consensus
on their codes. In this way, a moderation and consensus
process (rather than independently working researchers
rating for reliability) was used to develop the final coding
Table 2 Sample of SSOP participants
Undergraduate student Program Major Gender Race/ethnicity
Fellow1 CSC fellow Mathematics Female Hispanic/Latino
Fellow2 CSC fellow Mechanical engineering Male Asian
American
Fellow3 CSC fellow Biology Female Hispanic/Latino
Fellow4 CSC fellow Mechanical engineering Female White/Caucasian
Fellow5 CSC fellow Bioengineering Female White/Caucasian
Fellow6 CSC fellow Biology Female White/Caucasian
Fellow7 CSC fellow Mechanical engineering Female Black/African
American
Fellow8 CSC fellow Electrical engineering Male White/Caucasian
Fellow9 CSC fellow Mathematics, Biology, English, Psychology Male White/Caucasian
Fellow10 CSC fellow Psychology, Economics Female White/Caucasian
LA1 LA Biology Female White/Caucasian
LA2 LA Physics Male White/Caucasian
LA3 LA Biology Male Black/African American
LA4 LA Biology Female White/Caucasian
LA5 LA Chemistry female White/Caucasian
LA6 LA Biology Female Asian American
LA7 LA Biology Female White/Caucasian
LA8 LA Math Male White/Caucasian
LA9 LA Chemistry Female Asian American
LA10 LA Biology Female Asian American
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scheme (Harry, Sturges, & Klingner, 2005; Saldaña, 2015).
The final coding scheme was applied to the entire sample
for thematic analysis of the metacognitive and identity de-
velopment processes observed across all cases. In total, six
themes were built out and refined by the multiple itera-
tions of coding and reviewing the extant literature. See
Table 4 in Appendix for the codes and how they map onto
the six themes.
To validate codes and further support the six developed
themes, a key-words-in-context (KWIC) analysis tech-
nique was employed (Fielding & Lee, 1998;Leech&
Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Keywords from the reflections were
identified based on the codes and themes, as well as ter-
minology and discourse commonly used in metacognitive
and identity constructs. MAXQDA text analysis software
was used to perform separate lexical searches of all key-
words related to metacognition and identity. Once a list of
keywords in their surrounding context was generated, the
final coding scheme was applied and accuracy of the re-
searchers’interpretations was checked against the context
of how each word was used. After reviewing and reaching
an agreement on the themes, consideration was given to
how each theme fits into the story of the metacognitive
and identity development processes happening across LAs
and CSC Fellows in both programs. These six themes are
not meant to be mutually exclusive, as we recognize that
the development of science identity and metacognition
aredeeplyentwined.
Results
Through our analysis, we identified three themes of sci-
ence identity development and three themes of
metacognitive development experienced by our sample
of LAs and CSC fellows within their respective roles as
UMTs in our activity system (Table 3).
Identity development
The STEM SSOP experiences in this study serve as the
interdisciplinary medium through which identities are
developed and expressed. Specifically, the UMTs’varied
roles, along with division of labor, rules, and norms
within the activity system, served to support the devel-
opment of science identity. Three emergent themes indi-
cate a developing science identity: (a) claiming a role
and attaching meaning to it, (b) setting performance ex-
pectations, and (c) feeling validated. These themes speak
to the UMTs’recognition of the specific roles they play
within their STEM SSOP.
Identity operates as a function of agency and structure.
By claiming roles in their SSOPS, LAs and CSC fellows
are acting as agents in the development of their science
identities. There was a wide range of roles claimed
across both LAs and CSC Fellows. Each role claimed by
an LA or CSC Fellow during their SSOP experience is
attached to a set of meanings and standards for operat-
ing within the role. The meanings for any role are ac-
quired in the interactions and reactions of others,
internalized as part of the self, and manifest in actions
taken by the UMT. In most cases, LAs and CSC fellows
perceived themselves as a people who guide and share
knowledge with others (i.e., students). The roles UMTs
claim and the meanings attached to those roles dictate
the expectations for their actions, or performance, in
their role within the SSOP experience.
Table 3 Themes of science identity and metacognitive development in UMTs
Theme Thematic definition
Science identity development
Claiming a role and attaching meaning to it LAs and CSC fellows developed different meanings for what they perceived to be
their role in the program. An LA or fellow describes who they are in the program.
Setting performance expectations LAs and CSC fellows developed a set of expectations for themselves and engaged
in actions consistent with their perceived role in the program. An LA or fellow
describes actions they view as important for who they are in the program
Feeling validated LAs and CSC fellows developed legitimacy for their role in the program by seeking
appraisal and validation from others. An LA or fellow describes feelings of competence
or incompetence associated with who they are and what they do in the program.
Metacognitive development
Content reinforcement/learning LA or fellow re-evaluates their level of understanding of the content which they are
teaching to mentees/students. Content may be completely new or revisiting for the
first time in many years. LA or fellow reflects that re-evaluating their knowledge of
this content has helped them relearn or deepen their understanding of this content.
Identifying and overcoming barriers and challenges LAs and CSC fellows acknowledge a perceived lack of confidence in their own
knowledge of content, ability to articulate an answer or explanation to students
(communication) or ability to build relationships with the students they mentored.
