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PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF SHEA BUTTER FROM TAMALE, NORTHERN GHANA

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Shea butter is a significant source of fat in the diet of many rural dwellers in northern Ghana. It is produced from the seeds of shea tree and its suitability as dietary fat or use in cosmetic industry is greatly influenced by its physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition. The aim of this study was to determine the physicochemical properties and fatty acid profile of shea butter sold in Tamale Central market and to compare the qualities with other edible oils. The samples of shea butter were analyzed for refractive index, unsaponifiable matter, saponification, iodine, acid and peroxide values and fatty acid composition. Physicochemical properties of shea butter obtained in this study were refractive index of 1.5 at 25oC, saponification value (198 mg/KOH/g), iodine value (45.6 I2g/100g), unsaponifiable matter (19.8 %), acid value (3.2 mgKOH/g) and peroxide value (9.84 meq/kg). The predominant unsaturated fatty acids were: oleic (36.3%), linoleic (5.4%) and alpha linoleic (0.14%). The most dominant saturated fatty acids found were stearic (52.4%) and palmitic acids (3 %), arachidic (1.5%). Data suggests that shea butter sold in Tamale compared favourably with shea butter from countries within the West African sub region and Uganda and also to other edible oils. The implication of all these is that shea butter is a good cooking oil and is safe for human consumption.
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Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF SHEA BUTTER
FROM TAMALE, NORTHERN GHANA
Garti, H.*, Agbemafle R.** Mahunu G.K.***
*School of Allied Health Sciences, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana
** School of Physical Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
*** Faculty of Agriculture, University for Development Studies, Nyankpala-Tamale, Ghana
Corresponding Author’s Email: hgarti@yahoo.com
Abstract
Shea butter is a significant source of fat in the diet of many rural dwellers in northern Ghana. It is produced from
the seeds of shea tree and its suitability as dietary fat or use in cosmetic industry is greatly influenced by its
physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition. The aim of this study was to determine the
physicochemical properties and fatty acid profile of shea butter sold in Tamale Central market and to compare
the qualities with other edible oils. The samples of shea butter were analyzed for refractive index, unsaponifiable
matter, saponification, iodine, acid and peroxide values and fatty acid composition. Physicochemical properties
of shea butter obtained in this study were refractive index of 1.5 at 25oC, saponification value (198 mg/KOH/g),
iodine value (45.6 I2g/100g), unsaponifiable matter (19.8 %), acid value (3.2 mgKOH/g) and peroxide value
(9.84 meq/kg). The predominant unsaturated fatty acids were: oleic (36.3%), linoleic (5.4%) and alpha linoleic
(0.14%). The most dominant saturated fatty acids found were stearic (52.4%) and palmitic acids (3 %), arachidic
(1.5%). Data suggests that shea butter sold in Tamale compared favourably with shea butter from countries
within the West African sub region and Uganda and also to other edible oils. The implication of all these is that
shea butter is a good cooking oil and is safe for human consumption.
Keywords: Shea butter, physicochemical, fatty acid, edible oil, Vitellaria paradoxa
Introduction
Shea butter is a fat extracted from the seeds of the
shea tree. The tree (Vitellaria paradoxa L.) is
indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa and grows from
Guinea Bissau in West Africa to Ethiopia in the East.
In Ghana the shea tree grows in the savannah
vegetation particularly in the Upper East, Upper
West and Northern regions with scattered growth in
northern parts of Brong Ahafo and Volta regions. It
was estimated that Ghana currently produces over
130,000 metric tonnes of shea nuts annually
(Hatskevich et al., 2011). The shea butter industry is
a very important source of income (Elias and Carney,
2005) and also provides significant source of edible
oil and energy for many rural communities (Honfo et
al., 2014). Besides its edibility, shea butter serves as
raw material for the local soap industry, cosmetics
especially during the harmattan and also as a base in
traditional medicine (Okullo et al., 2010, Goreja,
2004).
Globally there is an increasing demand for shea
butter as a substitute for cocoa butter in food,
cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries (Hatskevich
et al., 2011, Okullo et al., 2010). Quality demands
from developed countries in the global shea butter
trade require development of improved production
standards for enhanced quality product by producer
countries. Shea butter from West Africa was shown
to have significant variations in both
physicochemical and fatty acid composition and in
some instances differences between trees in the same
UDS International Journal of Development [UDSIJD] ISSN:
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Volume 6 No. 3, 2019
http://www.udsijd.org
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Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
locality were reported (Maranz et al., 2004,
Salunkhe, 1992). It is important therefore that data
on characteristics on shea butter be updated for
improvement in product quality.
Fats and oils have often been implicated in many
health complications including heart disease (Siri-
Tarino et al., 2010). However, as vegetable oil, shea
butter could be an important provider of vitamins A,
D, E, K and essential fatty acids in human diet
(Moreira et al., 2004, Salunkhe, 1992). Some of
these fat soluble vitamins especially A and E are
known to be very important antioxidants and the
essential fatty acids are necessary for the synthesis
of cell membranes, nerve tissues, and steroid
hormone formation (Uauy et al., 2000).
These suggest that information on physicochemical
properties of shea-butter and its fatty acid profile
must be available to help consumers, food producers,
processors and health care givers to make informed
and healthy choices concerning cooking fats and oils.
This study was to determine the physicochemical
properties and fatty acid composition of shea butter
sold in Tamale Central market and to compare the
qualities with other edible oils.
