Energy-based industrial symbiosis: a literature review for circular energy transition

Abstract

Nowadays, industrial symbiosis (IS) is recognized as a key strategy to support the transition toward the circular economy. IS deals with the (re)use of wastes produced by a production process as a substitute for traditional production inputs of other traditionally disengaged processes. In this context, this paper provides a systematic literature review on the energy-based IS approach, i.e., IS synergies aimed at reducing the amount of energy requirement from outside industrial systems or the amount of traditional fuels used in energy production. This approach is claimed as effective aimed at reducing the use of traditional fuels in energy production, thus promoting a circular energy transition. 682 papers published between 1997 and 2018 have been collected, and energy-based IS cases have been identified among 96 of these. As a result of the literature review, three categories of symbiotic synergies have been identified: (1) energy cascade; (2) fuel replacement; and (3) bioenergy production. Through the review, different strategies to implement energy-based IS synergies are highlighted and discussed for each of the above-mentioned categories. Furthermore, drivers, barriers, and enablers of business development in energy-based IS are discussed from the technical, economic, regulatory, and institutional perspective. Accordingly, future research directions are recommended.

Full text

Vol.:(0123456789)
Environment, Development and Sustainability (2021) 23:4791–4825
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00840-9
1 3
REVIEW
Energy‑based industrial symbiosis: aliterature review
forcircular energy transition
LucaFraccascia1,2 · VahidYazdanpanah2 · GuidovanCapelleveen2 ·
DevrimMuratYazan2
Received: 4 October 2019 / Accepted: 19 June 2020 / Published online: 30 June 2020
© The Author(s) 2020
Abstract
Nowadays, industrial symbiosis (IS) is recognized as a key strategy to support the transi-
tion toward the circular economy. IS deals with the (re)use of wastes produced by a pro-
duction process as a substitute for traditional production inputs of other traditionally dis-
engaged processes. In this context, this paper provides a systematic literature review on
the energy-based IS approach, i.e., IS synergies aimed at reducing the amount of energy
requirement from outside industrial systems or the amount of traditional fuels used in
energy production. This approach is claimed as effective aimed at reducing the use of tra-
ditional fuels in energy production, thus promoting a circular energy transition. 682 papers
published between 1997 and 2018 have been collected, and energy-based IS cases have
been identified among 96 of these. As a result of the literature review, three categories of
symbiotic synergies have been identified: (1) energy cascade; (2) fuel replacement; and
(3) bioenergy production. Through the review, different strategies to implement energy-
based IS synergies are highlighted and discussed for each of the above-mentioned catego-
ries. Furthermore, drivers, barriers, and enablers of business development in energy-based
IS are discussed from the technical, economic, regulatory, and institutional perspective.
Accordingly, future research directions are recommended.
Keywords Industrial symbiosis· Circular economy· Energy· Energy-based industrial
symbiosis· Systematic literature review
1 Introduction
The global energy consumption has more than doubled from 1960 to 2014 (Fig.1), due to
the combined effect of growth in population and in per capita energy consumption (Fig.2),
and it is continuing to grow (e.g., Ganivet 2019; Smil 2016; The World Bank 2017). In
* Luca Fraccascia
luca.fraccascia@uniroma1.it; l.fraccascia@utwente.nl
1 Department ofComputer, Control, andManagement Engineering “Antonio Ruberti”, Sapienza
University ofRome, Rome, Italy
2 Department ofIndustrial Engineering andBusiness Information Systems, University ofTwente,
Enschede, TheNetherlands
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fact, global energy demand rose by 2.1% in 2017, more than twice the growth rate in 2016,
and it is expected to further rise by 30% until 2040 (International Energy Agency 2017a, b,
2018; The World Bank 2017). Currently, over 80% of the energy is produced by fossil fuels
such as oil, coal, and natural gas. Such production is responsible for more than 60% of the
CO2 emissions worldwide (International Energy Agency 2017a), which are recognized as
the main cause of global warming (IPCC 2014). For this reason, policymakers at the global
level committed to cut CO2 emissions by 80% until 2050 (European Commission 2011a;
Rogelj etal. 2016). In order to achieve this goal, the amount of energy produced from fossil
fuels must be drastically reduced.
Energy-based industrial symbiosis (IS) is recognized as an effective strategy to
reduce the use of traditional fuels in energy production (Giurco etal. 2011; Hassiba
etal. 2017; Liu etal. 2017). For instance, the total energy consumption of the Chinese
Fig. 1 Global primary energy consumption per energy source, measured in terawatt-hours (TWh) per
year—adapted from Smil (2016)
Fig. 2 Per capita energy consumption and global population from 1960 to 2014—data from The World
Bank (2017)
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iron and steel sector could be reduced up to 6% thanks to energy-based IS synergies
(Wen etal. 2017). IS deals with the (re)use of waste materials and energy produced
by a production process as a substitute for traditional production inputs of other tradi-
tionally disengaged processes, belonging to the same company or to different compa-
nies (e.g., Chertow 2000; Lombardi and Laybourn 2012; Shah etal. 2020; Yadav and
Tiwari 2019). Hence, firms implementing the IS practice can reduce their production
costs while creating environmental benefits for the overall collectivity (e.g., Chavalparit
etal. 2006; Jacobsen 2006; Zhao etal. 2018). Benefits created by the IS practice have
been recognized via adopting several methodologies based on flow analysis, thermody-
namics, life cycle assessment (LCA), and network analysis (Fraccascia and Giannoccaro
2020). Since able to create economic and environmental benefits simultaneously, IS is
nowadays recognized as one of the most-effective strategies supporting the transition
toward the circular economy (e.g., de Abreu and Ceglia 2018; Ungerman and Dědková
2019). Recently, the implementation of IS has been explicitly recommended by the
European Commission (European Commission 2011b, 2015) and several countries have
introduced it in their agenda (Park etal. 2008; Van Berkel etal. 2009).
From the company perspective, the main driver toward adopting the IS practice is the
willingness to gain economic benefits (Esty and Porter 1998; Yuan and Shi 2009). How-
ever, companies usually lack awareness on how to introduce the IS approach into their
current business practice (Fraccascia et al. 2016). Aimed at supporting the adoption
of IS, the literature provides several contributions on IS business models discussing a
wide range of factors (e.g., technical, operational, logistical, spatial, regulatory, market-
related, and environmental) that might influence the cooperation dynamics among com-
panies (Chopra and Khanna 2014; Genc etal. 2019; Herczeg etal. 2018; Madsen etal.
2015; Sakr etal. 2011; Tudor etal. 2007; Yazan and Fraccascia 2020). However, so far
the literature has mainly focused on material-based IS synergies, while less attention
has been devoted to energy-based IS synergies, i.e., symbiotic synergies where a waste
of one production process is exploited for energy-purposed by another production pro-
cess. In particular, the literature has mainly explored some case studies of energy-based
IS synergies. A recent article by Butturi etal. (2019) investigates how eco-industrial
parks can help to promote the use of renewable energy sources via IS, at both industrial
and urban levels. Despite its valuable contribution, their study does not provide a com-
prehensive view on energy-based IS, since it considers only eco-industrial parks, while
IS can occur also among entities not belonging to the same park (e.g., Chertow 2000).
Nevertheless, the authors recognize the need to perform a more in-depth analysis of the
literature on energy-related themes that can support the implementation of energy sym-
biosis schemes. In fact, a comprehensive view of the energy-based IS approach is miss-
ing, in terms of application strategies, drivers, barriers, and enablers.
This paper aims at filling this gap. Through a systematic review of the available lit-
erature on practical cases of IS, we first frame existing and planned energy-based IS
synergies. Then, based on the IS cases, we identify the different strategies to imple-
ment energy-based IS businesses and highlight the drivers, barriers, and enablers of
business development in energy-based IS. Accordingly, future research directions are
recommended.
The paper is structured as follows. Section2 presents the methodology adopted to carry
out the review. Sections3 and 4 show the results of the literature review: in particular,
Sect.3 proposes a categorization of energy-based IS cases, while in Sect.4 the drivers,
barriers, and enablers of energy-based IS are elaborated. Then, a discussion follows in
Sect.5. The paper ends with conclusions in Sect.6.
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2 Methodology
The study is based on a bibliographic research conducted on January 30, 2018. Figure3
graphically shows the steps conducted in this research. The first step was the bibliographic
literature search, aimed at collecting papers presenting and discussing cases of IS. The data
were retrieved from Scopus, an academic citation indexing and search service of Elsevier.
The following research keywords have been applied to title, abstract, and keywords of
papers:
(“Case study” OR “case studies” OR case OR cases) AND (“Industrial Symbiosis” OR
“Industrial Ecology” OR “Circular Economy” OR “Industrial park*” OR “Eco-industrial
park*” OR “Closed-loop supply chain*”).
