Content uploaded by Hassan Elhag Ali
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Hassan Elhag Ali on Jun 29, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
@Hassan El Haj Ali | ﺪﻤﺣأ ﻲﻠﻋ جﺎﺤﻟا ﻦﺴﺣ
@@Adiala Ahmed Tabar | رﺎﺒﺗ ﺔﻠﻳﺪﻋ
ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ تﻻﺎﺣ :ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟاو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا
نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو
Security and Democracy in the Horn of Africa: Djibouti, Somalia
and Sudan
44
ازتلعدز
تموز 44
. *
*Professor of Political Science, Faculty of Economic and Social Studies, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
.
**
**Lecturer, Political Science Department, Faculty of Economic and Social Studies, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
نﺮﻘﻟا لود ﻦــﻣ ٍ
ثﻼﺛ ﻲﻓ ﻲﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟا ل ّﻮــﺤﺘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻨﻨﻣا ﺮــﺛأ ﺚﺤﺑ ﻰﻟإ ﺔــﺳارﺪﻟا هﺬــﻫ ﻲــﻣﺮﺗ
ﻞﺜﻤﺗو .ﺔﻴﺑﺮﻌﻟا لوﺪــﻟا ﺔﻌﻣﺎﺟ ﻲــﻓ ءﺎﻀﻋا ،نادﻮــﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲــﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ ﻲــﻫ ،ﻲــﻘﻳﺮﻓا
ﺎــﻳﺎﻀﻗ ﺔــﻨﻨﻣأ نأ ﺔــﺳارﺪﻟا ضﺮــﺘﻔﺗو .ﺔــﻠﻣﺎﻜﺘﻣ ﺎــﻬﻨﻜﻟ ،ﺔــﻨﻨﻣﻟ ﺔــﻋﻮﻨﺘﻣ جذﺎــﻤﻧ ثﻼــﺜﻟا لوﺪــﻟا
لوﺪﻟا تﺎﻳﻮﻟوأ ﺔﻤﺋﺎﻗ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻧﺪﺘﻣ ﺔﻧﺎﻜﻣ ﻞﺘﺤﺗ ﻲﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟا لّﻮﺤﺘﻟا ﺔﻴﻀﻗ ﺖﻠﻌﺟ ﺔﻘﻄﻨﻤﻟا
ﺔﻠﺌــﺳا ﺔــﺳارﺪﻟا حﺮﻄﺗو .ﻲﻏﺎﻄﻟا ﻮﻫ بﺎﻫرا ﺔﺑرﺎﺤﻣ بﺎــﻄﺧ ﻪﻴﻓ ﻰﺤﺿأ ﺖﻗو ﻲــﻓ ،ىﺮــﺒﻜﻟا
ﻒﻴﻛو ؟ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮــﻘﻟا ﺔﻘﻄﻨﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔــﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟا َ
بﺎﻄﺧ ﺔــﻨﻨﻣا ُ
بﺎﻄﺧ ﺐﻠﻏ اذﺎــﻤﻟ :ﺔــﻴﺗا
ﺰﻳﺰﻌﺗ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻤﻴﻠﻗا تﺎــﺴﺳﺆﻤﻟا رود ﺎﻣو ؟ﻲــﺳﺎﻴﺴﻟا ﻊﻗاﻮﻟا ﻊﻣ ﺔﻨﻨﻣا بﺎﻄﺧ تﺎﻴﻟآ ﻞﻋﺎﻔﺘﺗ
؟ﺔﻨﻨﻣا بﺎﻄﺧ
.ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ،بﺎﻫرا ،ﻲﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟا لﻮﺤﺘﻟا ،ﺔﻨﻨﻣا :ﺔﻴﺣﺎﺘﻔﻣ تﺎﻤﻠﻛ
is study examines the impact of securitization on the democratization of three
countries in the in the Horn of Africa: Djibouti, Somalia and Sudan. e three
countries, all members of the Arab League, represent diverse but integrated
securitization models. e study assumes that securitization in the region has
le democratic transformation low in the list of priorities for the major powers,
at a time when counterterrorism rhetoric is overwhelming. e paper raises
the following questions: Why has securitization discourse overpowered talk of
democracy in the Horn of Africa? How do the mechanisms of the securitization
discourse interact with political reality? What is the role of regional institutions
in enhancing securitization discourse?
Keywords: Securitization, Democratization, Terrorism, the Horn of Africa.