Goal setting within the program LAs and CSC fellows set goals for themselves often pertaining to developing their
teaching strategies, motivating students to be more involved during mentoring
sessions, and improving their own communication with mentees.
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Theme 1: attaching meaning to the role of LA or fellow
LAs and CSC fellows claimed different roles at multiple
points throughout their SSOP experiences. Defined
broadly, a role describes a social position that an individ-
ual occupies in a group or culture. That position is in
turn shaped by the division of labor within the activity
system, which is related to other elements in the system,
and the interactions between those elements. In this
study, we define a role as the different positions UMTs
perceive that they occupy during their SSOP experience.
It is important to reiterate that because these roles are
set in the context of a STEM experience, we classify
them as roles related to a science identity. As the UMTs
progressed through their SSOP experience, they posi-
tioned themselves in different capacities relative to
others in the program. In most instances, the UMTs
claimed roles describing relationships with their stu-
dents. We coded for the roles the UMTs made explicit
in their reflections, as well as instances we interpreted
from implicit claiming of a role. From this process, we
found evidence of LAs and CSC fellows claiming the
roles of teacher, collaborator, mentor, guide, peer, expert,
facilitator, leader, and student. These self-proclaimed roles
indicate that these UMTs saw themselves as more experi-
enced community members that were capable of transfer-
ring their STEM knowledge to others.
Perhaps the most telling aspect of the roles claimed by
the LAs and CSC fellows are the words used to describe
the role of teacher. Across the entire set of reflections,
LAs and CSC fellows overwhelmingly used the word
“student”as a descriptor for the individuals they were
mentoring. We perceive “student”to be a counter-role
of “teacher,”making this a dominant role claimed by all
UMTs. For example, Fellow8 repeatedly referred to the
students participating in the outreach program as his
students: “More importantly, I see now what an effect
that had on my ability to communicate with my stu-
dents”(Fellow8). This Fellow also refers to these stu-
dents as his tenth graders in a number of reflections:
“Now, I ask myself “how would I teach this to my 10
th
graders”? (and yes, they are MY tenth graders)”;“My
10
th
graders are smart, but they haven’t had the classes
I’ve had.”(Fellow8). By referring to these students as his
students and his tenth graders, Fellow8 explicitly is tak-
ing on the role of their teacher or knowledge broker.
Fellow6 also refers to the students participating in the
outreach program as her students: “I helped my students
make solar cars. They each had jobs: ‘OK, you’re build-
ing the chassis, you’re building an axle, you’re building
the body’” (Fellow6). Similarly, LA3 said in a reflection
about a review session held outside of class: “It was a
time for me to really show my knowledge of the material
and connect with my students.”(LA3). This indicates
that although LA3 is technically a peer to the students
he is an LA for, he views them as his students, further
showing how UMTs often claim this role of teacher
within their peer mentoring roles.
LA3 also reveals his leadership capacities in the LA
program by claiming roles as a leader or captain:
I see myself as a team leader, or captain, as an LA. I
have previous experience on the material and can
help guide my section in succeeding in the material.
I just hope to accomplish being valuable to the stu-
dents. I want them to feel that I am a valuable
source. (LA3)
The analogy presented here signifies that LA3 views
his role in the LA program as a guide for his students.
His role is also grounded in his past experience in the
course and knowledge of the course content, making him
an expert resource. As a resource or knowledge brokers,
the LAs and CSC fellows were confident in their know-
ledge of STEM as well as in their ability to transfer this
knowledge to others. Seeing oneself as a more experienced
community member and being able to demonstrate STEM
content knowledge like this are key tenets of science iden-
tity development (Carlone & Johnson, 2007).
For some LAs and CSC Fellows, different roles were
more prominent than others at different points in the
programs. For Fellow3, being a CSC Fellow meant being
a student, teacher, and mentor. She explains her experi-
ences facilitating one activity with students: “During this
experiment I knew what I was doing and talking about. I
really felt more like a teacher/mentor during this meet-
ing than a student learning along with the high school
student”(Fellow3). Here, the role identities Fellow3 as-
sumes during her outreach experience switches from
student to teacher/mentor, and is indicative of the mul-
tiple roles and dynamic nature of science identity devel-
opment in the programs. These multiple roles are also
illustrative of the complex nature of the UMT activity
system.
Theme 2: setting performance expectations
Identities are formed and shaped through practice.
When practicing an identity, individuals set performance
expectations for themselves in order to maintain self-
efficacy while enacting a specific role, as well as identifi-
cation and acceptance within a community. As LAs and
CSC fellows engage in experiential STEM SSOPs, they
describe a collection of actions, attitudes and approaches
that align with the performance expectations attached to
their role in the program, and also to their identity
within the broader STEM community.
Each role claimed by the LAs and CSC fellows was at-
tached to a corresponding performance expectation.