Materials and Methods
Sample collection and laboratory analyses
Samples of shea butter were purchased from three
shea butter sellers in the Central market of Tamale
Metropolis. Refractive index of the samples was also
obtained using Abbe refractometer (Carl
Zeiss121554, Germany). Saponification value,
iodine value, unsaponifiable matter, acid value and
peroxide value were determined using standard
methods of AOAC., 1990.
Fatty acid profile of shea butter was determined
following the procedure described by Ezeagu and
associates (2010). This involved transmethylation of
shea butter oil using trimethylsulfonium and esters
produced analyzed in gas liquid chromatograph
equipped with flame ionization detector.
Results and Discussion
Physicochemical properties of shea butter
Physicochemical characteristics of shea butter from
Tamale metropolis are presented in Table 1. The
iodine value is indicative of extent of saturation and
a measure of storability or shelf-life of oil. It relates
positively to the degree of unsaponification (Shahidi
and Zhong, 2010).The iodine value of 45.6 I2g/100g
oil (Table 1) obtained in this study is higher than the
range of values (36.6 41.4 I2g/100g oil) reported
for shea butter from Districts of Uganda (Okullo et
al., 2010). It is however consistent with 44.6
I2g/100g oil for shea butter from Southern Guinea
savanna (Enaberue et al., 2014), compares
favourably with 43.3 I2g/100g oil (Chukwu and
Adgidzi, 2008) but lower than values reported by
(Chibor et al., 2017). The shea butter in the current
study was more saturated than soybean oil (124-139
I2g/100g oil) and palm oil (50-55) (Stan, 2013) This
probably explains why it solidifies even at room
temperature and has low liability towards oxidative
rancidity which makes it a desirable cooking oil.
Also shea butter may be recommended for human
consumption because its iodine number is higher
than the recommended codex standards for coconut
oil (6.3 - 10.6) and palm kernel oil (14.1-21) (Stan,
2013).
Table 1: Physicochemical Properties of Shea Butter oil
Sample
Refractive
index at 25°C
Saponification
value (mg/KOH/g)
Iodine value
I2g/100g oil
Acid value
mgKOH/g oil
Peroxide
value
meqO2/kg
Shea
Butter oil
1.46 ± 0.01
198 ± 1.22
45.6 ± 1.21
3.2 ± 0.31
9.8 ± 0.42
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Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
Peroxides formed during storage account for
rancidity off-flavours of oils. The peroxide value of
9.8 meqO2/kg recorded in current study (Table 1)
relates positively to 10 meqO2/kg (Chukwu and
Adgidzi, 2008) but lower than 14.2 and 29.5
meqO2/kg reported by Adetuyi et al. (2015) and
Dandjouma et al. (2009) respectively. Differences in
the figures reported by different authors may be due
to factors such as storage duration of the fat (Kirk and
Sawyer, 1991) and type of kernel (fermented)
(Dandjouma et al., 2009). According to Kirk and
Sawyer (1991) peroxide is the initial product of
unsaturated fat oxidation and that the process starts
slowly at the early stages depending on temperature
and type of oil. The peroxide concentration in this
study showed that the shea butter was relatively
fresh. Kirk and Sawyer (1991) reported that fresh oil
usually has peroxide values below10 meqO2/kg, but
when this value increases to between 20 and 40
meqO2/kg, a rancid taste is produced. This is
associated with complex changes and formation of
volatile compounds of ketones, aldehydes and
hydroxyl groups as agents of the characteristic off-
flavours and odours of oils (Abdulrahim et al., 2000).
The peroxide value of 9.8 meqO2/kg registered on
this study makes the shea butter from Tamale a good
oil for the food industry. As explained by Honfo et
al. (2014), for use in the food industry, shea butter
must have peroxide value less than 10 meqO2/kg,
whilst oil of 1 meqO2/kg peroxide value is good for
cosmetic industry.
Chukwu and Adgidzi (2008) reported acid value of
3.8 mg KOH/g oil which is consistent with results of
the current study (3.2 mg KOH/g oil). Adetuyi et al.
(2015) recorded 1.8 mg KOH/g oil, a value much
lower than registered on this study. Okullo et al.
(2010) on the other hand reported acid values in the
range of 2.3 to 12.6 mg KOH/kg oil. The shea butter
in this study may be classified as acidic since the acid
value is greater than 2 mg KOH/g oil above which
oil is considered acidic (Chukwu and Adgidzi, 2008).
In relation to the acid value, consumption of shea
butter will have no detrimental effect on health. This
is because groundnut oil with acid value of 4 mg
KOH/g oil is consumed extensively in Nigeria
without any reported health challenges (Chukwu and
Adgidzi, 2008). Acid value may be expressed as
percentage free fatty acid which defines the extent of
degradation of triglycerides in the oil by lipase or
other factors such as light and heat (Kirk and Sawyer,
1991). The acid content of oil is felt at the palate
when oleic acid concentration reaches 0.5-1.5 %
(Farid et al., 2014, Kirk and Sawyer, 1991). Free
fatty acid content of shea butter is affected by
duration of storage, processing, packaging material,
germinating stage of fruit of shea nut and general
climatic conditions (Okullo et al., 2010, Kapseu et
al., 2001). This may explain the observed differences
between values reported here and finding by other
studies.