Research keywords were selected to encompass the concept of IS including “industrial
ecology,” “circular economy,” and “closed-loop supply chain” concepts. Such an approach
was adopted because, according to the authors’ experience, some papers might discuss
cases of IS without contextualizing them into the IS field but within the above-mentioned
Fig. 3 Steps for the literature review
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fields. As a result of the research, 1100 papers were collected, 1041 of them (94.64%) in
English. We further limited the analysis by considering only papers published in interna-
tional scientific journals, in order to focus on peer-reviewed articles (e.g., Caniato etal.
2015; Potrich etal. 2019), and papers whose full text was available. The first database was
composed of 682 papers (65.80% of the original sample). The second step concerned filter-
ing papers. In this regard, a selection process was carried out through analyzing the papers
resulting from the previous step, aimed at excluding papers discussing cases not relevant
for the aim of this research, i.e., cases not involving energy-based IS exchanges.1 The third
step was aimed at building the final database of papers, which includes only papers report-
ing at least one energy-based IS synergy. Such a database is made by 96 papers published
between 2001 and 2018 in 36 journals (Fig.4). Note that some papers may discuss more
than one case of energy-based IS synergy. The final step was aimed at retrieving general
information on the involved industrial sectors and production processes, the physical flows
generated, the environmental and economic benefits created (where discussed), and driv-
ers, barriers, and enablers of energy-based IS.
3 Energy‑based industrial symbiosis classication
Following the systematic literature review, we categorize energy-based IS exchanges in
three groups: (1) energy cascade; (2) fuel replacement; and (3) bioenergy production. In
particular, an energy cascade between two processes occurs when the waste energy (e.g.,
waste heat or steam) produced by the former is used by the latter. A fuel replacement-based
IS synergy occurs when waste materials are used to replace traditional fuels in existing
fuel-based energy production processes (e.g., coal-based energy production). Finally, bio-
energy production-based IS synergies are devoted to exploiting organic wastes to produce
bioenergy. Figure5 depicts the graphical representation of these categories, considering—
for the sake of clarity—the case where different companies are involved.
Fig. 4 Number of papers published per year (papers published in 2018 are not shown)
1 A practical case of IS might not involve energy-based IS synergies but only material-based IS synergies.
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In the following subsections, each category is presented with an overview of cases,
which discusses how energy-based IS synergies are implemented. This approach is mainly
material/energy flows oriented, so to map the potential physical flows that might offer dif-
ferent sustainable and circular business opportunities to the involved companies. Techni-
cally, the IS takes place in three phases: identification of the potential of IS and potential
business partners, assessment of economic and environmental expectations and develop-
ment of potential business strategies, and the implementation of IS as a long term and sta-
ble business. Depending on a large variety of operational, spatial, technical, and technolog-
ical conditions, each IS might show a case-specific character offering diversified pathways
of business implementation. Technical aspects are discussed in detail in Sect.4 for each of
the specific energy-based IS categories proposed in this section.
3.1 Energy cascade
Four different models of energy cascade are implemented, according to business and tech-
nical dimensions (Fig.6). From the business perspective, energy cascade can be imple-
mented within a single company (Li etal. 2010; Zhang et al. 2013) or among different
companies. From the technical perspective, energy flows can be directly implemented
among production processes (Mannino etal. 2015; Yu etal. 2015a) or the energy can be
sent to an energy recovery facility and then to other processes (Baas 2011; Li etal. 2015a).
In all of the above-mentioned models, implementing energy cascade requires building new
infrastructures, e.g., the pipelines connecting the involved processes and the heat recovery
system facility (Tsvetkova etal. 2015).
From the waste energy producer’s perspective, we found several types of companies and
production processes involved: power plants (Kikuchi etal. 2016; Zhang etal. 2009), iron
Company B
Produc on
process
waste energy
waste material
Bioenergy
produc on
Produc on
processes
energy
energy
fuel
ENERGY MARKETS
Produc on
processes
Energy
produc on
energy
Produc on
processes
Fig. 5 Graphical scheme of energy-based IS synergies involving processes from different companies:
energy cascade (between companies A and B), bioenergy production (between companies A and C), and
fuel replacement (between companies A and D)
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and steel companies (Dong etal. 2013a, b, 2014; Li etal. 2010; Li etal. 2015c; Yu etal.
2015a), pulp mills (Baas 2011; Lehtoranta etal. 2011; Sokka etal. 2011), chemical com-
panies (Chae etal. 2010; Li etal. 2015c; Mannino etal. 2015), sugar production facilities
(Short etal. 2014), biofuel producers (Martin and Eklund 2011), mineral companies (Brent
etal. 2012), and glass manufacturers (Andrews and Pearce 2011). From the user perspec-
tive, different companies are currently involved in the use of waste energy: waste treatment
companies (Wang etal. 2017a, b), pulp mill and paper mill factories (Li and Ma 2015;
Wang etal. 2017a, b), food processing companies (Fan etal. 2017; Park and Park 2014),
home appliance companies (Fan etal. 2017), chemical companies (Dong etal. 2013a; Geng
etal. 2014; Li etal. 2017; Park and Park 2014; Sun etal. 2017; Yune etal. 2016), desali-
nation facilities (Shi etal. 2010), construction companies (Zhang etal. 2009), automobile
manufacturers (Shi etal. 2010), high-tech companies (Zhang etal. 2009), refineries and
biofuel producers (Eckelman and Chertow 2013; Martin and Eklund 2011), community
facilities and greenhouses (Baas 2011; Geng etal. 2010; Martin and Eklund 2011; Paka-
rinen etal. 2010; Posch 2010), steel plants and sintering plants (Wu etal. 2016a). Notice
that the same company can play both the role of energy producer and energy user simul-
taneously, for instance when it uses high-pressure steam (which is received from another
company) while also producing leftover low-pressure steam (which is sent to another com-
pany) (Li etal. 2010; Shi etal. 2010).
DESIGN OF PHYSICAL FLOWS (TECHNICAL DIMENSION)
Direct connection among processesIndirect connection among processes
INVOLVED COMPANIES (BUSINESS DIMENSION)
IS within one company
P1
P2
U1
U2
P1
P2
U1
U2
R
IS among different companies
P1
P2
U1
U2
P1
P2
U1
U2
R
Fig. 6 Models of energy cascade IS synergies. Legend: P, energy producer; U energy user; R, energy recov-
ery system
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Implementing energy cascade allows to minimize the use of energy within industrial
areas because the total energy requirement from outside is reduced, ceteris paribus (Leong
etal. 2017; Wen etal. 2017). For instance, in Jinan City (China) the energy requirement
has been reduced by 10,900 tons of coal equivalent (tce) per year thanks to energy cas-
cade among companies located in the industrial area close to the city (Dong etal. 2014).
In Liuzhou (China), 200 t/year of steam produced by a power plant and an iron and steel
company is destined to the central heating of the residential sector: this allows to reduce
the energy consumption by 12,500 tce (Sun etal. 2017). Furthermore, reducing energy
requirement contributes to creating indirect environmental benefits in terms of avoided
CO2 emissions from energy production. For instance, reduction in CO2 emissions thanks
to energy cascade accounts for 12.6 kt/year in Liuzhou (China) (Sun etal. 2017) and 45.5
kt/year in Ulsan (South Korea) (Park and Park 2014). Several studies are devoted to assess-
ing the benefits potentially stemming from implementing energy cascade among compa-
nies in a given area. For instance, implementing energy cascade in Guiyang (China) would
allow to recover around 300 tons per year of waste heat, which corresponds to save fossil
fuel by 18,864 tce per year and reduce CO2 emissions by 49 kt/year (Dong etal. 2016; Li
etal. 2015b). Zhang etal. (2016) show that the energy demand from companies located in
the eco-industrial park in Jurong Island (Singapore) can be reduced by around 40%. Has-
siba etal. (2017) show that implementing energy cascade among companies located in the
industrial park in Mesaieed Industrial City (Qatar) might contribute to reduce energy costs
by around 5 million dollars per year and CO2 emissions by more than 200 tons per day.
Finally, Chae etal. (2010) show that energy cascade in petrochemical complex in Yeosu
(South Korea) can reduce waste heat by 82% and energy costs by more than 88%.
3.2 Fuel replacement
Four different models of fuel replacement synergies are implemented, according to busi-
ness and technical dimensions (Fig.7). From the business perspective, fuel replacement
synergies can be implemented within one company or among different companies. From
the technical perspective, the waste can be directly used to replace fuel (direct replacement)
or converted in an alternative fuel, e.g., pallet (indirect replacement), through a waste treat-
ment process.
Several types of waste are currently used as alternative fuels: lignin from pulp and paper
industry or from bioethanol production (Gabriel etal. 2017; Mattila etal. 2012; Tan etal.