These performance expectations illustrate the rules of
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interaction within the UMT activity system. Identities
are formed through practice, and performance is viewed
here as a process contributing to the identity develop-
ment of LAs and CSC fellows. In these instances, LAs
and CSC fellows formed their own interpretations of
what it means to be, or act, in a particular role in their
respective SSOPs. For example, when asked what it
means to be an LA, LA1 explains her role as a teacher:
“I think that what it means to teach is something way
more in depth and complex, though, because you have
to know also how to teach to many different types of
learners”(LA1). For LA1, being a teacher means under-
standing how learners learn and having the pedagogical
skills to accommodate this learning. However, not all
UMTs in our sample held the same performance expec-
tations for themselves when enacting their role as men-
tors. A different set of performance expectations
followed each role claimed by individual LAs and CSC
Fellows. For LA2, being an LA means supporting the
faculty instructor and being a subject matter expert. He
interprets the role of an LA to be:
Support for the instructor, since she is unable to
spend time with every student and cannot partici-
pate in her own class, we can provide our experi-
ence having succeeded in the class before along
with guidance to build a solid understanding of the
subjects that are discussed in class. (LA2)
LA2 is setting performance expectations for his iden-
tity by drawing from previous experiences and success
taking the same course. He uses this prior knowledge to
guide and provide individual assistance to students.
Science identity development requires the participa-
tion of others (Burke & Stets, 2009; Carlone & Johnson,
2007). Therefore, for those LAs and CSC fellows claim-
ing the role of a teacher or mentor, performance expec-
tations were set based on the needs of the students with
whom they were working. And because the addition of
UMTs to these learning environments constituted a shift
in the way that learning happens, there is variation in the
observed performance expectations. Similarly, for LAs and
CSC fellows interpreting their role to be more experienced
in STEM than the students they mentored, expectations
were set for the amount and type of knowledge needed to
perform their role in the program. In some cases, the
UMTs acquired new STEM knowledge that went beyond
the specific disciplinary knowledge necessary to support a
particular class or develop a particular outreach activity.
Further analysis of this theme revealed performance ex-
pectations related to UMTs’views of STEM, including
how STEM is learned and practiced. In one example, Fel-
low2 sets his performance expectations as a Fellow from
his belief in the importance of collaboration in STEM.
Acting on behalf of these expectations, Fellow2 allows his
students a room to work together and problem solve:
It’s important I believe that when you are working
with STEM related material to collaborate and try
and guide people towards the right direction. Not
explicitly telling them answers to problems, but
making sure they are on the right path can be a
great help when trying to spread awareness of
STEM. (Fellow2)
Conversely, Fellow1 emphasizes growth as an import-
ant aspect of learning in STEM. In her role as a fellow,
she promotes creative thinking and working alone to
solve a problem so that her students might feel personal
success from creating their own solution:
I think a big part of STEM, one we may forget, is
growth. If everyone was hovered around and wasn’t
able to think alone or creatively then no one would
be able to make mistakes and grow to where they
feel like they have created something new. (Fellow1)
These differences in performance expectations (rules)
related to claimed roles (division of labor) speak to the
contradictions within the UMT activity system. This ten-
sion or contradiction exemplifies Engeström’s Fourth
Principle of activity theory: “When an activity system
adopts a new element from the outside (for example, a
new technology or a new object), it often leads to an ag-
gravated secondary contradiction where some old element
(for example, the rules or the division of labor) collides
with the new one”(Engeström, 2001, p. 137). However, re-
gardless of the difference in the type of performance ex-
pectations, the act of setting performance expectations for
a novel role is indicative of identity development.
Theme 3: feeling validated
Within the Carlone and Johnson (2007) model of science
identity development, recognition (i.e., being recognized
as a “science-person”) is a key aspect to reinforcing one’s
science identity. LAs and CSC fellows often reflected on
moments when they felt validated, or recognized, by the
students they mentored. In these moments of validation,
the UMTs reflected on instances when students saw
them as STEM people that they can learn from as well
as leaders within their science classrooms, which further
legitimized their role(s) within the community of their
respective programs. This occurred in a number of ways,
from the students using techniques taught by the LAs or
CSC Fellows, to students verbally explaining how the LA
or fellow helped them learn STEM content or skills, or
UMTs explicitly reflecting on a strengthened identity
based on interactions with students. For example, LA3
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explained: “I enjoy however the appreciation I feel some
of the students have for me as an LA. I feel more and
more as a group leader each passing week”(LA3). In this
instance, LA3 is explaining his own internal validation of
his leadership role and LA role within the science class-
room stemming from student appreciation and feedback.
This type of internal validation is a central part of
strengthening one’s overall science identity (Carlone &
Johnson, 2007).
In other instances, UMTs felt validated when students
used the techniques the UMT had taught them and from
meaningful interactions with students. LA1 reflected on
an instance in class where she noticed that many stu-
dents used what she had taught them on an assignment:
“After they finished the questions, Dr. B had us collect
them and look over them to see what their misconcep-
tions were, and I noticed many of them took my sugges-
tions and explanations to heart”(LA1). In this instance,
LA1 feels validated in her role as a science person and
as a broker of STEM knowledge, as she recognizes that
many students implemented what she had taught them
regarding the content on this assignment. LA2 reflected
deeply on his interactions with students during his ar-
ranged office hours, and in particular describes several
instances in which he felt like students that were coming
to his office hours were learning significantly due to
their interactions. For example, LA2 reflected on two
students that came to his office hours to go over several
problems from class: “This week I had two people come
in [to office hours] and discuss the challenge problems
with me which is fantastic! Both of them said that they
got a lot out of going through the problems with me”
(LA2). For LA2, this moment of validation legitimizes
his role as an LA and as someone that is capable of
explaining complex problems to students. Additionally,
the tone of this reflection exudes excitement, showcasing
that LA2 is eager to help students during his office hours
and is excited when students come to his office hours
for help. Similar to LA2, Fellow3 is excited to be a men-
tor and feels validated in her role: “I felt I was more in a
position of power, which felt great, and I would be able
to help students when they were confused”(Fellow3).