Shea butter has saponification value of 198
mg/KOH/g which compares favourably with the
recommended codex standard of many edible oils
such as soybean (189 - 194 mg KOH/g oil) and palm
oil (190 -209 mg KOH/g oil) but lower than that of
palm kernel oil (230 - 254 mgKOH/g oil) (Stan,
2013). Chibor et al. (2017) reported a saponification
value of 227.9 mgKOH/g oil. For shea butter from
different districts of Uganda, Okullo et al. (2010)
reported saponification values in the range of 160.4
192.2 mgKOH/g oil. Saponification value is used
as a measure of the proportion of the fatty acids
present in the fat. The high saponification value
makes shea butter in this study good for soap
production (Enaberue et al., 2014)
The unsaponifiable matter (USM) of 9.8% of shea
butter by far exceeds all the values recommended by
the codex standards for most vegetable fats (Stan,
2013). Shea butter was reported to have very high
levels of USM (4 – 11%) compared to other plant oils
(Nahm et al., 2013). Honfo et al. (2014) reported
unsaponifiable matter of shea butter from many
authors in the range of 1.2 to 17.6% whilst
unsaponifiable matter of 0.95 % and 0.4 % were
reported by Chibor et al. (2017) and Chukwu and
Adgidzi (2008) respectively. Shea butter essentially
consists of triglycerides and unsaponifiable matter
which influences its industrial relevance (Akihisa et
al., 2010). The significant variations in
unsaponifiable matter content of shea butter is
influenced by factors such as degree of ripening of
the fruit and variations in annual rainfall (Honfo et
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Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
al., 2014). The high proportion of unsaponifiable
matter indicates availability of desirable secondary
plant metabolites such as antioxidants, anti-
inflammatory, antibacterial and vitamins (Nahm et
al., 2013). Even though the antioxidants offer
protection against oxidative rancidity, the high
proportion of unsaturated fatty acids associated with
plant oils may cause some degree of oxidative
rancidity in storage (Shahidi et al., 2010; Moharram
et al., 2006). This suggests duration and conditions
of storage must be carefully monitored to prevent
deterioration in quality characteristics of shea butter.
Fatty acid composition of shea butter
Shea butter in this study contains appreciable
amounts of essential fatty acids (Table 2); alpha
linolenic (0.14%) and linoleic (5.43%) acids, which
the body cannot manufacture and must be supplied
in the diet. Linoleic acid content compared closely to
the concentrations obtained from three districts of
Uganda (6.86, 6.4 and 6.2 %) but lower than 7.8%
from a fourth district (Okullo et al., 2010) and mean
value of 7.7% of shea nuts from different locations
in Northern Ghana (Quainoo et al., 2012). It is a very
important polyunsaturated fatty acid in human diet
and is known to prevent coronary heart diseases and
atherosclerosis among others (Bello et al., 2011).
Considering linoleic acid values reported from
Uganda and 6.6% to 7.2 % reported from two
savannah zones of Nigeria (Ugese et al., 2010), shea
butter sampled from Tamale may be viewed as
moderate source of essential fatty acids.
Table 2: Fatty Acid Composition of Shea Butter
These fatty acids are used in the production of
postagladins, et althromboxanes, postacyclines and
leukotrienes which are involved in a number of
activities in the body including the control of
inflammations (Calder, 2006). Of the 16 saturated
and 16 unsaturated fatty acids that define shea butter
fat , oleic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic and linoleic
acids are the most abundant (Di Vincenzo et al.,
2005). The most dominant saturated acid in this
study was stearic acid (52.4%) which was higher
than the amount reported for shea butter from four
districts in Uganda (28.6 to 30.9%) (Okullo et al.,
2010) and values (45.1 to 49.7%) reported by Ugese
et al. (2010). The high stearic proportion gives shea
butter solid characteristics at room temperature and
therefore useful for the manufacture of bakery fat and
margarine (Chibor et al., 2017) and also as cocoa
butter improver in the chocolate industry (Ugese et
al., 2010).
The major unsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid with
percentage proportion of 36.3% which was higher
than 23.3 % of soybean oil (Ezeagu et al., 2004), was
consistent with 37.2%, but lower than 40.2 to 43.4%
Fatty Acids
Ratios
Weight (%)
Saturated
Lauric
C12:0
0.14 ± 0.01
Myristic
C14:0
0.06 ± 0.00
Palmitic
C16:0
2.97 ± 0.08
Stearic
C18:0
52.36 ± 0.22
Arachidic
C20:0
1.48 ± 0.05
Unsaturated
Oleic
C18:1 (cis-9)
36.29 ± 0.13
Cis vaccenic
C18:1
0.52 ± 0.00
Linoleic (n-6)
C18:2 (C-9, C-12)
5.43 ± 0.04
Alpha linolenic
C18:2 (C-9, C-12 C-15)
0.14 ± 0.00
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Garti et al., 2019: UDSIJD Vol 6(3)
reported for nuts from seven different locations in
Nigeria (Ugese et al., 2010). Oleic acid has lower
melting point (16.3oC) than stearic acid (69.6oC) and
therefore affects the degree of hardness depending on
its relative proportion in shea butter (Ugese et al.,
2010). This suggests that the higher stearic acid to
oleic acid ratio, the harder the shea butter. The
unsaturated fatty acid content gives shea butter a
much higher degree of unsaturation than coconut or
palm kernel oil (Stan, 2013). Consumption of oleic
acid has the benefit of reducing low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentration in the
blood thus lowering risk of coronary heart disease
(Okullo et al., 2010). However, shea butter may not
be a very good source of linoleic acid when
compared to the levels in sunflower oil (48 to 74 %)
(Díaz et al., 2006) and soybean oil (53.7%) (Ezeagu
et al., 2004).