2016), plastic wastes (Huysman etal. 2017; Yu etal. 2015d), exhausted tires (Albino and
Fraccascia 2015; Eckelman and Chertow 2013; Guo etal. 2016; Subulan etal. 2015; Yazan
etal. 2018; Yu etal. 2015d), wood scraps (Baas 2011; Kikuchi etal. 2016; Meneghetti
and Nardin 2012; Rosa and Beloborodko 2015; Ruggieri etal. 2016; Velenturf 2016), coal
gangue generated from coal mining process (Guo etal. 2016; Li etal. 2015b), bagasse
from sugar production (Kikuchi et al. 2016), solid residues from biodiesel production
(Benjamin etal. 2015), carbonic oxide from calcium carbide furnace (Yu etal. 2015b),
agricultural wastes produced by farms (Costa and Ferrão 2010), waste oil (Eckelman and
Chertow 2013), and industrial solvents and hazardous waste (Ashton 2011). These wastes
are mainly used to replace coal in heat and power plants or in energy-intensive industries
(e.g., cement production).
New applications of the fuel replacement practice have also been explored, dealing with
wastes that are traditionally not recovered but disposed of in the landfill. In this regard,
Allesina etal. (2017) investigate the conversion of spent coffee grounds from bars into
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pellets, which can be used as a source of thermal energy to produce roasted coffee. Sper-
andio etal. (2017) investigate two different solutions for recovering and valorizing spent
grain from beer production: (1) conversion into pellet that can be used for heat genera-
tion in beer production and (2) production of biochar through the thermochemical process
of pyro-gasification. Both studies show the technical and economic feasibility of these
applications.
Several papers report the use of urban wastes as a replacement of coal in industrial pro-
cesses. For instance, in Kawasaki (Japan) separated plastic and paper generated within the
urban area are converted into high-performance solid fuel, which is then used in a steel
plant as a substitute for coke and fuel in the blast furnace (Ohnishi etal. 2017). In Pingli-
ang City (China), unsorted urban wastes are used to replace coal in a power plant (Dong
etal. 2017).
From the environmental perspective, the adoption of such an approach can result in
three main benefits: (1) reducing the amounts of wastes disposed of in landfills; (2) reduc-
ing the amounts of fossil fuels used in industrial processes; and (3) reducing the amounts
of associated greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted in the atmosphere. In particular, savings in
GHG emissions are due to avoided fuel production, transport, and combustion, as well as
avoided disposal of wastes.2 Considering the potential environmental benefits, the adop-
tion of such an approach has been planned in Guiyang (China) (Dong etal. 2016; Li etal.
FUEL REPLACEMENT STRATEGY (TECHNICAL DIMENSION)
INVOLVED COMPANIES (BUSINESS DIMENSION)
Direct replacementIndirect replacement
IS within one company
P Uwaste
P UT
IS among different companies
P Uwaste
PU
Talternave
fuel
Fig. 7 Models of fuel replacement IS synergies. Legend: P, producer; U, user; T, waste treatment process
2 One more source of saving in GHG emissions could be related to the fact that the process of burning
wastes could produce a lower amount of CO2 than the process of burning fossil fuels, ceteris paribus. How-
ever, in this regard, two issues should be highlighted. First, the reviewed literature has devoted a scant atten-
tion to investigate this aspect. Second, results can be highly case-specific, since they could depend on the
characteristics of the waste and the fuel replaced, as well as on process parameters.
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2015b), where two synergies can be developed: (1) 10 t/year of waste plastic can be used
to replace 12 t of coal by cement, iron and steel plants, reducing CO2 emissions by 31.2 kt/
year; and (2) 100 t/year of coal gangue produced by coal industry can be reused by local
power plants for electricity generation, saving fossil fuel by 30 ktce/year and reducing CO2
emission by 78 kt/year. However, savings in CO2 emissions are highly case-specific. In
fact, Eckelman and Chertow (2013) highlight that burning wastes could produce more CO2
than burning traditional fuels, ceteris paribus. This may depend on several technical issues,
such as the replacement capability of wastes (i.e., how many units of wastes are required to
replace one unit of fuel) and the CO2 emission coefficients of both waste and the replaced
fuel. For instance, for each ton of paper used in Kawasaki, CO2 emissions can be reduced
by 4.86 t, while 3.16 t of CO2 can be saved per each ton of plastic used as fuel, ceteris pari-
bus (Ohnishi etal. 2017).
3.3 Bioenergy production
Bioenergy production-based IS synergies can be classified according to business and geo-
graphic dimensions. From the business perspective, bioenergy production synergies can be
implemented within one company, when the waste producer implements bioenergy pro-
duction processes, or among different companies, so that a bioenergy production chain is
developed. From the geographic perspective, the waste exploited for bioenergy production
can be produced in rural, industrial, and urban areas.
Concerning the wastes produced in rural areas, Alfaro and Miller (2014) identify sev-
eral energy-based IS synergies that can be adopted inside smallholder farms, aimed at pro-
ducing electricity and biogas for internal use, and discuss their economic implications for
farms. Sharib and Halog (2017) highlight the possible use of rubber wood as a biomass
feedstock for electricity production. Zabaniotou etal. (2015) and Ruggieri et al. (2016)
discuss how to produce energy from wastes generated by olive oil production. Pierie etal.
(2017) and Yazan etal. (2018) analyze the electric energy production chain from animal
manure in the Netherlands, where different manure producers can cooperate with one or
more energy producers. In particular, Pierie etal. (2017) assess the possible economic and
environmental benefits for the involved companies and the collectivity, respectively. Yazan
etal. (2018) focus on the cooperation pathways among manure producers and bioenergy
producers, investigating the manure exchange price that would enhance the willingness
to cooperate of these actors. Several papers analyze palm-based energy production (e.g.,
empty fruit bunches, palm kernel shells, palm mesocarp fiber, palm oil mill effluent) in
Malaysia. In particular, Ng etal. (2014b) and Ng etal. (2014a) propose a disjunctive fuzzy
optimization approach to determine the configuration of production chain which optimizes
the total economic performance, while Tan etal. (2016) and Andiappan etal. (2016) focus
on exploring the fair allocation of economic benefits among all the actors based on their
respective contributions toward the chain. In particular, Tan etal. (2016) propose a linear
programming cooperative game model, while Andiappan etal. (2016) propose an optimi-
zation-based negotiation framework. Tan etal. (2016) also address the energy production
chain from waste biomass of sago palm waste (e.g., sago fibers and sago bark), which is
generated in sago starch food production typically to be found in tropical lowland forest in
South East Asia countries and Papua New Guinea. Gonela and Zhang (2014) and Gonela
etal. (2015) develop optimization models for designing the bioethanol production chain
based on the IS approach, aimed at determining the configuration of the chain that maxi-
mizes the overall economic performance. Furthermore, Martin and Eklund (2011) suggest
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the opportunity to reuse the waste heat from ethanol production in biogas and biodiesel
processing, as these processes can utilize low-temperature heat. Tsvetkova etal. (2015)
investigate the biogas production chain using agricultural wastes, highlighting the key
actors and modeling both material and monetary flows among them.
Concerning the wastes produced in urban areas, several papers explore the energy pro-
duction from organic wastes, which on average account for around 46% of total munici-
pal wastes (The World Bank 2012). Such a practice is considered as a useful strategy for
mitigating the environmental impact created within urban areas. Apart from the energy
producer, these IS synergies involve also citizens, responsible for waste production, and
the local government, responsible for waste collection and disposal. Within urban areas,
three kinds of organic wastes can be used to produce energy: food waste, waste cooking
oil, and green wastes (i.e., wastes produced in green areas) (Fraccascia etal. 2016; Li etal.
2017). These wastes stem from household consumption, food retail (e.g., food selling in
supermarkets), food service (e.g., food cooked and served in restaurants and canteens), and
green areas maintenance (Albino etal. 2015). Furthermore, these organic wastes can be
used in combination with wastes produced in rural areas. In this regard, Vega-Quezada
etal. (2017) assess the technical and economic feasibility of producing biogas through a
mixture of municipal urban waste and livestock manure. Nevertheless, the sludge resulting
from wastewater treatment plants can be used to produce electric energy through cogenera-
tion (e.g., Gonela and Zhang 2014; Yu etal. 2015a).
Concerning the use of industrial wastes for energy production, Sgarbossa and Russo
(2017) and Santagata et al. (2017) investigate IS synergies implemented by companies
belonging to the supply chain of meat products, where large amounts of slaughterhouse
waste are produced. These wastes mainly consist of the portion of a slaughtered animal that
cannot be sold as meat or used in meat products. All the unusable parts of the slaughtered
carcass can be collected for processing from abattoirs, butchers, and food processing sites.
Then, after a pretreatment process, the solid fraction (i.e., bone and meat) can be used in a
cogeneration plant to produce energy. Velenturf (2016) highlights the exploitation of waste
oils generated by fuel production to produce energy. Electric energy and biogas can also
be produced from sludge generated by waste treatment processes (Benjamin etal. 2015; Li
etal. 2015c; Maaß and Grundmann 2016; Sharib and Halog 2017; Tan etal. 2016; Tsvet-
kova etal. 2015; Yu etal. 2015a; Zijp etal. 2017).
In general, bioenergy production might create three environmental benefits: (1) a lower
amount of (bio-) waste disposed of in landfills; (2) a lower amount of energy produced
from conventional sources; and (3) a reduction in GHG emissions. In particular, the lower
amount of GHG emissions results from the reduced amount of energy production from
conventional sources and the (potential) reduced GHG emitted by the bioenergy production
process.
