Content uploaded by Robert Agbemafle
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Robert Agbemafle on Jul 01, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
34
Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF SHEA BUTTER
FROM TAMALE, NORTHERN GHANA
Garti, H.*, Agbemafle R.** Mahunu G.K.***
*School of Allied Health Sciences, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana
** School of Physical Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
*** Faculty of Agriculture, University for Development Studies, Nyankpala-Tamale, Ghana
Corresponding Author’s Email: hgarti@yahoo.com
Abstract
Shea butter is a significant source of fat in the diet of many rural dwellers in northern Ghana. It is produced from
the seeds of shea tree and its suitability as dietary fat or use in cosmetic industry is greatly influenced by its
physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition. The aim of this study was to determine the
physicochemical properties and fatty acid profile of shea butter sold in Tamale Central market and to compare
the qualities with other edible oils. The samples of shea butter were analyzed for refractive index, unsaponifiable
matter, saponification, iodine, acid and peroxide values and fatty acid composition. Physicochemical properties
of shea butter obtained in this study were refractive index of 1.5 at 25oC, saponification value (198 mg/KOH/g),
iodine value (45.6 I2g/100g), unsaponifiable matter (19.8 %), acid value (3.2 mgKOH/g) and peroxide value
(9.84 meq/kg). The predominant unsaturated fatty acids were: oleic (36.3%), linoleic (5.4%) and alpha linoleic
(0.14%). The most dominant saturated fatty acids found were stearic (52.4%) and palmitic acids (3 %), arachidic
(1.5%). Data suggests that shea butter sold in Tamale compared favourably with shea butter from countries
within the West African sub region and Uganda and also to other edible oils. The implication of all these is that
shea butter is a good cooking oil and is safe for human consumption.
Keywords: Shea butter, physicochemical, fatty acid, edible oil, Vitellaria paradoxa
Introduction
Shea butter is a fat extracted from the seeds of the
shea tree. The tree (Vitellaria paradoxa L.) is
indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa and grows from
Guinea Bissau in West Africa to Ethiopia in the East.
In Ghana the shea tree grows in the savannah
vegetation particularly in the Upper East, Upper
West and Northern regions with scattered growth in
northern parts of Brong Ahafo and Volta regions. It
was estimated that Ghana currently produces over
130,000 metric tonnes of shea nuts annually
(Hatskevich et al., 2011). The shea butter industry is
a very important source of income (Elias and Carney,
2005) and also provides significant source of edible
oil and energy for many rural communities (Honfo et
al., 2014). Besides its edibility, shea butter serves as
raw material for the local soap industry, cosmetics
especially during the harmattan and also as a base in
traditional medicine (Okullo et al., 2010, Goreja,
2004).
Globally there is an increasing demand for shea
butter as a substitute for cocoa butter in food,
cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries (Hatskevich
et al., 2011, Okullo et al., 2010). Quality demands
from developed countries in the global shea butter
trade require development of improved production
standards for enhanced quality product by producer
countries. Shea butter from West Africa was shown
to have significant variations in both
physicochemical and fatty acid composition and in
some instances differences between trees in the same
UDS International Journal of Development [UDSIJD] ISSN:
2026-5336
Volume 6 No. 3, 2019
http://www.udsijd.org
35
Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
locality were reported (Maranz et al., 2004,
Salunkhe, 1992). It is important therefore that data
on characteristics on shea butter be updated for
improvement in product quality.
Fats and oils have often been implicated in many
health complications including heart disease (Siri-
Tarino et al., 2010). However, as vegetable oil, shea
butter could be an important provider of vitamins A,
D, E, K and essential fatty acids in human diet
(Moreira et al., 2004, Salunkhe, 1992). Some of
these fat soluble vitamins especially A and E are
known to be very important antioxidants and the
essential fatty acids are necessary for the synthesis
of cell membranes, nerve tissues, and steroid
hormone formation (Uauy et al., 2000).
These suggest that information on physicochemical
properties of shea-butter and its fatty acid profile
must be available to help consumers, food producers,
processors and health care givers to make informed
and healthy choices concerning cooking fats and oils.
This study was to determine the physicochemical
properties and fatty acid composition of shea butter
sold in Tamale Central market and to compare the
qualities with other edible oils.