This feeling of power validates Fellow3’s position as a
fellow and also as a more-expert STEM person (relative
to the high school students she was working with) cap-
able of showcasing her knowledge and skills.
These examples demonstrate how validation and rec-
ognition act as reinforcements to the LA and CSC Fel-
lows’science identities, as they not only see themselves
as STEM knowledge brokers, but others do as well. Add-
itionally, LAs and fellows both reflected on moments of
validation throughout their journals, indicating that
these feelings of validation are similarly experienced by
UMTs across the SSOPs of interest. As Stets et al.
(2017) explain, having a role or position within a STEM
community validated by others within that community is
crucial to strengthening a developing science identity.
Metacognitive development
Metacognitive development is a key element in the
transfer of knowledge from more experienced persons to
less experienced persons (Pintrich, 2002). LAs and CSC
fellows are viewed as being more experienced with
STEM content relative to the students they mentor, and
as such they have a unique role in the activity system. In
that role, they work to support the development of stu-
dents’knowledge and to transfer that knowledge, by
interacting and working with students in the system.
Thinking or reflecting on one’s own comprehension of
content, challenges or shortcomings, and learning strat-
egies used is a key exercise when preparing to transfer
knowledge to another person (Flavell, 1979; Pintrich,
2002). The UMTs demonstrated several instances in
which they thought about and reflected on metacogni-
tive elements. Three themes emerged from our analysis
regarding these metacognitive elements, as outlined in
Table 3: (a) reflecting on content knowledge, (b) identi-
fying barriers and challenges, and (c) goal setting within
the program.
Theme 4: reflecting on content knowledge
LAs and CSC fellows reflected regularly on their level
of comprehension and knowledge of content. Within
these reflections, LAs and CSC fellows described in-
stances in which they were both confident or not
confident in their knowledge relating to a specific
STEM content area, instances in which they felt like
their experience as a mentor was helping reinforce
content they had learned previously, and instances in
which they were able to learn new content or strat-
egies. Fellow2 describes his year in the CSC program
as a mentor as one that allowed him to think about
and reflect on his knowledge of STEM content and
his strategies for teaching this content:
Working with younger students every week and try-
ing to convey science topics in order to spread the
ideas that revolve around STEM was a bit challen-
ging at times, but I was able to gain a lot from it. It
challenged me to try and relate complex topics and
subjects to a more appropriate level for the students
to be able to learn. This allowed me to learn a lot
more about a topic as well as reinforce the founda-
tion of my knowledge. (Fellow 2)
Through the process of reflecting on his experiences,
Fellow2 was able to gain a deeper understanding of what
knowledge he holds, his comprehension of this
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knowledge, and how to think about that knowledge in a
way that allowed him to deliver it to the students he was
mentoring. Fellow2 also reflected on his knowledge earl-
ier in the year when he worked with students on figuring
out how to calculate the velocity of a car based on dis-
tance traveled over time:
The biggest highlights for me this past week was
doing the car activity. It allowed me to discuss what
I am best at, which was Physics. The students were
able to understand what to do easily and I was able
to help the students understand basic physics con-
cepts. Additionally, it helped me understand better
how motion works with various materials and sur-
faces. (Fellow2)
Fellow2 not only reflects on his level of content know-
ledge specifically that he feels like he is most competent
in Physics, but also on how facilitating the activity on
velocity reinforced and strengthened his own knowledge
on the subject. In this case, the activity on velocity medi-
ated Fellow2’s engagement with the students and in the
program, which supports his metacognitive development
(refer to Fig. 1).
In addition to Fellow2, several other UMTs reflected
on their comprehension of content and how their role as
a UMT added to their STEM knowledge base. Fellow1, a
pre-service teacher, said the following in one of her first
reflections:
I think this would be a wonderful opportunity for me
to interact with students as well as learn from them for
my own future classroom. This is a great atmosphere
to help me broaden my knowledge with mathematics
and apply it to kids who not only enjoy STEM but
want to do something more with it. (Fellow1)
Fellow1 immediately recognized that her experience as
a mentor will help her not only to better understand
mathematics concepts as she teaches K-12 students, but
also how others learn in relation to how she learns.
LA3 reflected on how his role as a UMT was help-
ing reinforce content he had previously learned: “Iam
also just enjoying just relearning all of this stuff again.
I am taking the MCAT soon so it is nice reviewing
this kind of material. I really feel that it is benefiting
me exceptionally”(LA3). When, as an LA, he was
placed into a role that required explaining several
complex STEM concepts to other students, LA3 recog-
nized that this was actually helping to deepen his un-
derstanding and comprehension of these topics.