4 Energy‑based industrial symbiosis: drivers, barriers, andenablers
A variety of drivers, barriers, and enablers (DBEs) for the energy-based IS practice is found
in the literature. Following Li etal. (2015c), we observe four different forms of DBEs:
(1) financial, (2) technological, (3) regulatory, and (4) institutional. In general, financial
DBEs refer to the monetary benefits and investments related to IS synergies. Technological
DBEs concern any technical condition that influences the implementation of IS synergies.
Regulatory DBEs are about any form of binding or encouraging legislation that is either
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in place or required to be established with respect to IS. Finally, institutional DBEs con-
cern issues related to the organizational structure of involved firms, their business models,
and their strategic behavior in implementing IS. Note that such a general classification is
mainly based on the primary nature of DBEs—and not all their potential consequences or
available solution concepts to deal with them. We use this categorization on various forms
of DBEs in order to have a clear view of the essence of DBEs and their potential conflict-
ing/enhancing interactions (see the upcoming subsections for detailed discussions).
While the above-mentioned four classes of DBE are common among the four catego-
ries, their manifestation is not necessarily the same. In the following subsections, we sur-
vey different forms of DBEs in the three energy-based IS categories presented in Sect.3.
Exploring the DBEs—categorized with respect to the type of energy-based symbiotic
practice—might support firm managers’ decisions during the process of IS evaluation as
well as implementation. For instance, even if a manager encounters a barrier against a spe-
cific IS synergy, he/she may accept to explore the opportunity to implement IS—and not
to evaluate it as an unpromising IS immediately—as he/she would be aware of potential
enablers to overcome the barrier in question. In this way, the potential economic and socio-
environmental benefits of the practice would not be dismissed.
Table1 shows a summarized list of drivers, barriers, and enablers for each category,
which are discussed in the following subsections.3 Note that although some DBEs are com-
mon among different forms of energy-based IS practices, this table is generated merely
based on specified DBEs in case studies included in the literature review.
4.1 DBEs inenergy cascade IS
From the business perspective, in energy cascade cases the producer company usually
sells the waste energy to the user company. Hence, waste energy producers are encouraged
to implement IS synergies thanks to the additional revenues from selling waste energy,
while waste users are willing to reduce energy costs, because of the lower energy price
paid (Dong etal. 2014; Park and Park 2014). However, the willingness of companies to
cooperate in energy cascade synergies might be hampered by the need to adjust their busi-
ness strategy according to the IS practice (Wang etal. 2017a, b). This shows a trade-off
between (former) financial drivers against (latter) institutional barriers in energy cascade
IS practices. In addition, a fundamental prerequisite for the development of energy cascade
is the capability to transport energy among different companies (Yune etal. 2016). Such a
technological barrier limits the geographic scale of possible synergies, since the involved
companies need to be located in close proximity so that energy transportation is technically
and economically feasible.
From the technical perspective, energy users might have technical requirements (e.g.,
temperature and pressure of waste steam) for using the waste energy. Such requirements
may make the IS synergy unfeasible—unless the waste energy user company implements
technical changes in the production processes, which induce additional costs. Hence, a
technological barrier may call for financial investments. Thus, in case the total foreseeable
benefit (of implementing the IS practice) does not pay off such an investment, firms assess
the practice as economically unpromising due to a financial barrier—which stems from a
3 The four different forms of DBEs proposed by Li etal. (2015c) are not highlighted in this table because
of a space limitation but are discussed in the following subsections.
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Table 1 Drivers, barriers, and enablers for each energy-based category
Category Drivers Barriers Enablers
Energy cascade Additional revenues from selling energy (waste
energy producer)
Reducing energy costs (waste energy user)
Geographic distance among companies
Need to adjust business model for energy sources
(waste energy user)
Building and managing infrastructures
Need to implement technical changes in production
processes
Uncertainty in the amount of produced waste
energy
Economic incentives from the government
Regulations
Fuel replacement Reducing waste disposal costs (waste energy
producer)
Reducing fuel purchase costs (waste energy user)
Uncertainty in waste production
Need to implement technical changes in production
processes
Regulations on waste-fuel mix
Economic incentives from the government
Regulations
Technical support from the government
Bioenergy production Reducing waste disposal costs
Additional revenues from selling energy
Bioenergy production chains made by different
actors with different interests
Economic feasibility affected by several factors
Access to bioenergy production technologies
Economic incentives from the government
Regulations
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technological origin. In principle, the return on investments—to implement energy cascade
IS—mainly depends on the energy market price, as well as on the operational costs of IS
that companies need to sustain (Wang etal. 2017a, b).
Furthermore, energy cascade IS synergies might face risks related to the fluctuations in
the stream of waste energy supply or in the continuity of the energy demand—which can
be affected by the seasonality of the main product demands, technical failures, or chang-
ing market dynamics (technological/institutional DBEs). As discussed by Albino et al.
(2016), the uncertainty in waste production is also a typical problem for material-based
IS synergies. In that case, to reduce the vulnerability of IS relations caused by the mis-
match between demand and supply of waste companies can stock waste materials (when
the amount of waste required is lower than the amount produced) and use them when the
demand becomes higher than supply (Fraccascia etal. 2017b). However, this solution is
not always applicable in the energy cascade synergies, mainly because energy storage tech-
nologies may not be economically sustainable (Andrews and Pearce 2011; Kikuchi etal.
2016). In such a case, the IS synergy has a low resilience to perturbations caused by the
mismatch between demand and supply of waste energy (Wang etal. 2017a, b).4
The implementation of energy cascade may be in conflict with regulations that con-
sider the linear economy as the established paradigm (Li and Ma 2015; Yu etal. 2015c).
Yu etal. (2015c) classify the IS-related policies into three categories: (1) resource com-
prehensive utilization policies; (2) tax preference policies; and (3) CE and IS promotion
policies (regulatory DBE). While the traditional set of policies merely focuses on fostering
the industries to realize a desirable outcome from the economic, environmental, and social
perspective, the CE-oriented legislations also take into account the methods that indus-
tries employ (e.g., exploiting IS practices). Hence, governments are ought to reduce the
complexity and remove the barriers in implementing IS synergies through similar forms
of legislative reform and creations—as illustrated in Yu et al. (2015b). For instance, by
adopting regulations that specify boundaries on energy consumption and greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, as well as policies aimed at nudging firms to discard obsolete processes
and equipment, governments may enforce companies to implement energy cascade syner-
gies (Cerceau etal. 2014; Lehtoranta etal. 2011; Lenhart etal. 2015; Wu etal. 2016b; Yu
etal. 2015a). In parallel, governments might stimulate the application of advanced cleaner
technologies through the provision of fiscal subsidies (Li etal. 2017; Wen etal. 2018) or
directly supporting IS synergies by financing physical infrastructures required to exchange
energy (Hein etal. 2017; Park and Park 2014). Although it is generally recognized that
policy is an important instrument that can stimulate and remove barriers for IS, the number
of regulations specifically aimed toward fostering IS or regulation in which IS appears as a
promoted business model is still relatively low (Lehtoranta etal. 2011).
4.2 DBEs infuel replacement IS
From the business perspective, companies are willing to adopt the fuel replacement
approach aimed at reducing traditional fuel purchase costs (waste users) and waste disposal
costs (waste producers)—financial DBEs. However, according to the European Waste
4 For a detailed discussion on the resilience of IS synergies and its importance for the IS approach, we refer
the readers to the following papers: (Ashton etal. 2017; Benjamin etal. 2015; Chopra and Khanna 2014;
Fraccascia 2017a; Li and Shi 2015; Meerow and Newell 2015; Zeng etal. 2013; Zhu and Ruth 2013).
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Hierarchy (European Parliament 2008), the use of waste materials as alternative fuel is
suggested only in the case of low-quality wastes (e.g., wastes with a high percentage of
impurities), because high-quality wastes might be used to replace production inputs—reg-
ulatory DBEs.5 For instance, high-grade lignin can be used to replace carbon fibers and
high-quality plastic can be used to replace Phenol (Gabriel etal. 2017).
A key barrier for the development of fuel replacement IS synergies is the lack of useful
and reliable information on the waste demand and supply (Guo etal. 2016)—institutional
DBE. In fact, as a common property among IS-based practices, it may happen that demand
(supply) for a given waste exists, but firms producing (requiring) that waste are not aware
of such a demand (supply) (Aid etal. 2017; Chertow 2007; Golev etal. 2015; Sakr etal.
2011; Zhu and Cote 2004). However, even in case of full information availability, several
issues may hamper the use of wastes as fuels.