Materials and Methods
Sample collection and laboratory analyses
Samples of shea butter were purchased from three
shea butter sellers in the Central market of Tamale
Metropolis. Refractive index of the samples was also
obtained using Abbe refractometer (Carl
Zeiss121554, Germany). Saponification value,
iodine value, unsaponifiable matter, acid value and
peroxide value were determined using standard
methods of AOAC., 1990.
Fatty acid profile of shea butter was determined
following the procedure described by Ezeagu and
associates (2010). This involved transmethylation of
shea butter oil using trimethylsulfonium and esters
produced analyzed in gas liquid chromatograph
equipped with flame ionization detector.
Results and Discussion
Physicochemical properties of shea butter
Physicochemical characteristics of shea butter from
Tamale metropolis are presented in Table 1. The
iodine value is indicative of extent of saturation and
a measure of storability or shelf-life of oil. It relates
positively to the degree of unsaponification (Shahidi
and Zhong, 2010).The iodine value of 45.6 I2g/100g
oil (Table 1) obtained in this study is higher than the
range of values (36.6 – 41.4 I2g/100g oil) reported
for shea butter from Districts of Uganda (Okullo et
al., 2010). It is however consistent with 44.6
I2g/100g oil for shea butter from Southern Guinea
savanna (Enaberue et al., 2014), compares
favourably with 43.3 I2g/100g oil (Chukwu and
Adgidzi, 2008) but lower than values reported by
(Chibor et al., 2017). The shea butter in the current
study was more saturated than soybean oil (124-139
I2g/100g oil) and palm oil (50-55) (Stan, 2013) This
probably explains why it solidifies even at room
temperature and has low liability towards oxidative
rancidity which makes it a desirable cooking oil.
Also shea butter may be recommended for human
consumption because its iodine number is higher
than the recommended codex standards for coconut
oil (6.3 - 10.6) and palm kernel oil (14.1-21) (Stan,
2013).
Table 1: Physicochemical Properties of Shea Butter oil
Sample
Refractive
index at 25°C
Saponification
value (mg/KOH/g)
Iodine value
I2g/100g oil
Unsaponifiable
matter
%
Acid value
mgKOH/g oil
Peroxide
value
meqO2/kg
Shea
Butter oil
1.46 ± 0.01
198 ± 1.22
45.6 ± 1.21
9.8 ± 0.35
3.2 ± 0.31
9.8 ± 0.42
36
Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
Peroxides formed during storage account for
rancidity off-flavours of oils. The peroxide value of
9.8 meqO2/kg recorded in current study (Table 1)
relates positively to 10 meqO2/kg (Chukwu and
Adgidzi, 2008) but lower than 14.2 and 29.5
meqO2/kg reported by Adetuyi et al. (2015) and
Dandjouma et al. (2009) respectively. Differences in
the figures reported by different authors may be due
to factors such as storage duration of the fat (Kirk and
Sawyer, 1991) and type of kernel (fermented)
(Dandjouma et al., 2009). According to Kirk and
Sawyer (1991) peroxide is the initial product of
unsaturated fat oxidation and that the process starts
slowly at the early stages depending on temperature
and type of oil. The peroxide concentration in this
study showed that the shea butter was relatively
fresh. Kirk and Sawyer (1991) reported that fresh oil
usually has peroxide values below10 meqO2/kg, but
when this value increases to between 20 and 40
meqO2/kg, a rancid taste is produced. This is
associated with complex changes and formation of
volatile compounds of ketones, aldehydes and
hydroxyl groups as agents of the characteristic off-
flavours and odours of oils (Abdulrahim et al., 2000).
The peroxide value of 9.8 meqO2/kg registered on
this study makes the shea butter from Tamale a good
oil for the food industry. As explained by Honfo et
al. (2014), for use in the food industry, shea butter
must have peroxide value less than 10 meqO2/kg,
whilst oil of 1 meqO2/kg peroxide value is good for
cosmetic industry.
Chukwu and Adgidzi (2008) reported acid value of
3.8 mg KOH/g oil which is consistent with results of
the current study (3.2 mg KOH/g oil). Adetuyi et al.
(2015) recorded 1.8 mg KOH/g oil, a value much
lower than registered on this study. Okullo et al.