Metacognitive reflection also speaks to learning new
content. LA1 described an instance in which she rec-
ognized that she had a shortcoming on a specific area
of content and how talking with another LA helped
her to understand this topic:
Right before we went into class, we had our weekly
meeting and we all did like a little crash course
about DNA replication. [Another LA] really helped
me actually understand it. All of the sudden, I felt
like oh my goodness, I finally get it! I understand.
There was a very specific moment where it all just
clicked. I felt so proud, and I went into class all ex-
cited to help. (LA1)
We note that this also represents a feeling of validation
for LA1 and is thereby also evidence of the development
of her science identity. As LA1 fulfilled the claimed role
in the system, and because her engagement was medi-
ated by the content, the experience supports both her
metacognitive and identity development.
Understanding and reflecting on learning strategies and
comprehension of knowledge are important components
of metacognitive development. Pintrich (2002)explains
how this reflective practice is especially useful for teachers
in any setting that must transfer knowledge and skills to a
wide variety of learners. The UMTs show clear practice of
this type of metacognitive reflection when thinking back
to their interactions with students, which were shaped by
their roles and mediated by the content and activities.
Theme 5: identifying barriers and challenges
The UMTs also reflected on barriers and challenges in
their novel roles within the activity system. A barrier re-
fers to something that hindered the UMT from carrying
out or completing a task they perceived to be part of
their role, while a challenge refers to something that
they were able to implement, but not without practical
or personal difficulty. In many cases, we conceptualize
barriers and challenges as arising from tensions or con-
tradictions between the elements of the activity system
(for instance, between the division of labor and the
rules/norms of the system). These contradictions arise
when a new way of thinking or behaving is introduced
into the system, and is a defining principle of the activity
system. They are not merely “problems.”Indeed, Enges-
tröm highlights “the central role of contradictions as
sources of change and development”in activity systems
(Engeström, 2001, p. 137).
Flavell (1979) describes how recognizing and reflecting
on obstacles is a crucial component of metacognitive de-
velopment. These examples showcase how the UMTs
recognized various barriers and challenges they faced in
their UMT roles as well as their reflective processes for
thinking about how to overcome them. The UMTs’re-
flections illustrate the higher order thinking they were
engaged in relating to their own metacognition,
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particularly when trying to identify, monitor, plan for, and
evaluate a barrier or challenge that they experienced.
Most of the barriers or challenges experienced by the
UMTs were centered on familiarity with the content, peda-
gogy, and communication skills, or building relationships
with the students. Each of these barriers can be mapped
onto mediating artifacts, norms of interaction, community,
and division of labor in our activity system (see Fig. 1). Dur-
ing their reflections of these barriers and challenges, both
LAs and CSC fellows utilized metacognitive skills to iden-
tify, monitor, and evaluate areas of the program and their
role that they were unfamiliar with or struggling in, and in
some cases, how to overcome these barriers. For example,
Fellow1, Fellow2, and LA1 all identified barriers related to
their new roles as UMTs. First, Fellow1 identifies how there
were aspects of STEM that she was unfamiliar with:
I didn’t have TSA [Technology Student Association]
at my high school, we had robotics, which I still
didn’t participate in. So for me learning and acquir-
ing knowledge for TSA was and is still a big chal-
lenge for me to wrap my head around all of their
categories and their rules. (Fellow1)
TSA was a new element and a new way of thinking for
Fellow1. Recognizing this type of knowledge gap and
reflecting on what knowledge is necessary to add to
one’s knowledge base in any subject is an important
metacognitive exercise (Flavell, 1979). Fellow1 also de-
scribes an instance in which she recognized challenges
within the CSC program associated with the students
she was mentoring not being fully prepared:
Unfortunately students didn't have portfolios done so
we didn't have any to check. I believe this was unsuc-
cessful because we assumed the students would be
more prepared than they were, which was not all. If I
were to re-do this demo I would probably do my own
portfolio and show them what a finished one looks
like. That way students could see a finished one and
have something to reference to. (Fellow1)
This perceived lack of preparedness for the context/sys-
tem in which they were operating was a contradiction with
what Fellow1 might have seen as normal classroom prac-
tice. Helping students prepareforaforthcomingtechnology
competition was one aspect of Fellow1’sroleintheCSC
program, so the under-preparedness students inhibited Fel-
low1 from feeling like she could adequately perform her
role as a UMT. After some reflection, she realized she could
overcome the lack of student preparation by having an ex-
emplar portfolio prepared ahead of time.
Similarly to Fellow1, Fellow2 recognized a barrier he
experienced in his role as a fellow related to the task of
communicating technical STEM knowledge to a younger
audience:
Working with younger students every week and try-
ing to convey science topics in order to spread the
ideas that revolve around STEM was a bit challen-
ging at times, but I was able to gain a lot from it. It
challenged me to try and relate complex topics and
subjects to a more appropriate level for the students
to be able to learn. (Fellow2)
Fellow2 recognized that his role as a fellow inherently in-
cluded a challenge of communicating complex STEM con-
cepts to young students, but he was able to reflect on and
identify this challenge and evaluate how he could work
through it. Fellow2 also struggled with under preparedness,
albeit related to planning for their outreach experiences:
One thing I did not realize is how hard it is to know
what materials are needed. Since our schedule is
pretty tentative, we are unsure in some regards in
what we need to get. This is one obstacle I feel like
we need to overcome so we do not scramble last
minute for materials or change our lesson plans be-
cause we don’t have the proper materials. (Fellow2)
Here, Fellow2 recognizes an “obstacle”arising from a
tension within the division of labor within the team of
Fellows and expresses his intention to overcome it. The
tentativeness of the schedule is perhaps unique to this
context and presents a contradiction to Fellow2 in terms
of their own preparedness.