First, the waste may require a pretreatment process before being used as fuel, e.g., aimed
at removing impurities (Fraccascia etal. 2017a; Herczeg etal. 2018). In such a case, com-
panies need to design and implement additional processes, which are not related to their
core business (institutional DBE). For instance, using the spent coffee grounds as tradi-
tional fuel in coffee roasting plants requires appropriate drying and pallet-making machin-
ery (Allesina etal. 2017)—technological DBE. Purchase costs of these machineries and
associated operational costs (e.g., maintenance, workforce, inputs, and energy) erode the
economic benefits that companies gain from the IS approach. Again, we observe how the
required institutional change (in the business model) calls for technological updates and
accordingly requires financial investments.
Second, the whole idea of replacing fuels with wastes might be influenced by techni-
cal and regulatory issues. From the technical perspective, the waste might have different
characteristics from the replaced fuel, e.g., a lower heating value. In such a situation, the
replacement is not a perfect match—with respect to quality—but a considerable alterna-
tive. In other words, some characteristics may constrain the substitution, e.g., when the
available quality of waste is lower than the required quality (on the receiver side). One
explanation is that waste is not produced upon demand but emerge as secondary outputs of
main production activities (Yazan etal. 2016). This may simply result in a mismatch with
respect to both quantity and quality. Then, a common solution is to use a mixture of tradi-
tional fuels with the waste-based fuel. It should be noticed that such a practice may require
to calibrate the burning facilities, e.g., furnaces, according to the specific waste-fuel mix
they receive, which results in additional operations for companies to undertake.
Third, when a waste material is substituting a traditional fuel, environmental protection
technologies must be adopted as well (Subulan etal. 2015). Otherwise, the traditional tech-
nologies that are in place (e.g., to filter the emissions caused by the traditional fuel) may be
insufficient when a company either replaces or mixes the fuel with a non-traditional waste
material, e.g., exhausted tires—technological DBE.
Fourth, from the governance perspective, one main driver behind the use of wastes as
fuel is to promote the reduction of raw material consumption and the GHG emissions. To
5 A common definition of waste quality is lacking in the context of IS. In fact, according to Prosman and
Wæhrens (2019, p. 113), “the context in which many industrial symbiosis practices unfold complicates
defining waste quality and developing suitable incentives for waste quality (Yenipazarli 2019).” Generally,
the concept of waste quality can be related to the similarity of the waste to the replaced input, in terms of
physicochemical characteristics. The more similar the waste characteristics are to those of replaced input,
the higher the waste quality will be, ceteris paribus. In this regard, a low-quality waste can be considered as
a waste characterized by a high content of impurities.
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encourage such a practice, governments at regional, national or even international level can
play a key role by means of economic and regulatory instruments, as well as by provid-
ing companies with technical support. For instance, governments can introduce economic
incentives for firms that replace traditional fuels and enforce penalties against GHG emit-
ters (Fraccascia etal. 2017b; Liu etal. 2018; Ohnishi etal. 2017)—regulatory DBE. Rosa
and Beloborodko (2015) acknowledge that the necessity to comply with European environ-
mental regulations—concerning waste landfilling—has made Latvian industrial companies
review their by-product management practice and that IS became a useful approach to com-
ply with these regulations. In addition to promoting IS via legislative actions, policymakers
can facilitate the availability of information for companies. In fact, they can promote public
meetings among stakeholders in which information related to produced or required wastes
is disseminated leading toward collaborative IS actions (Costa and Ferrão 2010). Further-
more, a regularly updated information-sharing platform can be developed in which firms
upload their waste generation/requirement information and also find useful data from other
companies (Fraccascia and Yazan 2018; Grant etal. 2010; van Capelleveen etal. 2018).
Overall, the above-mentioned issues and their representation in IS characterize a spe-
cific DBE profile that a particular IS practice is facing with. Such a profile, which consists
of all four types of financial, regulatory, institutional, and technological DBEs, in some
aspects hampers and in some other aspects fosters the implementation of the energy-based
IS in question. In principle, the awareness of firms (and supporting entities such as govern-
ments) about these DBEs supports their decisions in the process of evaluating and imple-
menting fuel replacement IS practices.
4.3 DBEs inbioenergy production IS
From the business perspective, companies are willing to adopt such an alternative form of
energy production because they can benefit from lower waste disposal costs and additional
revenues from selling the energy produced from (bio-) wastes (Maaß and Grundmann
2016)—financial DBEs.
From the technical perspective, the access to required technologies for bioenergy pro-
duction is a key facilitator behind producing energy from wastes—technological DBEs. For
instance, Tan etal. (2016) mention that the availability of a biomass-based refinery system
is the main requisite for the establishment of symbiotic relations in palm oil eco-industrial
parks in Malaysia, as such a system utilizes biomass feedstock to simultaneously produce
heat, power, and cooling energy on-site. In an olive farm case, Zabaniotou etal. (2015)
show that, in the presence of required machinery, the bio-oil obtained from pyrolysis can
generate enough electricity to not only cover the energy requirements of the olive milling
procedure but also to produce an electricity surplus. While having access to the proper
technology enables large process industries to implement IS and produce energy, the lack
of access to such technologies may be a barrier for small and medium-sized enterprises.
From the economic perspective, the feasibility of bioenergy production IS synergies is
affected by technical, spatial, and economic factors that are highly case-specific. These factors
include different forms of DBEs in general and specific factors such as biowaste transporta-
tion costs, electricity price (to see if a bioenergy production IS is beneficial), waste treatment
processes (that are able to treat bioresources), and up-to-date bioenergy production facilities.
In some cases, depending on the above-mentioned factors, bioenergy production IS synergies
might have a negative cost–benefit ratio, thus requiring financial support from governments
to be implemented (Velenturf 2016; Zhang etal. 2013b)—regulatory DBEs. In fact, apart
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from creating economic benefits for the involved companies and environmental benefits for the
society, bioenergy production practices can also contribute to developing regional economic
and substance cycles, boosting a local or regional economy, and enhancing its competitive-
ness (Brent etal. 2012; Martin and Eklund 2011). Hence, regional and national governments
may be interested in supporting the implementation of this approach by introducing monetary
incentives (Vega-Quezada etal. 2017) or regulations that focus on enhancing energy efficiency
or limiting renewable fuel usage and GHG emissions (Gonela etal. 2015). While in one hand
some regulations (e.g., monetary incentives) should be established to foster bioenergy produc-
tion IS practice, some binding regulations have to be removed—or updated.6
5 Discussion
The findings of the systematic literature review can be evaluated from various perspectives.
We discuss the identified key DBE’s for energy-based IS, the three primary stakeholders
with respect to required actions involved for improving energy-based IS, and the role of
structure, geography, and investments in energy-based IS.
The first set of findings address the identified key drivers, barriers, and enablers for energy-
based IS (see Table1). There appear to be differences in regard to the identified primary DBE’s
for each energy-based IS category: energy cascade, fuel replacement, and bioenergy production.
While in general enablers appear to be fairly similar, i.e., all categories list economic incen-
tives and regulations as enablers, drivers and barriers are more divergent among the catego-
ries. Unsurprisingly, it is the overall dominating presence of economic drivers in all catego-
ries, either resulting from cost savings or from revenues obtained through energy transactions.
Many researchers (e.g., Chae etal. 2010; Costa and Ferrão 2010; Shi etal. 2010) argue that IS
is mostly not the core business of organizations. Therefore, explained well by Ashton (2011),
many industries lack the incentive to initiate IS, as they are more focused on their own eco-
nomic interests and are unaware or disregard the common potential in forming partnerships.
While some of these DBE’s are likely to strengthen in forthcoming years (e.g., additional rev-
enues from selling energy), others (e.g., adjusting business models and co-locating particular
industries) are expected to change due to the current prospect of increasing the financial quan-
tification of environmental pollution and material use. This is primarily due to the increased
intrinsic value of energy caused by energy scarcity and the growing demand of energy triggered
by the increasing population and the associated growing demand in rising economies.
Throughout the literature review, we came across three main types of actors that have a
capacity to influence the formation of IS cooperation, being: governments (or institutional
anchors), industries, and facilitating bodies. Typically, the role of industries is finding inputs
that can be replaced by waste and vice versa, finding potential symbiotic partners, and assess-
ing the relationship. The key role of the governments is to create environmental regulations,
provide industries with economic incentives, and create public institutions aimed at support-
ing industries in adopting IS. Finally, facilitators play an anchor role by providing guidance
on waste treatment, political support, technical and economic feasibility, and sometimes act
as a governing organization facilitating infrastructure and monitoring shared facilities.
The success of energy-based IS is dependent on all three actors. As the literature shows,
many IS relations benefit from the use of the results listed capabilities and instruments of these
6 For instance, Yazan etal. (2018) show that the presence of some (IS-binding) regulations might nega-
tively affect the economic performance of companies. Hence, policymakers should carefully select the
appropriate “sweet spot” policy that balances economic and environmental performance.
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actors. The primary factor in energy cascades is the economic viability, which is highly influ-
enced by the fluctuating market price and forces companies to change business strategy accord-
ingly in order to adopt IS (Wang etal. 2017a, b). This could be changed by creating more stable
and higher energy prices. For fuel replacement, it is argued that waste should only be treated
as fuel in the case of low-quality waste. Furthermore, the supply of waste should be stable.