(2010) on the other hand reported acid values in the
range of 2.3 to 12.6 mg KOH/kg oil. The shea butter
in this study may be classified as acidic since the acid
value is greater than 2 mg KOH/g oil above which
oil is considered acidic (Chukwu and Adgidzi, 2008).
In relation to the acid value, consumption of shea
butter will have no detrimental effect on health. This
is because groundnut oil with acid value of 4 mg
KOH/g oil is consumed extensively in Nigeria
without any reported health challenges (Chukwu and
Adgidzi, 2008). Acid value may be expressed as
percentage free fatty acid which defines the extent of
degradation of triglycerides in the oil by lipase or
other factors such as light and heat (Kirk and Sawyer,
1991). The acid content of oil is felt at the palate
when oleic acid concentration reaches 0.5-1.5 %
(Farid et al., 2014, Kirk and Sawyer, 1991). Free
fatty acid content of shea butter is affected by
duration of storage, processing, packaging material,
germinating stage of fruit of shea nut and general
climatic conditions (Okullo et al., 2010, Kapseu et
al., 2001). This may explain the observed differences
between values reported here and finding by other
studies.
Shea butter has saponification value of 198
mg/KOH/g which compares favourably with the
recommended codex standard of many edible oils
such as soybean (189 - 194 mg KOH/g oil) and palm
oil (190 -209 mg KOH/g oil) but lower than that of
palm kernel oil (230 - 254 mgKOH/g oil) (Stan,
2013). Chibor et al. (2017) reported a saponification
value of 227.9 mgKOH/g oil. For shea butter from
different districts of Uganda, Okullo et al. (2010)
reported saponification values in the range of 160.4
– 192.2 mgKOH/g oil. Saponification value is used
as a measure of the proportion of the fatty acids
present in the fat. The high saponification value
makes shea butter in this study good for soap
production (Enaberue et al., 2014)
The unsaponifiable matter (USM) of 9.8% of shea
butter by far exceeds all the values recommended by
the codex standards for most vegetable fats (Stan,
2013). Shea butter was reported to have very high
levels of USM (4 – 11%) compared to other plant oils
(Nahm et al., 2013). Honfo et al. (2014) reported
unsaponifiable matter of shea butter from many
authors in the range of 1.2 to 17.6% whilst
unsaponifiable matter of 0.95 % and 0.4 % were
reported by Chibor et al. (2017) and Chukwu and
Adgidzi (2008) respectively. Shea butter essentially
consists of triglycerides and unsaponifiable matter
which influences its industrial relevance (Akihisa et
al., 2010). The significant variations in
unsaponifiable matter content of shea butter is
influenced by factors such as degree of ripening of
the fruit and variations in annual rainfall (Honfo et
37
Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
al., 2014). The high proportion of unsaponifiable
matter indicates availability of desirable secondary
plant metabolites such as antioxidants, anti-
inflammatory, antibacterial and vitamins (Nahm et
al., 2013). Even though the antioxidants offer
protection against oxidative rancidity, the high
proportion of unsaturated fatty acids associated with
plant oils may cause some degree of oxidative
rancidity in storage (Shahidi et al., 2010; Moharram
et al., 2006). This suggests duration and conditions
of storage must be carefully monitored to prevent
deterioration in quality characteristics of shea butter.
Fatty acid composition of shea butter
Shea butter in this study contains appreciable
amounts of essential fatty acids (Table 2); alpha
linolenic (0.14%) and linoleic (5.43%) acids, which
the body cannot manufacture and must be supplied
in the diet. Linoleic acid content compared closely to
the concentrations obtained from three districts of
Uganda (6.86, 6.4 and 6.2 %) but lower than 7.8%
from a fourth district (Okullo et al., 2010) and mean
value of 7.7% of shea nuts from different locations
in Northern Ghana (Quainoo et al., 2012). It is a very
important polyunsaturated fatty acid in human diet
and is known to prevent coronary heart diseases and
atherosclerosis among others (Bello et al., 2011).
Considering linoleic acid values reported from
Uganda and 6.6% to 7.2 % reported from two
savannah zones of Nigeria (Ugese et al., 2010), shea
butter sampled from Tamale may be viewed as
moderate source of essential fatty acids.