Communication of STEM content was also a barrier
for LA1. In several reflections, LA1 reflected on the bar-
rier of explaining complex STEM content to her peers
and how this barrier actually impeded her ability to per-
form her role as an LA. LA1 explains early in the semes-
ter that she kept “getting tongue tied and not knowing
where to start when explaining things to students”
(LA1). However, this barrier was hard for her to over-
come and affected her LA experience as she explains in
a later reflection: “The past couple weeks have been a
big struggle for me, because I've been really intimidated
to go up to students and talk to them”(LA1). Metacog-
nitively speaking, LA1 actively recognized and reflected
on obstacles that obstructed her ability to perform her
role as an LA, which are key components of metacogni-
tive development within a novel role (Flavell, 1979).
However, LA1, unlike Fellow2 and Fellow1, did not re-
flect on ways to overcome these barriers.
Theme 6: goal setting within the program
Both CSC fellows and LAs set firm goals for themselves
in their roles. A goal refers to something they would like
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to achieve, which can include both mastery goals (goals
linked to a personal improvement or a personal best)
and performance goals (goals directly linked to the de-
sired outcome). Goal setting has long been considered a
key component of metacognition and self-regulation
(Pintrich, 2004; Weinstein, Husman, & Dierking, 2000).
As explained by Flavell (1979), novel roles (like being a
UMT) expressly demand reflective thinking on progress
towards goals. This type of thinking and reflection is part
of one’s metacognitive development as they take on new
roles. The goals explicitly stated by the UMTs in this
study were varied in nature. Some were short-term for the
following week, while others were for the following semes-
ter or even further into the future. The UMTs set goals
that were specifically aimed towards the students they
mentored, their respective SSOPs as a whole, or more per-
sonal inward directed goals. Specifically, goals being set
were either related to the planning and development of
teaching and/or learning strategies (mediating artifacts),
increasing student engagement (rules), or to improve
communication (community and division of labor).
For example, LA2 sets himself broad personal goals
for improved communication and teaching strategies for
the near future: “My goal for the semester is better
understand how other people learn so that I can become
better at it myself and to get to do this again next se-
mester for the physics department”(LA2). Similarly,
through her initial experiences as an LA, LA1 reflects on
general, yet attainable goals she would like to achieve
while in her role:
There are two big things I want to improve. The
first is my ability to interact with students, because I
hold myself back a lot due to my shyness and lack
of confidence sometimes. I think this week really
helped with that. The next thing I want to change is
to get a whiteboard next to my section in class.
Many of the students totally loved when Maddie
and Frank utilized it last class, so I think the stu-
dents in my section would like it as well. I already
emailed Dr. X asking about it so hopefully he has a
way to get one or something similar. (LA1)
Fellow1 also included goals for the future experiences
of K-12 students served by the CSC program:
I know that I will redo this demo next semester (Fall
16’) and get the students more on the mathematics
behind the catapult and help them apply that to
their own projects but also keep them engaged like
this last time. (Fellow1)
This example is much broader compared to the ex-
ample from LA1, and it is pertaining to a specific task
(mediating artifact), whereas LA1’s goals refer to her
general interactions with students.
Although the types of goals set varied, goal setting was
seen throughout the LA and CSC Fellows’reflections.
This indicates that they were self-regulating and self-
monitoring as they moved through these experiential
program experiences. This also indicates that the UMTs
were considering their own performances and striving to
better themselves in their roles.
Discussion
The six themes presented in Table 3and discussed
above represent the experiences we have identified in
our UMT sample related to their science identity and
metacognitive development. These themes serve as evi-
dence for the outcomes we have defined in our activity
system, in which the UMTs are the main subject, but
these are not the only potential outcomes in the system.
One could conceptualize communication skills, appreci-
ation of teaching, and other affective components as de-
sired outcomes of the system. The participation of
UMTs within this activity system, and the varied roles
and division of labor that participation entails, has
allowed these UMTs to reconceptualize and construct
their own science identities and metacognitive functions.
This reconceptualization is a key component of Activity
Theory (Engeström, 1987,2001), as the UMTs used their
position within this social activity system (as they inter-
acted with students they mentored, other UMTs, and
faculty) to re-think how they see themselves within the
STEM community and how they understand and com-
municate complex STEM concepts. This reconceptuali-
zation is not only fueled by the social interactions that
take place within the activity system, but also by the var-
iety of participants and members of the activity system
community.