45 تﺎﺳارد
نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ تﻻﺎﺣ :ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟاو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا
ﺔﻣﺪﻘﻣ
.
18.5
2016
(1)
20-12.5 (2)
.(3)
.
2012
.(4)" "
.
.
2017 /
(5)
1"Maritime Chokepoints are Critical to Global Energy Security," U.S.
Energy Information Administration, 1/8/2017, accessed on 7/7/2019, at:
https://bit.ly/2hmONvs
2Ibid.
3"Safeguarding Trade through the Horn of Africa," e Maritime
Security Centre - Horn of Africa (MSCHOA), accessed on 8/7/2019, at:
https://bit.ly/1JNuyZD
4"Council Conclusions on the Horn of Africa," Council of e European
Union, 14/11/2011, accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2XgF6yb
: 5
"National Security Strategy of the United States of America: Regional
Context-Africa," e White House, December 2017, accessed on 8/7/2019, at:
https://bit.ly/2CzLLd7
.
Combined Joint
Task Force-Horn of Africa, CJTF-HOA
.(6)
(7)
.
.(8)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
" "
: 6
: : " "
(2013 : )
.206-181
7Judd Devermont, "e World is Coming to Sub-Saharan Africa. Where
is the United States?" Center for Strategic and International Studies, CSIS
Briefs (August 2018), p. 3, accessed on 8/7/2019, at: http://bit.ly/2XEY7Q7
8"Djibouti: More Foreign Bases?" Africa Research Bulletin, vol. 53, no. 7
(August 2016), p. 21088.
46
ازتلعدز
تموز
: .
ﺔﻨﻨﻣا مﻮﻬﻔﻣ :يﺮﻈﻧ لﻼﻬﺘﺳا : ً
ﻻوأ
ﻪﺘﺌﻴﺑو بﺎﻫرا بﺎﻄﺧو
.
.
.
() :
.(9)
"" .
.(10)
.(11)
.
.
.(12)
9Rens van Munster, "Securitization," Oxford Bibliographies, accessed on
7/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/321AWy1
10Ibid.
11ierry Balzacqm, Securitization eory: How Security Problems
Emerge and Dissolve (London; New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 32.
12
:)
.29-28 (2012
.(13)
.
" "
.
.
.(14)
.
.
:
.
. 2001 11
11 90
.2007 2001
. 6
300
.(15)
. " "
13Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver & Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework
for Analysis (Boulder, CO; London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998),
pp. 23-24.
14Rita Abrahamsen, "Blair's Africa: e Politics of Securitization and
Fear," Alternatives, vol. 30, no. 1 (2005), p. 59.
15Jessica Shepherd, "e Rise and Rise of Terrorism Studies," e
Guardian, 3/7/2007, accessed on 7/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2FLJ0JD
47 تﺎﺳارد
نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ تﻻﺎﺣ :ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟاو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا
." "
.(16)
.
.
"
[...]
.(17)"
" :
(18)"
.
.
.(19)
-
-
.(20)
16Richard Jackson, "Constructing Enemies: 'Islamic Terrorism' in
Political and Academic Discourse," Government and Opposition, vol. 42, no.
3 (2007), pp. 408-409.
17Edward Newman, "Failed States and International Order: Constructing
a Post-Westphalian World," Contemporary Security Policy, vol. 30, no. 3
(2009), p. 436.
: 18
Susan B. Epstein, Foreign Aid Reform, National Strategy, and the Quadrennial
Review (Collingdale, PA: Diane Publishing, 2010), p. 3.
19Mark Dueld, "e Liberal Way of Development and the
Development-Security Impasse: Exploring the Global Life-Chance Divide,"
Security Dialogue, vol. 41, no. 1 (2010), p. 57.
20Ibid., p. 61.
.
.
.(21)
( )
.(22) ""
Regions of Risk " "
.
.(23)
." "
" "
.
21David Shinn, "Fighting Terrorism in East Africa and the Horn,"
Foreign Service Journal, vol. 81, no. 9 (2004), p. 38.
22Brennan M. Kraxberger, "e United States and Africa: Shiing
Geopolitics in an 'Age of Terror'," Africa Today, vol. 52, no. 1 (2005), p. 48.
:) : :23
:2009 (2009
: ) :
.(2009
48
ازتلعدز
تموز
.(24)
.
:نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ :ﺎًﻴﻧﺎﺛ
؟ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻨﻨﻣا ﺮﺛﺆﺗ ﻒﻴﻛ
ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ .1
2016
African Union Mission in Somalia, AMISOM
"" .
United ()
(25)States Africa Command, AFRICOM
4000
300
() .
.
. 16 ""
500
.(26)
.
.
24Gregg Banko, "Regions of Risk: Western Discourses on Terrorism
and the Signicance of Islam," Studies in Conict & Terrorism, vol. 26, no.
6 (2003), p. 418.
25United States Department of State Publication, Country Reports on
Terrorism 2016 (Washington, DC: Bureau of Counterterrorism, 2017),
accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2uDoPsw
26Craig Whitlock, "Remote U.S. Base at Core of Secret Operations,"
e Washington Post, 25/10/2012, accessed on 7/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/323JSCW
.
.
.(27)
2011 / 18
50
.
"
" " " "
(28)"
.
.(29)" "
.
.(30)
.
2017 / 23
: 27
John R. Oneal, "e Anity of Foreign Investors for Authoritarian Regimes,"
Political Research Quarterl, vol. 47, no. 3 (September 1994).
28"Djibouti: Unprecedented Protest, Police Fire Teargas on Demonstrators
Calling for Regime Change," Africa Research Bulletin (February 2011), p.
18733.
29Ibid.
30
:
Gorm Rye Olsen, "Europe and the Promotion of Democracy in Post-Cold
War Africa: How Serious Is Europe and for What Reason?" African Aairs,
vol. 97, no. 388 (July 1998).
49 تﺎﺳارد
نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ تﻻﺎﺣ :ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟاو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا
"
. "(31)
.
86
. 7 " "
2015 /
.
.(32)1977
.(33) " "
.
.(34)
" "
)
(
.
" 2017 / 19
.(35) "
90 2018 /
.
31"Djibouti: Pentagon Chief's Visit," Africa Research Bulletin (April
2017), p. 21413.
32"Guelleh's Fourth Term," Africa Research Bulletin (April 2016), p.
20962.
33"Djibouti and the EU," European Union External Action, 11/5/2016,
accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/3071k7x
34Aly Verjee, "A Friendly Little Dictatorship in the Horn of Africa: Why
the World doesn't Care about Djibouti's Autocracy," Foreign Policy, 8/4/2011,
accessed on 7/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2XFAeXB
35Freedom House, "Djibouti Prole," accessed on 7/7/2019, at: https://
bit.ly/2Nr6TMZ
لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟا .2
1991
1992 .(36)
1993
.
1993
.
18
73
.
1993
1995
2000 / / .
.
.
.
2004
2006 .
: " : 36
.384 : "
50
ازتلعدز
تموز
.
"
. "
.(37)
/
2007
.(38)
24
2006 /
.
.
(1725)
" :
.(39)"
2006 /
.
2009 / .
37Cedric Barnes & Harun Hassan, "e Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's
Islamic Courts," Journal of Eastern African Studies, vol. 1, no. 2 (2007), p. 156.
38Xan Rice & Suzan Goldberg, "How US Forged Alliance with Ethiopia
Over Invasion," e Guardian, 13/1/2007, accessed on 7/7/2019, at:
https://bit.ly/2YFBS97
39"Resolution 1726 (2006)," Security Council, 15/12/2006, accessed on
9/7/2019, at: http://bit.ly/2XziQQl
.
2007 /
.
. (40)
2012
275
.
:
135
. 15
.(41)
.
.
.
Stabilization Policy " "
.
.
30 5633 (2007) 1744 "40
https://bit.ly/2FJ9Ce3 : 2019/7/7 "2007 /
41"Somalia Swears in Historic New Parliament," Aljazeera, 23/8/2012,
accessed on 7/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2XLmLNW
51 تﺎﺳارد
نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ تﻻﺎﺣ :ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟاو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا
.(42)Inter-agency approach
" "
Bureau of Conict and Stabilization Operations
. .Stabilisation Unit
"" " "
." "
" "
.(43)
Bureau of International Narcotics
and Law Enforcement Aairs
2013
.(44) 17
.
.
(45) 14 135
:
.
(46)
. 2017
42Jan Bachmann, "Policing Africa: e US Military and Visions of
Craing 'Good Order'," Security Dialogue, vol. 45, no. 2 (2014), p. 122.
43Dominik Balthasar, "Somalia's Federal Agenda: From Fragility to
Fragmentation?" European Union Institute for Security Studies, Brief Issue,
no. 17 (June 2014), p. 2.