Table 2: Fatty Acid Composition of Shea Butter
These fatty acids are used in the production of
postagladins, et althromboxanes, postacyclines and
leukotrienes which are involved in a number of
activities in the body including the control of
inflammations (Calder, 2006). Of the 16 saturated
and 16 unsaturated fatty acids that define shea butter
fat , oleic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic and linoleic
acids are the most abundant (Di Vincenzo et al.,
2005). The most dominant saturated acid in this
study was stearic acid (52.4%) which was higher
than the amount reported for shea butter from four
districts in Uganda (28.6 to 30.9%) (Okullo et al.,
2010) and values (45.1 to 49.7%) reported by Ugese
et al. (2010). The high stearic proportion gives shea
butter solid characteristics at room temperature and
therefore useful for the manufacture of bakery fat and
margarine (Chibor et al., 2017) and also as cocoa
butter improver in the chocolate industry (Ugese et
al., 2010).
The major unsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid with
percentage proportion of 36.3% which was higher
than 23.3 % of soybean oil (Ezeagu et al., 2004), was
consistent with 37.2%, but lower than 40.2 to 43.4%
Fatty Acids
Ratios
Weight (%)
Saturated
Lauric
C12:0
0.14 ± 0.01
Myristic
C14:0
0.06 ± 0.00
Palmitic
C16:0
2.97 ± 0.08
Stearic
C18:0
52.36 ± 0.22
Arachidic
C20:0
1.48 ± 0.05
Unsaturated
Oleic
C18:1 (cis-9)
36.29 ± 0.13
Cis vaccenic
C18:1
0.52 ± 0.00
Linoleic (n-6)
C18:2 (C-9, C-12)
5.43 ± 0.04
Alpha linolenic
C18:2 (C-9, C-12 C-15)
0.14 ± 0.00
38
Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
reported for nuts from seven different locations in
Nigeria (Ugese et al., 2010). Oleic acid has lower
melting point (16.3oC) than stearic acid (69.6oC) and
therefore affects the degree of hardness depending on
its relative proportion in shea butter (Ugese et al.,
2010). This suggests that the higher stearic acid to
oleic acid ratio, the harder the shea butter. The
unsaturated fatty acid content gives shea butter a
much higher degree of unsaturation than coconut or
palm kernel oil (Stan, 2013). Consumption of oleic
acid has the benefit of reducing low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentration in the
blood thus lowering risk of coronary heart disease
(Okullo et al., 2010). However, shea butter may not
be a very good source of linoleic acid when
compared to the levels in sunflower oil (48 to 74 %)
(Díaz et al., 2006) and soybean oil (53.7%) (Ezeagu
et al., 2004).
Several studies (Mensink et al., 2003, Rosqvist et al.,
2017) indicate that concentration of cholesterol in the
serum is dependent on the type of fatty acid. Blood
serum cholesterol increases with saturated fatty acids
but decreases with unsaturated fatty acids. Palmitic
acid concentration (3%) recorded in this study
compared favourably with 4.1 % reported by Chibor
et al. (2017) but lower than 6.5-8.1% recorded by
Okullo et al., (2010). According to Ogungbenle and
Anisulowo (2014), palmitic acid consumption
constitutes a very significant risk factor for coronary
heart disease. Myristic, palmitic and lauric acids are
considered strong hypercholeromic agents of all the
saturated acids (Zock et al., 1994). It is therefore
important that humans consume fats and oils that
contain less of these fatty acids. Fortunately shea
butter in the current study contained less myristic
(0.06%) and palmitic acids (3%) than palm oil which
contains 0.7 % and 36.7 % respectively (Ramos et
al., 2009). Again, the level of lauric acid (0.14%) in
shea butter is far below that found in palm kernel oil
(45 -55 %) (Stan, 2013) and so may not increase
serum cholesterol to any appreciable level.
The saturated acid, stearic acid (52.4%) in shea butter
is higher than 41.6 % reported by Quainoo et al.
(2012) from shea nut seeds in Northern Ghana.
Importantly, however, stearic acid does not elevate
LDL cholesterol (Mensink, 2006).
Conclusion
Physicochemical characteristics of shea butter sold
in Tamale compared favourably with that of many
edible oils and to those of shea butter oil within the
West Africa sub region. These together with
saturated and unsaturated fatty acid composition
make shea butter from Tamale a potential raw
material for the food, soap and cosmetic industries.
It could serve as a good source of essential fatty acids
in the diet of many rural dwellers.