One of the principles of Activity Theory is community,
in which different members of the activity system take
on different roles related to their point of view, interests,
and skills (Engeström, 1987,2001). As UMTs enter into
already established activity systems (such as a classroom
or afterschool program), they perturb the norms of those
systems by taking on unique and novel roles and creat-
ing a new division of labor within the system. What we
have seen through the UMT reflections in our sample is
that perturbation and new division of labor (via taking
on novel roles within the system) seemed to generate a
reconceptualization and development of both science
identity and metacognition that may not have occurred
in this same manner if not for the original perturbance
(i.e., the LA or Fellow entering into the classroom or
after school activity system). In this sense, their partici-
pation in the system was itself a source of contradiction.
Huvard et al. International Journal of STEM Education (2020) 7:31 Page 13 of 17
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
In terms of science identity development, the UMTs in
our sample claimed and attached meaning to their roles
as more-expert STEM knowledge bearers than the stu-
dents they mentored. Roles were then validated by
others within their classroom activity systems. These
pieces of science identity development and strengthening
may have not happened if not for the roles the UMTs
took on within the larger activity systems they were par-
ticipating. One facet of both the LA and CSC programs
is that they are designed to empower UMTs to claim
and explore their roles as content experts (in related but
somewhat distinct ways). This contributes to the oppor-
tunities for identity development of the types we have
observed here. This possibility aligns with the notion
that identities are filled with meaning based on how a
person perceives their role as an individual and within
the larger cultural groups they are part of within society
(Stets et al., 2017).
Stronger science identity has been linked to reten-
tion in STEM among undergraduates (Merolla &
Serpe, 2013;Stetsetal.,2017). Although UMTs in
these programs have generally been successful in their
coursework, stronger, and more developed science
identities may impact their continued success in
STEM and how they are perceived within the larger
STEM community. In turn, this may severely influ-
ence how UMT roles evolve within the activity system
and how UMTs positively impact the students they
mentor (and as an extension, the effect of that impact
on the mentored student).
In conjunction with science identity, metacognition
development was also observed. Metacognition develop-
ment included a deeper understanding of material upon
reflection of content, barrier identification, and goal set-
ting. These metacognitive functions are thought to be
due to the novel roles UMTs take on within the activity
system. Novel roles typically require extensive planning
and reflection, which are metacognitive in nature (Fla-
vell, 1979). As UMTs took on these new roles (and a
new division of labor existed within the activity system),
they were confronted with thinking about how they
understood complex scientific concepts, what challenges
and barriers they faced when it came to content, com-
munication, and building relationships within the sys-
tem, and what goals they had for themselves regarding
their own preparation and interactions with students. As
with the observed development of science identity, we
presume that these metacognitive actions occurred be-
cause of UMTs’participation and novel roles within the
activity system.
An area of overlap between science identity develop-
ment and metacognition that warrants further consider-
ation is science self-efficacy or a student’s own
perceptions if they are capable of doing and teaching
science to others (Stets et al., 2017). If a UMT believes
they are capable of studying and doing science, through
reflection of content knowledge or comprehension, this
will become a core part of their science identity that they
display outwards. Moreover, if a UMT believes that par-
ticipating in science will lead to a positive outcome (i.e.,
feeling validated in their role as a “science-person”(Car-
lone & Johnson, 2007)), this will feed into their positive
science self-efficacy, which will feed into a stronger sci-
ence identity. The stronger the science identity (i.e., also
stronger science self-efficacy), the more likely the UMT
will display that identity outwards. However, if a UMT is
not met with the reflected appraisal that Stets et al.
(2017) describe, the likelihood that their science self-effi-
cacy will diminish is high because their participation as a
scientist and as a mentor was not met with a positive ex-
perience nor positive feedback from their external envir-
onment (i.e., community within the activity system).
Limitations
One limitation of this study is that the data was col-
lected independently by the CSC and LA programs.
In the future, a common set of prompts may be de-
ployed to better understand shared and distinct im-
pacts across a larger family of SSOPs. Also, this study
considered only two SSOPs, which may limit the abil-
ity to make inferences about SSOPs writ large. On
our campus, examples of other SSOPs include under-
graduate teaching assistants in Chemistry, supplemen-
tal instruction leaders across several disciplines, and
peer mentors in the peer advocate leaders program. It
is possible that a study of these programs in concert
with the CSC and LA programs would lead to new or
different insights.
Conclusions
This paper represents the first steps in examining
common and distinct outcomes of SSOPs on UMTs
via an examination of the experiences of undergradu-
ate learning assistants and outreach fellows. Across
both programs, UMTs demonstrated evidence of
strengthened metacognition and science identity, both
of which are important components of success in
STEM as defined by our activity system framing. An
understanding of these and other potential outcomes
may have implications for undergraduate STEM edu-
cation. For example, this work could help develop a
model of how these types of programs could be built,
adopted, or adapted. Additionally, this work contrib-
utes to the growing literature that indicates participa-
tion in SSOPs may be a potentially transformative
part of the undergraduate experience that could
reinforce and enrich students’experiences in other
STEM learning environments.