Several studies (Mensink et al., 2003, Rosqvist et al.,
2017) indicate that concentration of cholesterol in the
serum is dependent on the type of fatty acid. Blood
serum cholesterol increases with saturated fatty acids
but decreases with unsaturated fatty acids. Palmitic
acid concentration (3%) recorded in this study
compared favourably with 4.1 % reported by Chibor
et al. (2017) but lower than 6.5-8.1% recorded by
Okullo et al., (2010). According to Ogungbenle and
Anisulowo (2014), palmitic acid consumption
constitutes a very significant risk factor for coronary
heart disease. Myristic, palmitic and lauric acids are
considered strong hypercholeromic agents of all the
saturated acids (Zock et al., 1994). It is therefore
important that humans consume fats and oils that
contain less of these fatty acids. Fortunately shea
butter in the current study contained less myristic
(0.06%) and palmitic acids (3%) than palm oil which
contains 0.7 % and 36.7 % respectively (Ramos et
al., 2009). Again, the level of lauric acid (0.14%) in
shea butter is far below that found in palm kernel oil
(45 -55 %) (Stan, 2013) and so may not increase
serum cholesterol to any appreciable level.
The saturated acid, stearic acid (52.4%) in shea butter
is higher than 41.6 % reported by Quainoo et al.
(2012) from shea nut seeds in Northern Ghana.
Importantly, however, stearic acid does not elevate
LDL cholesterol (Mensink, 2006).
Conclusion
Physicochemical characteristics of shea butter sold
in Tamale compared favourably with that of many
edible oils and to those of shea butter oil within the
West Africa sub region. These together with
saturated and unsaturated fatty acid composition
make shea butter from Tamale a potential raw
material for the food, soap and cosmetic industries.
It could serve as a good source of essential fatty acids
in the diet of many rural dwellers.
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... UM increased with increasing roasting time and decreased with increasing boiling time (Fig. 2I). These findings are consistent with previous studies that indicate high unsaponifiable matter values in roasted nuts, associated with advantageous secondary plant metabolites, including vitamins, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidants (Garti et al., 2019;Li et al., 2023;Oliveira et al., 2020;Timtey et al., 2024;Tu et al., 2021). The UM in SBO from roasted, boiled, and untreated nuts were less than the UM of 9.8 % in shea butter reported from northern Ghana (Garti et al., 2019) and greater than the UM of 3.18 % in Pentadesma butyracea butter from Eastern Ghana (Timtey et al., 2024). ...
... These findings are consistent with previous studies that indicate high unsaponifiable matter values in roasted nuts, associated with advantageous secondary plant metabolites, including vitamins, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidants (Garti et al., 2019;Li et al., 2023;Oliveira et al., 2020;Timtey et al., 2024;Tu et al., 2021). The UM in SBO from roasted, boiled, and untreated nuts were less than the UM of 9.8 % in shea butter reported from northern Ghana (Garti et al., 2019) and greater than the UM of 3.18 % in Pentadesma butyracea butter from Eastern Ghana (Timtey et al., 2024). The difference in values may be attributed to nut type and condition, rainfall variation, and storage and handling of raw material before extraction. ...
... The low UM from boiled nuts may be attributed to the fact that enzymatic reactions may have broken down in the form of dissolution in the water by some unsaponifiable molecules during the boiling process. High levels of unsaponifiable matter in SBO in comparison with other oils-bearing nuts signify the presence of advantageous secondary plant metabolites such as vitamins, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory properties and bioactive ingredients responsible for shea butter's therapeutic properties for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and herbal applications (Didia et al., 2018;Garti et al., 2019;Timtey et al., 2024). Antioxidants may inhibit oxidative rancidity, although the high unsaturated fatty acid content of oils-bearing nuts can still lead to some degree of rancidity during storage (Garti et al., 2019). ...
Article
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Shea butter is an organic ingredient used in direct consumption, or the manufacture of products in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Some pre-treatment processes of shea nuts may not favor the high oil recovery and quality attributes, leading to products that may not conform to market standards for quality, stability, importation, and human consumption. This research emphasizes how roasting or boiling shea nuts for shea butter production enhances its quality by lessening its vulnerability to oxidative instability while simultaneously optimizing oil yield. Shea nuts were collected from an agro-processing company in Ghana. Physicochemical parameters such as refractive index, volatile, acid, iodine, saponification, and peroxide values were analyzed using standard analytical methods. Roasted, boiled, and untreated shea nuts produced a maximum oil yield of 53.53, 48.75, and 47.63 %, respectively. The findings of physicochemical properties of the shea butter samples as time increased from 10 to 50 min for roasted, boiled, and untreated shea nuts showed; an acid value from 8.50 to 17.49 mgKOH/g, 19.4 to 26.46 mgKOH/g and 18.20 mgKOH/g, iodine value from 40.91 – 48.23 gI2/100 g, 46.17 – 57.93 gI2/100 g, and 42.9 gI2/100 g, peroxide value from 2.45 to 4.69 meq/kg, 3.05 to 7.08 meq/kg and 2.15 meq/Kg, refractive index from 1.464 to 1.465, 1.464 to 1.469, and 1.463, saponification value from 181.90 to 187.90 mg KOH/g, 177.70 to 181.55 mg KOH/g and 180.60 mg KOH/g. The quality parameters indicate chances of rancidity. Roasting shea nuts was the optimal condition to produce high yield and quality shea butter than boiled shea nuts. The study recommends that regulatory agencies and consumers conduct regular inspections to verify that shea butter satisfies the appropriate quality and safety criteria for consumption and export.