References
Abdulrahim, M., Hassan, A. & Bahago, E. (2000).
Practical manual on food technology,
nutritional dietetics for schools and
industries. Proceedings of the National
Science and Technology Forum, College of
Science and Technology, Kaduna
Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria,.
Adetuyi, B., Dairo, J. & Oluwole, E. (2015)
Biochemical Effects of Shea Butter and
Groundnut Oils on White Albino Rats.
International Journal of Chemistry and
Chemical Processes, 1 (8): 1-17.
International Journal of Chemistry and Chemical
Processes Vol. 1 No.8 2015 Akihisa, T.,
Kojima, N., Katoh, N., Ichimura, Y., Suzuki,
H., Fukatsu, M., Maranz, S. & Masters, E.
T. (2010). Triterpene alcohol and fatty acid
composition of shea nuts from seven African
countries. Journal of oleo science, 59: 351-
360.
AOAC. Official methods of analysis of AOAC.
International, 1990. Association of Official
Analytical Chemist International
Washington, DC.
Bello, M. O., Akindele, T. L., Adeoye, D. O. &
Oladimeji, A. (2011). Physicochemical
Properties and fatty acids profile of seed oil
of Telfairia occidentalis Hook, F.
International Journal Basic Applied
Science 11: 9-14.
Calder, P. C. (2006). Polyunsaturated fatty acids
and inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot
Essent Fatty Acids, 75: 197-202.
Chibor, B., Kiin-Kabari, D. & Ejiofor, J. (2017).
Physicochemical properties and fatty acid
39
Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
profile of shea butter and fluted pumpkin
seed oil, a suitable blend in bakery fat
production. International Journal of
Nutrition and Food Sciences, 6: 122-128.
Chukwu, O. & Adgidzi, P. (2008). Evaluation of
some physico-chemical properties of Shea-
butter (Butyrospermum paradoxum) related
to its value for food and industrial
utilisation. International Journal of
Postharvest Technology and Innovation, 1:
320-326.
Dandjouma, A., Adjia, H., Kameni, A. &
Tchiegang, C. (2009). Traditionnal
production and commercialization of shea
butter in North-Cameroon. Tropicultura, 27:
3-7.
Di Vincenzo, D., Maranz, S., Serraiocco, A., Vito,
R., Wiesman, Z. & Bianchi, G. (2005).
Regional variation in shea butter lipid and
triterpene composition in four African
countries. Journal of agricultural and food
chemistry, 53: 7473-7479.
Díaz, M. F., Hernández, R., Martínez, G., Vidal, G.,
Gómez, M., Fernández, H. & Garcés, R.
(2006). Comparative study of ozonized olive
oil and ozonized sunflower oil. Journal of
the Brazilian Chemical Society, 17: 403-
407.
Elias, M. & Carney, J. (2005). Shea butter,
globalization, and women of Burkina Faso,
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Enaberue, L., Obisesan, I., Okolo, E. & Ojo, A.
(2014). Proximate and chemical
composition of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa CF
Gaertn) fruit pulp in the Guinea Savanna of
Nigeria. World Journal of Agricultural
Sciences, 2: 078-083.
Ezeagu, I., Gopal Krishna, A., Khatoon, S. &
Gowda, L. (2004). Physico-chemical
characterization of seed oil and nutrient
assessment of Adenanthera pavonina, L: An
underutilized tropical legume. Ecology of
food and nutrition, 43: 295-305.
Farid, F. B., Latifa, G. A., Nahid, M. N. & Begum,
M. 2014. Comparative study of the sensory
scores, quality and shelf life study of dry
and pickle salted shoal (C. striatus; Bloch,
1801) at room temperature (27-31 C).
International Journal of Fisheries and
Aquatic Studies, 2: 157-163.
Goreja, W. (2004). Shea butter: the nourishing
properties of Africa's best-kept natural
beauty secret, TNC International Inc.
Hatskevich, A., Jenicek, V. & Darkwah, S. A.
(2011). Shea industry–a means of poverty
reduction in Northern Ghana. Agricultura
Tropica et Subtropica, 44: 223-228.
Honfo, F. G., Akissoe, N., Linnemann, A. R.,
Soumanou, M. & Van Boekel, M. A. (2014).
Nutritional composition of shea products
and chemical properties of shea butter: a
review. Critical reviews in food science and
nutrition, 54: 673-686.