Institutional actors can provide a mix of regulations targeted to prevent high-quality waste from
being burned, while low-quality waste to be a considerable option. Secondly, contracted stock-
ing waste at centralized warehouses may create a more stable flow of waste that can enable a
sustainable business model for new IS relations. Finally, bioenergy production is heavily influ-
enced by the technological infrastructure required for production. Again, measures like financial
support both for acquiring infrastructure as well as operating the bioenergy production can sup-
port the feasibility of bioenergy (Velenturf 2016). In addition, regulations, that foster bioenergy
production and enhance energy efficiency of biofuel, are advised (Gonela etal. 2015).
From the cases analyzed, it is observed that energy-based IS takes different forms with respect
to the involvement of companies and physical flows of heat and energy sources. One of the com-
mon cases is that a central energy company—mostly in the form of combined heat and power
(CHP)—sends excess heat to a number of receivers operating in process industry. Similarly, a
central firm operating in process industry sends the excess heat deriving from its production
process to other companies operating in process industry. For both cases, also the urban use
of excess heat is possible. To render such a business model applicable, pipeline systems must
be established, which require considerable investments. How such investment costs should be
shared among involved stakeholders is an essential practical issue. Investments can be allocated
to involved companies as well as being partially shared by an anchor company that generates or
receives the most part of excess heat. The involvement of governments in investment-sharing is
also possible via financing pipeline establishment. In such cases, technical issues such as the use
of excess heat in the final destination should be carefully addressed. For example, the calorific
value of the excess heat sent to a company operating in process industry and to households might
be different, calling for adjustments in pipeline systems. There might also be differences between
companies operating in disengaged process industries in terms of energy use. While a CHP intui-
tively would have economic gains thanks to additional sales of heat, for an anchor company oper-
ating in the process industry the economic gains are mostly in the form of cost reduction.
In terms of physical flows, involved companies might have different roles in the sym-
biosis: a company might provide energy source but do not receive energy, provide energy
source and receive energy, do not provide energy source but receives energy. When mul-
tiple actors are involved, physical flows among companies might be one-to-one, multiple-
to-one, or one-to-multiple. In addition, some cases are based on the substitution of the
energy source, while some cases involve direct energy production/use. Implementing such
a framework of physical flows would assist companies to understand the (potential) typol-
ogy of the symbiotic network and define the centrality degree of each involved actor. Such
an approach might enlighten the question of investment-sharing revealing the operational,
economic, and environmental importance of each company for the network.
From the geographical perspective, a number of case studies display successful cooper-
ation between industry and urban areas. On the other hand, the use of organic resources for
particularly bioenergy production is commonly observed in rural areas, while there are also
cases from the use of food waste, cooking oil waste and food/beverage processing waste
in urban areas. So, the potential of energy-based-IS exists for both urban and rural areas
involving small-medium enterprises, large-scale companies, local/urban communities, and
(local) governments. This shows a clear indication that best-practices occur when there is
the involvement of multiple stakeholders.
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In terms of the additional costs of material-based IS, transportation costs, waste treat-
ment costs, and transaction costs are observed to be the most relevant ones. In the case of
energy-based industrial symbiosis, investment costs appear as the most relevant additional
costs. This is a challenge to neutralize the savings associated with waste emission costs and
traditional resource purchase costs. Therefore, future practices might show economic trade-
off challenges, calling for the attention of governments in terms of subsidies or incentives,
in line with their sustainable development agendas.
From the analysis of results, it can be highlighted that the environmental and economic
benefits created by energy-based IS synergies are strongly case dependent. In particular,
the environmental benefits depend on several factors, such as how much energy can be
saved via IS, the CO2 production rate of that energy source, how much energy can be pro-
duced via IS, the CO2 production rate of the energy produced via IS, etc. Also the eco-
nomic benefits depend on several factors, different than those above-mentioned, such as the
additional costs required to implement and operate the energy-based IS synergies. There-
fore, both the economic and the environmental feasibility of each energy-based IS syn-
ergy should be carefully investigated a priori. In this regard, future research should address
several issues. From the environmental perspective, the environmental (current and poten-
tial) benefits from energy-based IS should be investigated more in-depth, for instance via
methodologies based on thermodynamics—e.g., emergy analysis (e.g., Ren etal. 2016)
and exergy analysis (e.g., Valero etal. 2013)—or LCA (e.g., Aissani et al. 2019; Martin
2019). In this regard, there is an extensive literature on the adoption of the above-men-
tioned methodologies specifically to analyze IS (Fraccascia and Giannoccaro 2020), but
few contributions concern energy-based IS synergies. Furthermore, the process of using
wastes instead of fossil fuels should be investigated more in depth, in order to highlight
whether, ceteris paribus, using wastes would result in additional GHG emissions compared
to the emissions resulting from using fossil fuels (see, e.g., Eckelman and Chertow 2013).
In fact, some cases reported by the literature show that the use of alternative fuels could
have negative consequences from the environmental perspective (e.g., Man etal. 2016).
Also this issue could be investigated via LCA analysis. In fact, in this literature analysis,
only few out of 96 articles analyzed (e.g., Eckelman and Chertow 2013; Geng etal. 2010;
Mattila etal. 2012; Pakarinen etal. 2010; Pierie etal. 2017; Sokka etal. 2011) adopt LCA
to energy-based IS, while the rest of them, having different focuses, skip the use of the
LCA, which is critically important to measure the holistic contribution of IS rather than
the core contribution. From the economic perspective, the profitability of energy-based IS
synergies should be investigated more in depth, taking into account the investment costs
and economic accounting of environmental cost reductions, which might be a base for
governments to decide for subsidy distribution among stakeholders. Accordingly, sustain-
able business implementation via fair cost- and benefit-sharing should also be researched.
Impacts of energy-based IS implementation on the traditional supply chains of companies,
particularly in terms of contracts and business strategy change between companies, is also
an open field of research. Finally, cross-cutting operational dynamics of water-based, mate-
rial-based, service-based, and energy-based IS can be searched and a general framework
for operations of IS can be implemented.
Finally, the authors would like to recognize a potential limitation of this paper. In fact,
some articles could address cases of symbiotic synergies without directly defining them
as IS (e.g., Man etal. 2018, 2020). These papers are not collected by the bibliographic
research, which is designed to take into account the definition of IS (see Sect.2). However,
this limitation does not affect the main results of this research.
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6 Conclusion
This paper addresses the different types of implementations of IS linked to one of our
society’s current and future concerns, i.e., energy security. Companies’ traditional linear
approach to producing and selling more goods (independently from society’s demand) trig-
gers a substantial increase in energy consumption in the production phase of goods. Fur-
thermore, society’s unsustainable consumption pattern, which is also highly energy-inten-
sive, increases our hunger for energy sources to run the modern world economy and put the
energy security in high ranks in future agendas of governments.
From the literature survey conducted, it is concluded that energy-based IS is one of the
pioneering fields to achieve energy transition from linear to circular economy.7 The field
achieved an encouraging but not a sufficient number of success stories and barriers are
still high and it starves for finding answers to a wide range of questions. The DBE analysis
points out that the efforts to demolish financial, regulatory, technological, and institutional
barriers have been insufficient up-to-date.
The following topics are the future research problems associated with multiple (poten-
tial) stakeholders in the IS-based.
How to reduce investment-related financial barriers? Existing excess heat transfer pipe-
lines are constructed for short distances and the involvement of long-distance companies
to such pipeline systems faces the financial barrier. Indeed, it is already expensive to con-
struct an excess heat transfer pipeline between two companies. So, there is more way to
go to understand how an excess heat transfer network would be implemented by reducing
investment costs. Reduction in investment costs can be associated with multiple factors
such as the use of alternative materials or production techniques for the construction of
pipelines. Sustainable finance would also play a critical role to tackle with high investment
costs in terms of moderate pay-back options which allows investors to internalize the envi-
ronmental and social externalities. Internalization of environmental and social externali-
ties require strong engagement and encouragement of (local) governments to safeguard the
needs of the society and the environment while facilitating the economic viability of such
big projects. In short, multiple stakeholder engagement is a must.
How to achieve ‘coupled management of IS’ at operational level? This is critical to reduce
operational costs and a challenge due to the dynamic physical conditions of excess energy and
the dynamic market conditions for the principal products of involved companies. Some cases
might require improvement of physical or technical conditions for technical reasons, while some
cases might require temporary energy storage to tackle with supply–demand mismatch fluctua-
tions. Hence, a cooperation between thermodynamics, purchasing management and operations
management research fields would contribute to decrease financial and logistical barriers giv-
ing an impetus on dynamic purchasing and pricing of transferred energy. Collaborative demand
forecasting to reduce supply–demand mismatch, dynamic contracts to achieve fairness in cost-
and benefit-sharing, and multi-lateral contracts to achieve stable and sustainable energy cas-
cades are critical. If barriers can be demolished, then the industry’s dependency on fossil fuels
(particularly natural gas) can significantly decrease.