... It is used as cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) and enhancer in chocolate manufacturing, providing greater stability and extended shelf life [6,9]. Shea butter is an excellent choice for cooking oil, cosmetics, margarine, soaps, and candles because of its low level of cholesterol and high nutritional value [6,[10][11][12]. ...
... Processed Shea kernel oil is typically liquefied at high temperatures in the industry, which makes it easy to use and suitable for industrial applications. However, the processed Shea kernel oil quickly solidifies at room temperature as a result of higher level of saturated fatty acid content in various Shea nuts which varies with geographical locations [11], which limits their applications in many industries. In order to maintain this state, the Shea kernel oil requires heating at elevated temperatures to avoid solidifying over a given processing duration. ...
... The FA content of the Shea kernel oil used in this study was consistent with the FA composition stated by [11] and with numerous research indicating a significant level of linoleic acid [14,32]. Less concentration of linoleic acid of the oil (3.15 %) in comparison to the asserted value of 5.43 % [11] can be explained by two factors: The Vitellaria Paradoxa genome [4,13] or the geographic region corresponding to the many Shea tree kinds found at various locations [33]. ...
Article
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Though little research has been done, shea nut oil (Shea Butter), is a promising shea product with great potential for use in industrial shea product manufacture. To assess the oil obtained from the shea nuts for personal, commercial, and industrial use, this study focuses on the extraction process, the optimal solvent for extraction, thermodynamics and kinetic studies, and characterization of the oil. Using different solvents as well as extraction temperatures and times, the oil was extracted using the solvent extraction method. Moreover, models of thermodynamics and kinetics were used in examining the Shea nut oil extraction at different durations and temperatures. At the highest temperature of 333K (at 130min), the highest oil yields of 70.2% and 59.9% for n-hexane and petroleum ether, respectively, were obtained, following first order kinetics. For both petroleum ether and n-hexane, the regression coefficient (R2) was 1. For the extraction with n-hexane and petroleum ether, the mass transfer coefficient (Km), activation energy (Ea), entropy change (∆S), enthalpy change (∆H), and Gibb's free energy (∆G) were, respectively, (0.0098±0.0061 and 0.0123±0.0084) min-1, 74.59 kJ/mol and 88.65 kJ/mol, (-236.15±0.16 and -235.63±0.17) J/mol K, (71.88±0.06 and 85.94±0.06) kJ/mol, and (148.75±1.52 and 162.46±1.52) kJ/mol. These values favor an irreversible, forward, endothermic, and spontaneous process. Gas chromatography analysis was used to identify the principal fatty acids in the oil, which include stearic acid (52%), oleic acid (30%), and linoleic acid (3%), as well as various minor fatty acids. The oil's potential bonds and functional groups were identified using Fourier Transform Infrared analysis, and the physicochemical parameters such as the iodine value, peroxide value, acid and free fatty acid values were found to be within acceptable ranges for use in domestic, commercial, and industrial settings.
... The observed RIs mean values are similar to those reported in previous studies on tree-nut butter, including Tchobo et al. [2] and Ayegnon et al. [5] who recorded a range of 1.460-1.462 for Pentadesma butyracea fat; while Garti et al. [38] reported 1.46 for shea butter. The refractive index (RI) is a physical property used in oil and fat identification and for checking the purity of fats and oils where there is suspicion of adulteration [39]. ...
... Unsaponifiables may occur naturally or may be formed during the processing or degradation of the fat [47]. Fats with higher USM are preferred for cosmetic and medicinal purposes due to the availability of desirable secondary plant metabolites such as vitamins, as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [28,38]. The PBSB samples can be used for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. ...
... Our recorded SVs are in line with SV range of 160.4-192.2 mg KOH/g reported for a similar fat, shea butter [38]; and also they fall within the standard SV range of 160-190 mg KOH/g for crude shea butter [21]. Higher SVs of 192.15 mg KOH/g and 187.99 mg KOH/g have been reported for P. butyracea butter and shea butter, respectively [33]. ...
Article
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Pentadesma butyracea seed butter or fat (PBSB) is a vegetable fat extracted from the seeds of the P. butyracea plant. The butter has potential use in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. The study investigated traditional PBSB processing methods in Ghana and evaluated their effects on yield, physicochemical parameters, and fatty acid composition. Four traditional extraction methods were identified and evaluated, and these methods are direct wet extraction of PBSB from a fresh mixture of the seed paste and water (DEW); wet extraction of PBSB from a 12-hour fermented mixture of the seed paste and water (FWO); direct wet extraction of PBSB from a fresh mixture of the seed paste, salt, and water (DES); and wet extraction of PBSB from a 12-hour fermented mixture of the seed paste, salt, and water (FSO). Results of physicochemical properties of the PBSB samples showed moisture content of 0.06-0.07%, free fatty acid of 1.38-2.43%, iodine value of 56.50-56.85 Wijs, peroxide value of 5.58-8.52 mEq/kg, relative density of 0.91, refractive index of 1.462-1.464, percent impurities of 0.015-0.017%, saponification value of 165.57-178.02 mg KOH/g, and percent unsaponifiable matter of 2.60-3.18%. The PBSB yield varied in the range of 21.68-26.97%, with the highest average butter yield observed for FWO. Seventeen fatty acids were characterized in the PBSB samples, and they included ten saturated fatty acids, five monounsaturated fatty acids, and two polyunsaturated fatty acids. Key fatty acids found in the PBSB samples were oleic acid (51.21-51.31%), stearic acid (43.22-43.33%), palmitic acid (2.91-3.07%), linoleic acid (0.49-0.51%), linolenic acid (0.12-0.20%), and arachidic acid (0.14-0.15%). PBSB samples produced by the various traditional extraction methods in Ghana recorded similar physicochemical characteristics as unrefined shea butter per the Regional Standard for Unrefined Shea Butter (CXS 325R-2017) as well as Cook Brand Margarine, a common commercial baking fat, and thus, their potential food application such as an alternative shortening/ingredient could be explored in a future study.