44U.S Department of State, "State.gov Website Modernization," 3/6/2019,
accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2KRAVat
" / : " 45
https://bit.ly/2J5dXL0 : 2019/7/7 2016/6/4
: "46
: 2019/7/7 2010/10/23 " https://bit.ly/309WZAN
نادﻮﺴﻟا .3
2005
2017
""
.
ﻞﻣﺎﺸﻟا مﻼﺴﻟا ﺔﻴﻗﺎﻔﺗاو ﻲﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟا لّﻮﺤﺘﻟا .أ
: ""
""
.
.(47)
.
10
.(48)
.(49) 20
47Hilde F. Johnson, Waging Peace in Sudan: e Inside Story of the
Negotiations at ended Africa's Longest Civil War (Eastbourne: Sussex
Academic Press, 2011), pp. 136-142.
48Ibid., p. 142.
49Rebecca Hamilton, "U.S. Played Key Role in Southern Sudan's Long
Journey to Independence," e Atlantic, 9/7/2011, accessed on 8/7/2019, at:
https://bit.ly/2xsOaFQ
52
ازتلعدز
تموز
7
.(50)
/ 12
2002
.
3 300
.(51)
. 2003 /
.(52)
2010
.(53)
نادﻮﺴﻟا ﻦﻋ ﺔﻴﻛﺮﻴﻣا تﺎﺑﻮﻘﻌﻟا ﻊﻓر .ب
11
50Rebecca Hamilton, "Special Report: e Wonks Who Sold Washington
on South Sudan," Reuters, 11/7/2012, accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://reut.
rs/2L7Zfoy
51"Sudan Peace Act," US Congress, 21/10/2002, accessed on 9/7/2019, at:
https://bit.ly/2RNk88X
52John Young, e Fate of Sudan: e Origins and Consequences of a
Flawed Peace Process (London: Zed Books, 2012).
53John Young, "Democratization and the Failure of the Sudan Peace
Process," World Peace Foundation, 14/5/2013, accessed on 9/7/2019, at:
http://bit.ly/2GfrTjN
. 2001 / 28
" :
.(54)"
.
.(55)
2016
.(56)
:
.
.2017 /
54"Citing Action on Terrorism, Security Council Lis Sanctions Against
the Sudan," UN News, 28/9/2001, accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://bit.
ly/2XlSdmx
55Suzanne Goldenberg, "Sudan Becomes US Ally In 'War on Terror'," e
Guardian, 30/4/2005, accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/307fAxj; Greg
Miller & Josh Meyer, "U.S. Relies on Sudan Despite Condemning It," Los
Angeles Times, 11/6/2007, accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://lat.ms/2LvzQ7B
56Country Reports on Terrorism 2016.
53 تﺎﺳارد
نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ تﻻﺎﺣ :ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟاو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا
ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻠﺧاﺪﻟا ﺔﻨﻨﻣا ﻊﻣ ﺔﻴﺟرﺎﺨﻟا ﺔﻨﻨﻣا ءﺎﻘﺘﻟا .ج
نادﻮﺴﻟا
""
.
.
" "
.(57)" "
.
.
.
.
.
-
.
.
: 57
Jérôme Tubiana, "Remote-control Breakdown Sudanese Paramilitary Forces
and Pro-Government Militias," Sudan Human Security Baseline Assessment
Project of the Small Arms Survey, Issue Brief, no. 27 (April 2017).
.
.
لﻮﺤﺘﻟا ﺔﻗﺎﻋإو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا :ﺎًﺜﻟﺎﺛ
ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﻲﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟا
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
" : .
54
ازتلعدز
تموز
.(58)"
.
.
2017 / 30 (2372)
.
(59)
.
.
( )
.
.
2 58
.15 (2015 :)
59"Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2372 (2017), Security Council
Extends Mandate of African Union Mission in Somalia, Authorizes Troop
Reduction," United Nations, UN Meeting Coverage and Press Releases,
30/8/2017, accessed on 8/7/2019, at: https://bit.ly/2rL0xdQ
.