How to achieve society’s integration? The first answer to this question is ‘via integrating
energy industry-household energy systems’. If economic viability can be demonstrated, the
7 Although this paper is focused on energy-based IS, the authors recognize that there are also other strate-
gies to achieve energy transition from linear to circular economy. In fact, green energies , e.g., photovoltaic
energy (e.g., D’Adamo 2018) and wind energy (e.g., Hao etal. 2020), can play an important role toward the
energy transition to circular economy.
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4811
Energy-based industrial symbiosis: aliterature review for…
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excess heat transfer pipelines can reach households. This might be quite promising for house-
holds living in industrial areas that produce a sufficient supply of excess heat. The impact would
be: (1) society respires cleaner air due to the fossil energy source reduction in the industrial zone
and household areas; (2) society has the chance of reducing its energy bills (which might require
governmental support); and (3) the society, governments, and the industry would achieve the
integral circular economy. Consumer organizations would play a glue role in this integration.
Not only energy loops to be closed: what about closing other loops in cooperation with other
sectors? Closing the energy loop via energy cascades, fuel replacement, and bioenergy produc-
tion is only a part of the energy-based IS. However, there are side stream wastes that offer new
business and loop-closing opportunities, which are likely to enhance the economic viability of
energy-based IS. For example, integrated recovery of value-added materials from manure (via
biorefining) would also economically facilitate the viability of biogas production. Furthermore,
it would significantly reduce the economic burdens for animal farmers who need to pay manure
discharge or treatment costs. As a result, the increase in meat and dairy product prices can be
ceased, increasing the social sustainability in terms of access to food. So, circularity is comple-
mentary: once you start to close loops the others will follow, as long as multiple stakeholder
engagement is ensured and individual needs are taken into account in an integrated manner.
What about the role of (local) governments? Governments might support the diffusion of
energy-based IS networks via a thorough understanding of the entire life cycle impact of taken
actions. Inter-sectorial activities like IS take place in long and complex supply chains and influ-
ence upstream and downstream actors as well as the environment and society. Industrial ecosys-
tems transform and evolve in a circular manner that requires behavioral and strategic changes
both in the society and in industry. The (local) governments play a key role to encourage com-
panies through IS implementation via providing subsidies or applying binding regulations.
Similarly, the sustainable energy consumption can be promoted via incentives to households
who take place in energy cascades via using excess heat or bio-based energy. The position of
traditional energy suppliers might produce conflicts of interest among multiple actors which
requires also a transition plan from governments so to achieve resilient circular transformation.
In conclusion, an enormous field is open for researchers to conduct multi/cross/inter-disci-
plinary research on the above-mentioned niches to achieve the circular energy transition. The
authors expect that energy-based IS will play a pioneering role to activate multiple industries
for closing more loops in the future and quick establishment of the sustainable future of circular
economy.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers, whose comments provided
useful contributions in improving this manuscript. The project leading to this work has received funding from
the European Union‘s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under Grant Agreement No. 680843.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/.
Appendix
List of the papers considered in the literature review.
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4812
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TitleYearJournal
References
IS category Waste produced in
Energy cascade
Fuel replacement
Bioenergy producti on
Industrial area
Urban area
Rural area
Combining a Geographical Information
System and Process Engineering to
Design an Agricultural-Industrial
Ecosystem
2001
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Özyurt and Realff
(2001)
Applying industrial ecology in rapi dly
industrializing Asian countries 2004
International
Journal of
Sustainable
Development
Geng and Cote
(2004)
Emergy evaluation of Eco-Industrial
Park with Power Plant2005 Ecological
Modelling
Wang et al.
(2005)
Emergy evaluation of combined he at
and power plant eco-industrial park 2006
Resources,
Conservation
and Recycling
Wang et al.
(2006)
Industrial Symbiosis in Kalundborg,
Denmark2006
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Jacobsen (2006)
Developing Integration in a Local
Industrial Ecosystem –an Explorative
Approach
2007
Business
Strategy and
the
Environment
Wolf et al. (2007)
Industrial Symbiosis in the Kwinana
Industrial Area (Western Australia) 2007 Measurement
and ControlHarris (2007)
The benefits of a Brazilian agro-
industrial symbiosis system and the
strategies to make it happen
2007
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Ometto et al.
(2007)
A case study of industrial symbiosis:
Nanning Sugar Co., Ltd. in China2008
Resources,
Conservation
and Recycling
Yang and Feng
(2008)
Model-Centered Approach to Early
Planning and Design of an Eco-
Industrial Park around an Oil Refinery
2008
Environmental
Science
Technologies
Zhang et al.
(2008)
Using an optimization model to
evaluate the economic benefits of
industrial symbiosis in the forest
industry
2008
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Karlsson and
Wolf (2008)
Comparative analysis of socio-
economic and environmental
performances for Chinese EIPs: case
studies in Baotou , Suzhou, and
Shanghai
2009 Sustainability
Science
Zhang et
al. (2009)
A case study of industrial symbiosis
development using a middle-out
approach
2010
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Costa and Ferrão
(2010)
Developing country experience wi th
eco-industrial parks a case study of the
Tianjin Economic-Technological
Development Area in China
2010
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Shi et al. (2010)
Energy conservation and circular
economy in China’s process industries 2010 Energy Li et al.
(2010)
Evaluation of innovative municipal
solid waste management through urban
symbiosis: a case study of Kawasaki
2010
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Geng et al. (2010)
Industrial Re cycling Networks as
Starting Points for Broader
Sustainability-Oriented Cooperation?
2010
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Posch (2010)
Optimization of a waste heat utilization
network in an eco-industrial park 2010 Applied
Energy Chae et al. (2010)
Sustainability and industrial
symbiosis—The evolution of a Finnish
forest industry complex
2010
Resources,
Conservation
and Recycling
Pakarinen et al.
(2010)
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4813
Energy-based industrial symbiosis: aliterature review for…
1 3
Analyzing the Environmental Benefits
of Industrial Symbiosis: Life Cycle
Assessment Applied to a Finnish Forest
Industry Complex
2011
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Sokka et al.
(2011)
Environmental and economic
assessment of a greenhouse waste heat
exchange
2011
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Andrews and
Pearce (2011)
Improving the environmental
performance of biofuels with industrial
symbiosis
2011 Biomass and
Energy
Martin and
Eklund (2011)
Managing Performance Expectations of
Industrial Symbiosis2011
Business
Strategy and
the
Environment
Ashton (2011)
Planning and Uncovering Industrial
Symbiosis: Comparing the Rotterdam
and Östergötland regions
2011
Business
Strategy and
the
Environment
Baas (2011)
Industrial symbiosis and the policy
instruments of sustainable consumption
and production
2011
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Lehtoranta et al.
(2011)
Enabling industrial symbiosis by a
facilities management optimization
approach
2012
Journalof
Cleaner
Production
Meneghetti and
Nardin (2012)
Methodological Aspects of Applying
Life Cycle Assessment to Industrial
Symbioses
2012
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Mattila et al.
(2012)
Mineral Carbonation as the Core of an
Industrial Symbiosis for Ener gy-
Intensive Minerals Conversion
2012
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Brent et al. (2012)
Analysis of low-carbon industrial
symbiosis technology for carbon
mitigation in a Chinese iron/steel
industrial park: a case study with
carbon flow analysis
2013 Energy Policy Zhang
et al. (2013b)
Environmental and economic gains of
industrial symbiosis for Chinese
iron/steel industry: Kawasaki’s
experience and practice in Liuzhou and
Jinan
2013
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Dong
et al. (2013b)
Investigation of the residual heat
recovery and ca rbon emission
mitigation potential in a Chinese
steelmaking plant: A hybrid
material/energy flow analysis case
study
2013
Sustainable
Energy
Technologies
and
Assessments
Zhang
et al. 2013a)
Life cycle energy and environmental
benefits of a US industrial symbiosis2013
The
International
Journal of Life
Cycle
Assessment
Eckelman and
Chertow (2013)
Promoting low-carbon city through
industrial symbiosis: A case in China
by applying HPIMO model
2013 Energy Policy Dong
et al. 2013a)
Applying Industrial Symbiosis to
Smallholder Farms: Modeling a Case
Study in Liberia, West Africa
2014
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Alfaro and Miller
(2014)
Design of the optimal industrial
symbiosis system to improve bioethanol
production
2014
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Gonela and
Zhang (2014)
Multi-objective Design of Industrial
Symbiosis in Palm Oil Industry 2014
Computer
Aided
Chemical
Engineering
Ng et al.
(2014a)
Disjunctive fuzzy optimisation for
planning and synthesis of bioenergy-
based industrial symbiosis system
2014
Journal of
Environmental
Chemical
Engineering
Ng et al.
(2014b)
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4814
L.Fraccascia et al.