Kapseu, C., Jiokap Nono, J., Parmentier, M.,
Dirand, M. & Dellacherie, J. (2001). Fatty
acids and triglycerides of Cameroon shea
butter. Rivista Italiana delle Sostanze
Grasse, 78: 31-34.
Kirk, S. & Sawyer, R. (1991). Pearson’s
composition and analysis of foods (No. Ed
9). Longman Group Ltd.
Maranz, S., Wiesman, Z., Bisgaard, J. & Bianchi,
G. (2004). Germplasm resources of
Vitellaria paradoxa based on variations in fat
composition across the species distribution
range. Agroforestry systems, 60: 71-76.
Mensink, R. (2006). Effects of stearic acid on
plasma lipid and lipoproteins in humans.
Lipids 40(12):1201-5.
Mensink, R. P., Zock, P. L., Kester, A. D. & Katan,
M. B. (2003). Effects of dietary fatty acids
and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total
to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and
apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60
controlled trials. The American journal of
clinical nutrition, 77: 1146-1155.
Moreira, R., Castell-Perez, M. & Barrufet, M.
(1999). Deep Fat Frying: Fundamentals and
applications. Springer
Nahm, H. S., Juliani, H. R. & Simon, J. E. (2013).
Quality Characteristics of Shea Butter,
Vitellaria paradoxa. African Natural Plant
Products Volume II: Discoveries and
40
Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
Challenges in Chemistry, Health, and
Nutrition. ACS Publications.
Ogungbenle, H. & Anisulowo, Y. (2014).
Evaluation of Chemical and fatty acid
Constituents of Flour and Oil of Walnut
(Juglans regia) seeds. British Journal of
Research, 1: 113-119.
Okullo, J. B. L., Omujal, F., Agea, J., Vuzi, P.,
Namutebi, A., Okello, J. & Nyanzi, S.
(2010). Physico-chemical characteristics of
Shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa CF Gaertn.)
oil from the Shea district of Uganda.
African Journal of Food, Agriculture,
Nutrition and Development, 10.
Quainoo, A., Nyarko, G., Davrieux, F., Piombo, G.,
Bouvet, J.-M., Yidana, J., Abubakari, A.,
Mahunu, G., Abagale, F. & Chimsah, F.
(2012). Determination of biochemical
composition of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa)
nut using near infrared spectroscopy
(NIRS) and gas chromatography. 1 (2): 84-
98.
Ramos, M. J., Fernández, C. M., Casas, A.,
Rodríguez, L. & Pérez, Á. (2009). Influence
of fatty acid composition of raw materials
on biodiesel properties. Bioresource
Technology, 100: 261-268.
Rosqvist, F., Bjermo, H., Kullberg, J., Johansson,
L., Michaëlsson, K., Ahlström, H., Lind, L.
& Risérus, U. (2017). Fatty acid
composition in serum cholesterol esters and
phospholipids is linked to visceral and
subcutaneous adipose tissue content in
elderly individuals: a cross-sectional study.
Lipids in health and disease, 16: 68.
Salunkhe, D. K. (1992). World oilseeds, Springer
Science & Business Media.
Shahidi, F. & Zhong, Y. (2010). Lipid oxidation
and improving the oxidative stability.
Chemical society reviews, 39: 4067-4079.
Siri-Tarino, P. W., Sun, Q., Hu, F. B. & Krauss, R.
M. (2010). Saturated fat, carbohydrate, and
cardiovascular disease. The American
journal of clinical nutrition, 91 (3): 502-
509.
Stan, C. (2013). Codex standard for named vegetable
oils. FAO/WHO, Rome (CODEX STAN 210-
1999).
Uauy, R., Mena, P. & Rojas, C. (2000). Essential
fatty acids in early life: structural and
functional role. Proceedings of the Nutrition
Society, 59, 3-15.
Ugese, F. D., Baiyeri, P. K. & Mbah, B. N. (2010).
Fatty acid profile of Shea tree (Vitellaria
paradoxa CF gaertn.) seeds from the Savanna
of Nigeria. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods,
19: 393-398.
Zock, P. L., De Vries, J. H. & Katan, M. B. (1994).
Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid
on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in
healthy women and men. Arteriosclerosis,
Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 14: 567-
575.