... In many African countries it is used as a cooking fat, waterproofing wax, hairdressing, as pomade, candle making and as an ingredient for medicinal ointments (Ajala et al., 2016). Fatty acid composition and natural antioxidant level of shea butter is environment dependent (Garti et al. 2019). Frying operators sometimes blend polyunsaturated oils with a more saturated or monounsaturated oil as a costeffective way of reducing the amounts of linolenic and linoleic acids in the frying medium and thus increasing its thermostability (Tiwari et al., 2014, Ramadan, 2013. ...
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We investigated changes in the quality of palm oil, shea butter and their blend as affected by repeated usage in deep frying of cheese were investigated. Palm oil, shea butter and their blend (1:1 w/w) were used in repeated deep frying of cheese at 150 o C for 15 minutes, repeated eight times, repeated for six (6) consecutive days Changes in oil quality indices such as free fatty acid, peroxide value, p-anisidine value, color index, iodine value, acid value, saponification value, specific gravity and refractive index were determined. Kinetic rate and Arrhenius equation were used to determine deterioration rate and activation energy Data were analyzed using ANOVA and regression at α ==0.05 . The free fatty acid value of palm oil (6.09% − 8.03%), shea butter (2.12% − 2.91%) and blend (3.30% − 4.50%) increased significantly. Palm oil recorded a high value of peroxide (6.20 meqO2/kg), while the lowest value was recorded by shea butter (3.20 meqO 2 /kg), the p-anisidine value of palm oil was higher (91.77) after the sixth frying cycle than shea butter (11.00) and their blend (46.17). Slight decrease in iodine value was observed in the blend (4.89–3.82), while palm oil decreased sharply (4.73–0.90). A high smoke point was recorded for shea butter (222.7 o C and 226.4 o C), palm oil (204.3 ⁰ C and 218.2 o C) and the blend oil (212.2 o C and 216.6°C) within the six frying cycles.
... However, shea waste material has largely been used only ethnobotanically. It is used for filling cracks in mud hut walls, and also as a substitute for kerosene when lighting firewood (Garti et al., 2019). The sludge is added to herbs for treatment of animal wounds, and a dry cake obtained from the sludge is used in producing livestock feed (Dei et al., 2008). ...
Article
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Shea butter is extracted the nut of Vitellaria paradoxa for both domestic and commercial purposes. Growing extraction and utilization of the butter especially in pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries result in large shea butter extraction with resultant large volumes of waste product of unknown content. Analyses of the wastewater/byproduct was carried out to review possibilities of its value addition in production of new products, or otherwise appropriate disposal. Therefore, Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, physicochemical, and phytochemical screening methods, and extraction were used in the current study to assess antioxidant activity, BOD, calcium, iron, magnesium, lead, nickel, zinc, copper, and phytochemical content of samples of the material from Northern Ghana. The amount of residual oil was also determined. The BOD ranged from 168.00±0.00 to 86.25±6.25 mg O2/kg; Levels of magnesium in the samples ranged from 16.65 - 206.65 mg/kg, calcium from 4.72 - 19.60 mg/kg, iron was 7.75 - 14.0 mg/kg, copper from 0.02 - 0.08 mg/kg, lead from 0.33 - 1.22 mg/kg, nickel from 0.04 - 0.23 mg/kg and zinc from 3.36 - 5.80 mg/kg. Secondary metabolites present included alkaloids, phenolic, saponins, tannins and flavonoids. while residual oil extracted from the sample was between 14.67-6.46 % of the material. Mean pH was 5.95±0.05 - 6.10±0.005, and the mean temperature of the samples ranged from 24.00±0.05 to 25.25±0.05 oC at the time of analyses. From the findings the material has good and diverse content and could be used in cosmetics, pharmaceutical products or organic manure. Otherwise it should be disposed appropriately to safeguard environmental and water pollution.
... In shea butter, stearic acid took the position of the second major FA, followed by palmitic acid and linoleic acid in the same proportion. Interestingly, in a study from northern Ghana by Garti et al., a high percentage of stearic acid, 52.36%, followed by oleic acid, 36.29%, was reported [32]. Conversely, in baobab oil, the major FAs were linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid; a similar result was obtained by Razafimamonjison et al. for A. digitata species from Madagascar while studying different species of Adansonia [33]. ...