Huvard et al. International Journal of STEM Education (2020) 7:31 Page 14 of 17
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Appendix
Table 4 Themes, codes, and exemplars
Theme Codes Exemplars from reflections
Science identity development
Claiming a role and
attaching meaning to it
Teacher
Collaborator
Mentor
Guide
Peer
Expert
Facilitator
Leader
Student
During this experiment I knew what I was doing and talking about. I really felt more like
a teacher/mentor during this meeting than a student learning along with the GMHS
students. (Fellow3)
I see myself as a team leader, or captain as an LA. That I have previous experience on
the material and can help guide my section in succeeding in the material. (LA3)
LAs I think are support for the instructor, since she is unable to spend time with every
student and cannot participate in her own class we can provide our experience having
succeeded in the class before along with guidance to build a solid understanding of the
subjects that are discussed in class. (LA2)
Setting performance
expectations
Be knowledgeable in STEM
content
Get students interested in
STEM
Expose students to new
concepts and experiences
Engage students with
material
Be a valuable resource
Help students understand
content
Promote creative thinking
Encourage failure and
building perseverance
There were still the group of students who did not pay attention and were busy doing
off topic stuff, but it’s our job to ensure that everyone in the classroom is engaged and
gains an interest about STEM. (Fellow2)
I just hope to accomplish being valuable to the students. I want them to feel that I am a
valuable source. That they see me as resource the way they see the office hours of Dr. K
and SI tutors. (LA3)
It’s our job to expose them to something new things that they haven’t experimented with
yet. (Fellow1)
As a facilitator I focused on trying to get the students to understand the importance of
each element in cellular respiration and focus on how these elements connect together.
(LA3)
Feeling validated Positive appraisals
Students are curious and
want to know more
Grades improve
Misconceptions are
remediated
Advice is taken
Confusion is eliminated
Students are engaged in the
material
Students are having fun
Attending office hours
Students asking for help
I think that the thirst for knowledge resides in many of the students we engage with and
it’s fun to see them seeking answers to questions that we may not even know, but are
able to find out for them. (Fellow2)
After they finished the questions, Dr. K had us collect them and look over them to see
what their misconceptions were, and I noticed many of them took my suggestions and
explanations to heart. (LA1)
I felt I was more in a position of power, which felt great, and I would be able to help
students when they were confused. (Fellow3)
I felt like a total failure when I had to take a good 10 minutes to look over the book
before helping the student who came to my office hours. (LA1)
Metacognitive development
Content reinforcement/
learning
Self-evaluation of content
knowledge
Re-learning old content
Reflecting on learning
strategies
Learning content in a new
way
I am also just enjoying just relearning all of this stuff again. I am taking the MCAT soon
so it is nice reviewing this kinds of material. I really feel that it is benefiting me
exceptionally. (LA3)
Right before we went into class, we had our weekly meeting and we all did like a little
crash course about DNA replication. [Another LA] really helped me actually understand it.
All of the sudden, I felt like oh my goodness, I finally get it! I understand. There was a
very specific moment where it all just clicked. I felt so proud, and I went into class all
excited to help. (LA1)
I think this would be a wonderful opportunity for me to interact with students as well as
learn from them for my own future classroom. This is a great atmosphere to help me
broaden my knowledge with mathematics and apply it to kids who not only enjoy STEM
but want to do something more with it (Fellow1)
Identifying and overcoming
barriers and challenges
Subject-specific content
(Science
Technology
Math
Engineering)
Pedagogy and
communication skills
Explaining complex
concepts
Demonstrations
Engagement
Learning and acquiring knowledge for TSA was and is still a big challenge for me to
wrap my head around all of their categories and their rules. From the demo aspect we
have worked with some very new things that I had to learn and add to my repertoire
when it came to STEM, such as google sketchup. I hadn’t worked with anything CAD
related so for me this was a very big challenge. (Fellow1)
Working with younger students every week and trying to convey science topics in order
to spread the ideas that revolve around STEM was a bit challenging at times, but I was
able to gain a lot from it. It challenged me to try and relate complex topics and subjects
to a more appropriate level for the students to be able to learn. (Fellow2)
I was a stranger in this new class room and was challenged to learn about all these new
Huvard et al. International Journal of STEM Education (2020) 7:31 Page 15 of 17
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Supplementary information
Supplementary information accompanies this paper at https://doi.org/10.
1186/s40594-020-00231-6.
Additional file 1.
Abbreviations
CSC: Community STEM Clubs (Program); LA: Learning assistant;
SSOP: Student Support and Outreach Program; STEM: Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics; TSA: Technology Student Association;
UMT: Undergraduate mentor-teacher
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the many amazing, engaged, and talented undergraduate
students that are the beating hearts of the SSOPs discussed in this paper.
They would also like to thank their many colleagues who contribute to and
co-lead these programs, without whom this work would be impossible.
Authors’contributions
HH, RT, and MR wrote and edited the submitted manuscript. HM and AT
collected and coded all of the reflections used for this analysis. HM and AT
conducted the thematic analysis. BW assisted with coding and thematic
analysis. All authors offered comments, suggestions, and edits for the
submitted manuscript. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
The authors of this manuscript were funded by National Science Foundation
DUE grants 1525115 and 1504535. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Availability of data and materials
Please contact the author for data requests.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The participants were all adults who volunteered for the program. The
participating institutions/colleges currently do have and approved IRB
protocols 14-0028 and 14-0077 with the Colorado Multiple Institutional Re-
view Board.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Received: 19 December 2019 Accepted: 10 June 2020
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