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Emergy-based assessment on industrial
symbiosis: a case of Shenyang
Economic and Technological
Development Zone
2014
Environmental
Science and
Pollution
Research
Geng et al. (2014)
From Refining Sugar to Growing
Tomatoes: Industrial Ecology and
Business Model Evolution
2014
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Short et al. (2014)
Implementing industrial ecology in port
cities: International overview of case
studies and cross-case analysis
2014
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Cerceau et al.
(2014)
Securing a Competitive Advantage
through Industrial Symbiosis
Development
2014
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
J. Y. Park and
Park (2014)
Uncovering opportunity of low-carbon
city promotion with industrial system
innovation Case study on industrial
2014 Energy Policy Dong et al.
(2014)
symbiosis projects in China
Methods for assessing the energy-
saving efficiency of industrial
symbiosis in industrial parks
2015
Environmental
Science and
Pollution
Research
Li et al. (2015a)
A decision support method for
development of industrial synergies:
Case studies of Latvian brewery and
wood-processing industries
2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Rosa and
Beloborodko
(2015)
Analyzing the disruption resilience of
bioenergy parks using dynamic
inoperability input–output modeling
2015
Environment
Systems and
Decisions
(Benjamin et al.
2015)
Boosting circular economy and closing
the loop in agriculture: Case study of a
small-scale pyrolysis–biochar based
system integrated in an olive farm in
symbiosis with an olive mill
2015 Environmental
Development
(Zabaniotou et al.
2015)
Building green supply chains in eco-
industrial parks towards a green
economy: Barriers and strategies
2015
Journal of
Environmental
Management
Li et al. (2015c)
Circular economy of a papermaking
park in China: A case study 2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Li and
Ma (2015)
Designing an environmentally
conscious tire closed-loop supply chain
network with multiple recovery options
using interactive fuzzy goal
programming
2015
Applied
Mathematical
Modelling
Subulan et al.
(2015)
Evolution of industrial symbiosis in an
eco-industrial park in China2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Yu et al.
(2015c)
From an eco-industrial park towards an
eco-city: A case study in Suzhou, China2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Yu et al. (2015a)
Industrial symbiosis as a
countermeasurefor resource dependent
city: A case study of Guiyang, China
2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Li et al.
(2015a)
Industrial Symbiosis for a Sustainable
City: Technical, Economical and
Organizational Issues
2015 Procedia
Engineering
Albino et al.
(2015)
New roles for local authorities in a time
of climate change: The Rotterdam
Energy Approach and Pl anning as a
case of urban symbiosis
2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Lenhart et al.
(2015)
Quantifying CO2 emission reduction
from industrial symbiosis in integrated
steel mills in China
2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Yu et al. (2015d)
Reducing carbon emissions through
industrial symbiosis: A case study of a
large enterprise group in China
2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Yu et al.
(2015b)
Replication of industrial ecosys tems:
The case of a sustainable biogas-for-
traffic solution
2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Tsvetkova et al.
(2015)
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4815
Energy-based industrial symbiosis: aliterature review for…
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Stochastic optimization of sustainable
industrial symbiosis based hybrid
generation bioethanol supply chains
2015
Computers
and Industrial
Engineering
Gonela et al.
(2015)
The decline of eco-industrial
development in Porto Marghera, Italy2015
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Mannino et al.
(2015)
The industrial symbiosis approach: A
classificati on of business models 2015
Procedia
Environmental
Science,
Engineering
and
Management
Albino and
Fraccascia (2015)
The Resilience of Interdependent
Industrial Symbiosis Networks: A Case
of Yixing Economic and Technological
Development Zone
2015
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Li and Shi
(2015)
A meta-model of inter-organisational
cooperation for the transition to a
circular economy
2016 SustainabilityRuggieri et al.
(2016)
A novel methodology for the design of
waste heat recovery network in eco-
industrial park using techno-economic
analysis and multi-objective
optimization
2016 Applied
Energy
Zhang et al.
(2016)
Added-value from linking the value
chains of wastewat er treatment, crop
production and bioenergy production: A
case study on reusing wastewater and
sludge in crop production in
Braunschweig (Germany)
2016
Resources,
Conservation
and Recycling
Maaß and
Grundmann (2016)
An optimization-based cooperative
game approach for systematic
allocation of costs and be nefits in
interplant process integration
2016
Chemical
Engineering
Research and
Design
Tan et al. (2016)
An optimizati on-based negotiation
framework for energy systems in an
eco-industrial park
2016
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Andiappan et al.
(2016)
Business models for industrial
symbiosis: A guide for firms2016
Procedia
Environmental
Science,
Engineering
and
Management
Fraccascia et al.
(2016)
Design technologies for eco-industrial
parks: From unit op erations to
processes, plants and industri al
networks
2016 Applied
Energy Pan et al. (2016)
Evaluation of promoting industrial
symbiosis in a chemical industrial park:
A case of Midong
2016
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Guo et al. (2016)
Greening Chinese chemical industrial
park by implementing industri al
ecology strategies: A case study
2016
Resources,
Conservation
and Recycling
Yune et al. (2016)
Industrial Symbiosis Center ed on a
Regional Cogeneration Power Plant
Utilizing Available Local Resources: A
Case Study of Tanegashima
2016
Journal of
Industrial
Ecology
Kikuchi et al.
(2016)
Insight into industrial symbiosis and
carbon metabolism from the evolution
of iron and steel industrial network
2016
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Wu et al.
(2016b)
Promoting industrial symbiosis:
empirical ob servations of low-carbon
innovations in the Humber region, UK
2016
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Velenturf (2016)
Towards preventative eco-industrial
development: an industrial and urban
symbiosis case in one typical indust rial
city in China
2016
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Dong et al.
(2016)
A comprehensive evaluati on on
industrial ur ban symbiosis by
combining MFA, carbon footprint and
emergy methods—Case of Kawasaki,
Japan
2017 Ecological
Indicators
Ohnishi et al.
(2017)
A proactive model in sustainable food
supply chain: Insight from a case study 2017
International
Journal of
Production
Economics
Sgarbossa and
Russo (2017)
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4816
L.Fraccascia et al.
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An environmental assessment of
electricity production from
slaughterhouse residues. Linking urban,
industrial and waste management
systems
2017 Applied
Energy
Santagata et al.
(2017)
Carbon dioxide and heat integration of
industrial parks2017
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Hassiba et al.
(2017)
Comparing the vulnerability of different
coal industrial symbiosis networks
under economic fluctuations
2017
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Wang et al.
(2017b)
Early front-end innovation decisions for
self-organized industrial symbiosis
dynamics-A case stud y on lignin
utilization
2017 Sustainability Gabriel et al.
(2017)
Eco-benefits assessment on urban
industrial symbiosis based on material
flows analysis and emergy evaluation
approach: A case of Liuzhou city,
China
2017
Resources,
Conservation
and Recycling
Sun et al. (2017)
Emergy analysis on industrial
symbiosis of an industrial park –A case
study of Hefei economic and
technological development area
2017
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Fan et al. (2017)
Enhancing value chains by applying
industrial symbiosis concept to the
Rubber City in Kedah, Malaysia
2017
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Sharib and Halog
(2017)
Improving the Sustainability of
Farming Practices through the Use of a
Symbiotic Approach for Anaerobic
Digestion and Digestate Processing
2017 ResourcesPierie et al. (2017)
Increasing theValue of Spent Grain
from Craft Microbreweries for Energy
Purposes
2017
Chemical
Engineering
Transactions
Sperandio et al.
(2017)
Integrated stability analysis of industrial
symbiosis networks 2017
Chemical
Engineering
Transactions
Wang et al.
(2017a)
Low-carbon benefits of industrial
symbiosis from a scope-3 perspective: a
case study in China
2017
Applied
Ecology and
Environmental
Research
Li et al. (2017)
Method selection for sustainability
assessments: The case of recovery of
resources from waste water
2017
Journal of
Environmental
Management
Zijp et al. (2017)
Performance indica tors for a circular
economy: A case study on post-
industrial plastic waste
2017
Resources,
Conservation
and Recycling
Huysman et al.
(2017)
Spent coffee grounds as heat source for
coffee roasting plants: Experimental
validation and case study
2017
Applied
Thermal
Energy
Allesina et al.
(2017)
Stakeholder power in indust rial
symbioses: A stakeholde r value
network approach
2017
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Hein et al. (2017)
Synergies between agriculture and
bioenergy in Latin American countries:
A circular economy strategy for
bioenergy production in Ecuador
2017 New
Biotechnology
Vega-Quezada et
al. (2017)
Technical efficiency measures of
industrial symbiosis networks using
enterprise input-output analysis
2017
International
Journal of
Production
Economics
Fraccascia
et al.
(2017a)
Approaches and policies for promoting
industrial park recycling transformation
(IPRT) in China: Practices and lessons
2018
Journal of
Cleaner
Production
Wen et al . (2018)
Comparative study on the pathways of
industrial parks towards sustainable 2018 Resources,
Conservation Liu et al. (2018)
development between China and
Canada
and Recycling
Cooperation in manure-based biogas
production networks: An agent-based
modeling approach
2018 Applied
Energy
Yazan et al.
(2018)
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