ﺔﻤﺗﺎﺧ
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
55 تﺎﺳارد
نادﻮﺴﻟاو لﺎﻣﻮﺼﻟاو ﻲﺗﻮﺒﻴﺟ تﻻﺎﺣ :ﻲﻘﻳﺮﻓا نﺮﻘﻟا ﻲﻓ ﺔﻴﻃاﺮﻘﻤﻳﺪﻟاو ﺔﻨﻨﻣا
ﻊﺟاﺮﻤﻟا
ﺔﻴﺑﺮﻌﻟا
: "
. ."
https://bit.ly/309WZAN : 2010/10/23
:2009
: . :
.2009
: . : .
.2009
.
: .169 .
.2012
: / . :
.2013
. .
.2015 : .2 .
ﺔﻴﺒﻨﺟا
Abrahamsen, Rita. "Blair's Africa: e Politics of
Securitization and Fear." Alternatives. vol. 30, no. 1
(2005).
Bachmann, Jan. "Policing Africa: e US Military and
Visions of Craing 'Good Order'." Security Dialogue.
vol. 45, no. 2 (2014).
Balthasar, Dominik. "Somalia's federal agenda: From
Fragility to Fragmentation?" European Union Institute
for Security Studies. Brief Issue. no. 17 (June 2014).
Banko, Gregg. "Regions of Risk: Western Discourses
on Terrorism and the Signicance of Islam." Studies in
Conict & Terrorism. vol. 26, no. 6 (2003).
Balzacqm, ierry. Securitization eory: How Security
Problems Emerge and Dissolve. London; New York:
Routledge, 2011.
Barnes, Cedric & Harun Hassan. "e Rise and Fall of
Mogadishu's Islamic Courts." Journal of Eastern African
Studies. vol. 1, no. 2 (2007).
Buzan, Barry, Ole Wæver & Jaap de Wilde. Security:
A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder, CO/ London:
Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998.
"Council Conclusions on the Horn of Africa." Council of
e European Union. 14/11/2011. at: https://bit.ly/2XgF6yb
Devermont, Judd. "e World is Coming to Sub-Saharan
Africa. Where is the United States?" Center for Strategic
and International Studies. CSIS Briefs (August 2018). at:
http://bit.ly/2XEY7Q7
Dueld, Mark. "e Liberal Way of Development
and the Development-Security Impasse: Exploring the
Global Life-Chance Divide." Security Dialogue. vol. 41,
no. 1 (2010).
Epstein, Susan B. Foreign Aid Reform, National
Strategy, and the Quadrennial Review. Collingdale, PA:
Diane Publishing, 2010.
Jackson, Richard. "Constructing Enemies: 'Islamic
Terrorism' in Political and Academic Discourse."
Government and Opposition. vol. 42, no. 3 (2007).
Johnson, Hilde F. Waging Peace in Sudan: e Inside Story
of the Negotiations at ended Africa's Longest Civil War.
Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2011.
Kraxberger, Brennan M. "e United States and Africa:
Shiing Geopolitics in an 'Age of Terror'." Africa Today.
vol. 52, no. 1 (2005).
"National Security Strategy of the United States of
America: Regional Context-Africa." e White House.
December 2017. at: https://bit.ly/2CzLLd7
Newman, Edward. "Failed States and International Order:
Constructing a Post-Westphalian World." Contemporary
Security Policy. vol. 30, no. 3 (2009).
56
ازتلعدز
تموز
Olsen, Gorm Rye. "Europe and the Promotion of
Democracy in Post-Cold War Africa: How Serious Is
Europe and for What Reason?" African Aairs. vol. 97,
no. 388 (July 1998).
Oneal, John R. "e Anity of Foreign Investors for
Authoritarian Regimes." Political Research Quarterl. vol.
47, no. 3 (September 1994).
Shinn, David. "Fighting Terrorism in East Africa and the
Horn." Foreign Service Journal. vol. 81, no. 9 (2004).
Tubiana, Jérôme. "Remote-Control Breakdown Sudanese
Paramilitary Forces and Pro-Government Militias."
Sudan Human Security Baseline Assessment Project of
the Small Arms Survey. Issue Brief. no. 27 (April 2017).
United States Department of State Publication. Country
Reports on Terrorism 2016. Washington, DC: Bureau of
Counterterrorism, 2017. at: https://bit.ly/2uDoPsw
Young, John. e Fate of Sudan: e Origins and
Consequences of a Flawed Peace Process. London: Zed
Books, 2012.
Verjee, Aly. "A Friendly Little Dictatorship in the Horn
of Africa: Why the World doesn't Care about Djibouti's
Autocracy." Foreign Policy. 8/4/2011. at: https://bit.ly/2XFAeXB