Article
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The fatty acid (FA) compositions of thirty-nine vegetable oils and fats, including nangai nut, pili nut, shea butter, tamanu oil, baobab, sea buckthorn berry, Brazil nut, grape seed, black seed, evening primrose, passion fruit, milk thistle, sunflower, pumpkin seed, sesame, soybean, flax seed, kukui, red raspberry seed, walnut, chia seed, hemp seed, rosehip, almond, avocado, carrot seed, moringa, apricot kernel, camellia seed, macadamia, olive, marula, argan, castor, jojoba, pomegranate seed, medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) coconut, roasted coconut, canola, and mustard oil, were analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Vegetable oils and fats have different profiles in terms of their fatty acid composition, and their major constituents vary significantly. However, we categorized them into different classes based on the percentages of different fatty acids they contain. The saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic acid and stearic acid, and the unsaturated fatty acids, including oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid, are the main categories. Among them, roasted coconut oil contained the greatest amount of saturated fatty acids followed by nangai nut (45.61%). Passion fruit oil contained the largest amount of linoleic acid (66.23%), while chia seed oil had the highest content of linolenic acid (58.25%). Oleic acid was exclusively present in camellia seed oil, constituting 78.57% of its composition. Notably, mustard oil had a significant presence of erucic acid (54.32%), while pomegranate seed oil exclusively contained punicic acid (74.77%). Jojoba oil primarily consisted of (Z)-11-eicosenoic acid (29.55%) and (Z)-docos-13-en-1-ol (27.96%). The major constituent in castor oil was ricinoleic acid (89.89%). Compared with other vegetable oils and fats, pili nut oil contained a significant amount of (E)-FA (20.62%), followed by sea buckthorn berry oil with a content of 9.60%. FA compositions from sources may be problematic in the human diet due to no labeling or the absence of essential components. Therefore, consumers must cast an eye over some essential components consumed in their dietary intake.
... Ceramide NPs used in this study originated from plant oils. The main types of FAs in these oils are C18 and C20 [77][78][79][80]. In contrast, ceramide NP levels in human SC vary depending on the reports. ...
Article
Introduction: The stratum corneum (SC) is a skin barrier that consists of corneocytes, intercellular lipids, and corneodesmosomes. Ceramides are composed of sphingoid bases linked with various types of fatty acids (FAs), and they are an essential constituent of SC intercellular lipids. Among their subtypes, ceramide NP with a phytosphingosine base is especially important. Most of the previous studies on barrier recovery have focused on a specific ceramide with a single chain FA, not with diverse chain lengths. Skin barrier function is impaired by various factors, including topical corticosteroid. Objective: We evaluated whether a lipid mixture enriched by ceramide NP with FAs of diverse chain lengths (CER [NP]*) can restore the skin barrier function impaired by topical corticosteroid. Methods: Twenty-seven healthy adult male volunteers were recruited. Topical corticosteroid was applied on both volar forearms of volunteers. Then, the test cream containing a lipid mixture with CER (NP)* was applied on the left forearm, and a vehicle cream without a lipid mixture was applied on the right forearm of each subject. The functional parameters of the skin barrier were compared before and after the treatment. Epidermal differentiation markers, hyaluronic acid synthase 3 (HAS3), cytokine levels, and the lipid profiles in the SC were analyzed. Results: The functional parameters of the skin barrier, such as barrier recovery rate, SC integrity, and SC hydration were significantly improved in the test cream-applied site compared to the vehicle cream-applied sites. Filaggrin and HAS3 levels were significantly higher in the sites applied with the test cream. Interleukin (IL)-1α levels were also significantly increased in these sites. IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-13 levels were significantly decreased in the test cream-applied sites. Lipid analyses showed that C18, C20, and total ceramide NP levels significantly increased in the sites where the test cream was applied. Also, C16, C18, C20, C24, and total ceramide NP levels were significantly elevated in the test cream-applied sites after acute barrier disruption. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that a lipid mixture enriched by CER (NP)* could recover the barrier function impaired by topical corticosteroid.
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Background: Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and truncal fat predict cardiometabolic disease. Intervention trials suggest that saturated fatty acids (SFA), e.g. palmitic acid, promote abdominal and liver fat storage whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), e.g. linoleic acid, prevent fat accumulation. Such findings require investigation in population-based studies of older individuals. We aimed to investigate the relationships of serum biomarkers of PUFA intake as well as serum levels of palmitic acid, with abdominal and total adipose tissue content. Methods: In a population-based sample of 287 elderly subjects in the PIVUS cohort, we assessed fatty acid composition in serum cholesterol esters (CE) and phospholipids (PL) by gas chromatography and the amount of VAT and abdominal subcutaneous (SAT) adipose tissue by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), liver fat by MR spectroscopy (MRS), and total body fat, trunk fat and leg fat by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Insulin resistance was estimated by HOMA-IR. Results: VAT and trunk fat showed the strongest correlation with insulin resistance (r = 0.49, P < 0.001). Linoleic acid in both CE and PL was inversely related to all body fat depots (r = -0.24 to -0.33, P < 0.001) including liver fat measured in a sub-group (r = -0.26, P < 0.05, n = 73), whereas n-3 PUFA showed weak inverse (18:3n-3) or positive (20:5n-3) associations. Palmitic acid in CE, but not in PL, was directly correlated with VAT (r = 0.19, P < 0.001) and trunk fat (r = 0.18, P = 0.003). Overall, the significant associations remained after adjusting for energy intake, height, alcohol, sex, smoking, education and physical activity. The inverse correlation between linoleic acid and VAT remained significant after further adjustment for total body fat. Conclusions: Serum linoleic acid is inversely related to body fat storage including VAT and trunk fat whereas palmitic acid was less consistently but directly associated, in line with recent feeding studies. Considering the close link between VAT and insulin resistance, a potential preventive role of plant-based PUFA in VAT accumulation warrants further study.
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The shea tree Vitellaria paradoxa L. is the most prevalent tree crops in northern Ghana with the shea butter fat as the most important product from the tree. Difference in the shea butter fat quality is mainly attributed to bioclimatic variations in temperature and rainfall. The purpose of this study was to apply near infrared, wet chemistry and gas chromatography to characterize the fat and free fatty acid profiles of shea butter fat from three locations (Paga, Nyankpala and Kawampe) in Ghana. The shea nuts from the tree locations in Ghana conformed to the West Africa shea nuts on the global data base on shea nuts compiled at CIRAD. Samples from Paga recorded the highest moisture content ranging between 5.63 % and 12.04 % (dry matter) with a mean content of 6.83 % and a standard deviation of 1.30 % whilst from Kawampe recorded the lowest moisture content with a mean of 5.23 %. Samples from Kawampe recorded the highest fat content ranging from 47.07 % to 57.39 % (dry matter) with a mean content of 52.69 % and a standard deviation of 2.55 % with samples from Paga recording the lowest fat content with a mean of 48.84 %. Stearic acid content of the samples was higher than oleic acid content from the three locations with virtually the same ratio of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Correlation between wet chemistry values and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) predicted values for moisture content (calibration set) with regression of 0.974 indicating the ability of NIRS to differentiate between nuts from different regions. The nature of the dried shea nuts before processing affected the quality of the shea butter fat as moulded samples recorded higher free fatty acids reducing the quality of the shea butter fat. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) analyses indicated that the samples from the three locations in Ghana were mostly saturated with stearic and oleic acids and less of palmitic, vaccenic, linoleic and arachidic acids in the fatty acid profiles of shea butter fats.
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Increasing demand of shea products (kernels and butter) has led to the assessment of the state-of-the-art of these products. In this review, attention has been focused on macronutrients and micronutrients of pulp, kernels, and butter of shea tree and also the physicochemical properties of shea butter. Surveying the literature revealed that the pulp is rich in vitamin C (196.1 mg/100 g); consumption of 50 g covers 332% and 98% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) of children (4-8 years old) and pregnant women, respectively. The kernels contain a high level of fat (17.4-59.1 g/100 g dry weight). Fat extraction is mainly done by traditional methods that involve roasting and pressing of the kernels, churning the obtained liquid with water, boiling, sieving, and cooling. The fat (butter) is used in food preparation and medicinal and cosmetics industries. Its biochemical properties indicate some antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Large variations are observed in the reported values for the composition of shea products. Recommendations for future research are presented to improve the quality and the shelf-life of the butter. In addition, more attention should be given to the accuracy and precision in experimental analyses to obtain more reliable information about biological variation.
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Shea nuts were collected in July 2006 across Nigeria's guinean and sudanian savanna zones from the following locations: Lokoja, Makurdi, Akwanga, Minna, Kachia, Jalingo, Yola and Kano. Fat extract of the nuts was subjected to laboratory analysis to determine the fatty acid profile. Results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant variation in stearic and oleic acids content across agroecological zones. On the other hand, all the fatty acid profiles were significantly influenced by provenance. Stearic acid content was generally the highest, followed by oleic, linoleic and palmitic acids, in that order. Stearic and oleic, the most dominant fatty acids, varied from 45.1–49.7% to 37.2–43.4% respectively. The Jalingo provenance, with the highest stearic acid content (49.7%), had the least amount of oleic acid (37.2%).
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The physical and chemical properties of edible oils influence their suitability for use in food and other process industries. The aim of this study was to determine the physico-chemical properties and proximate composition of Shea-butter oil. Results obtained showed that Shea-butter has the following chemical properties: acid value (3.825), iodine number (43.27), peroxide value (12.85), saponification value (196.90) and unsaponifiable matter (6.23%). Other physico-chemical properties quantified were moisture content (1.37%), ash content (1.26%), total fat (75.03%), carbohydrate content (22.34%), refractive index (1.452), relative density (0.906) and melting point (27􀅼C). These results showed that the physico-chemical properties and proximate composition of Shea-butter are comparable with the properties of groundnut oil which is widely used for cooking and industrial food processes.
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Analysis showed the seeds of Adenanthera pavonina contained appreciable amounts of proteins (29.44g/100g), crude fat (17.99g/100g), and minerals, comparable to commonly consumed staples. Total sugar was low (8.2g/100g) while starch (41.95g/100g) constitutes the major carbohydrates. Low levels of antinutrients were reported and methionine and cystine were the most deficient amino acids. Linoleic and oleic acids make up 70.7 percent of the total fatty acids. Free fatty acid levels were relatively high but peroxide and saponification values of 29.6mEqkg and 164.1mgKOHgrespectively point to a resemblance to oils processed for food. It was concluded that A. pavonina seeds represent a potential source of oil and protein that could alleviate shortages.
Chapter
The International Policy Context for Women's Shea ProjectsThe Globalization of Shea MarketsThe Access Rights of Female Shea Nut CollectorsShea Commercialization: Female Labor and Processing DemandsConclusions
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The karit (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertner) is an economically important African tree with significant but little studied variation across its broad distribution range. Differences in economically important fat characteristics were determined for 42 karit populations in 11 countries. The results showed very high variability in all measured parameters both within and between populations. Kernel fat content range is generally 20–50%. Fatty acid composition is dominated by stearic (25–50%) and oleic (37–62%) acids. The variable relative proportions of these two fatty acids produces major differences in karit butter consistency across the species distribution range. The principal triglycerides are stearic-oleic-stearic (13–46%) and stearic-oleic-oleic (16–31%). Ugandan karit fat is liquid and requires fractionation to obtain a butter. West African karit butter is more variable, with soft and hard consistencies produced within the same local populations. The hardest butters are produced on the Mossi Plateau in Burkina Faso and northern Ghana. The implications of distinctive population characteristics as germplasm resources for the chocolate and cosmetic industries are discussed.