Considering White Gold, Cotton, for its Fiber, Seed Oil, Traditional and Modern Health Benefits

Abstract

Cotton (Gossypium L.) has been a fundamental natural resource since the origin of various civilizations and still remains as one of the most major plant species for humans. Cotton has a diversity of applications, principally medicinal and many other usages such as pigments, derivatives for cattle feed, different uses of the oil extracts and etc. Cottonseed oil has a ration of 2:1 of polyynsaturated to saturated fatty acids and generally consists of 65-70% unsaturated fatty acids including 18-24% monounsaturated (oleic) and 42-52% polyunsaturated (linoleic), and 26-35% saturated (palmitic and stearic). The most important health benefits of cotton is treat respiratory diseases, treat skin problems, treat wounds, beneficial for breastfeeding mothers, a good cure for rat bite, an appropriate cure for scorpion bite, for joint and eye pains, for swollen legs, for removing bacteria in teeth, and alternative medicine for various diseases such as cancer, HIV and etc. Cotton seed oil mostly extracted from Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are also grown for cotton fiber and animal feed. Gossypol is one of the most effective ingredients, both in traditional pharmaceutical practices and alternative modern medicinal preparations. It is a toxic polyphenolic bisesquiterpene which may have antifertility and antiviral properties. The obtained findings suggest potential of cotton as a natural resource in pharmaceutical industries.

Full text

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39 Review Article
25
Considering White Gold, Cotton, for its Fiber, Seed Oil, Traditional and Modern Health
Benefits
Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian1,3#, Wenli Sun1# and Qi Cheng1,2
*
1Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, CHINA
2College of Life Science, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei, 071000, China; Global Alliance of HeBAU-CLS&HeQiS for
BioAl-Manufacturing, Baoding, Hebei 071000, CHINA
3Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Isfahan, IRAN
Received: 03.04.2020; Accepted: 22.05.2020; Published Online: 25.06.2020
ABSTRACT
Cotton (Gossypium L.) has been a fundamental natural resource since the origin of various civilizations and still remains as one of
the most major plant species for humans. Cotton has a diversity of applications, principally medicinal and many other usages such as
pigments, derivatives for cattle feed, different uses of the oil extracts and etc. Cottonseed oil has a ration of 2:1 of polyynsaturated to
saturated fatty acids and generally consists of 65-70% unsaturated fatty acids including 18-24% monounsaturated (oleic) and 42-
52% polyunsaturated (linoleic), and 26-35% saturated (palmitic and stearic). The most important health benefits of cotton is treat
respiratory diseases, treat skin problems, treat wounds, beneficial for breastfeeding mothers, a good cure for rat bite, an appropriate
cure for scorpion bite, for joint and eye pains, for swollen legs, for removing bacteria in teeth, and alternative medicine for various
diseases such as cancer, HIV and etc. Cotton seed oil mostly extracted from Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are
also grown for cotton fiber and animal feed. Gossypol is one of the most effective ingredients, both in traditional pharmaceutical
practices and alternative modern medicinal preparations. It is a toxic polyphenolic bisesquiterpene which may have antifertility and
antiviral properties. The obtained findings suggest potential of cotton as a natural resource in pharmaceutical industries.
Keywords: Cotton, Fiber, Oil, Health benefits, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Traditional Iranian medicine, Gossypol
INTRODUCTION
Cotton is a member of the Malvaceae family of plants so is related to the common mallow, marsh mallows,
hollyhocks, hibiscus, okra, musk mallow, Indian or country cotton tree, the dinner plate tree and the fruit, durian,
among others. It is a key crop in the world (Yu et al., 2012), and cotton fiber is also a source of natural textile,
and cottonseed is a source of oil for human consumption, cotton meal and minerals for livestock feed (Yu et al.,
2012; He et al., 2013). To ensure sustainability of cotton production, there should be crop improvement programs
by diversifying the genetic base of cotton varieties to handle any biotic and abiotic stresses and a future change
in climate. Current management practices of cotton include frequent tillage, which limit a complete adoption of
conservation agriculture systems and overhead systems of irrigation. The use of cover crops and narrow row
spacing may minimize tillage with the additional benefits of reduced weed pressure, improved soil health and a
reduction in soil compaction and degradation. Modeling studies could help to forecast and minimize different
production constraints; however, modeling approaches should bring holistic picture considering different aspects
of crop production rather than isolated scenarios. Since 1960, world production of cotton fiber has doubled from
10.2 to 20.3 million tons, representing a moderate average annual growth of 1.7%. Although, there are numerous
cotton producing countries, global production is largely dominated by China (28%), followed by the USA (17%),
and India (12%). Cotton is primarily grown in dry tropical and subtropical climates at temperatures between
11oC and 25oC. The worldwide annual production is 60.9 × 106 tons.
Cotton occurrence, cultivation in the world, China and Iran
In the 5th century BC the father of history, the Greek historian Herodotus wrote this about cotton plants
describing them: trees that bore wool, surpassing in beauty and in quality that of sheep’s wool; and the Indians
wear clothing from these trees (Wendel et al., 2010). It is the most widely used natural fiber and the sixth largest
source of vegetable oil (FAO, 2012). It is ranked seventh in the world cultivated area and genetically modified
cotton is the third most planted biotech crop worldwide (James, 2012). Cotton also is the only crop that did not
acquire its value by being a staple food (Wendel et al., 2010). Gossypium arboreum is only known in cultivation
and its origin is uncertain. It may have developed from Gossypium herbaceum L., though molecular comparisons
support the hypothesis that Gossypium arboreum and Gossypium herbaceum diverged from a common
ancestor. Gossypium arboreum has been cultivated in Asia for many centuries. It is still found there, but has
mostly been replaced by Gossypium hirsutum L. From Asia Gossypium arboreum was brought to Sudan, and
from there it spread to West Africa. Nowadays it is cultivated mainly in the drier parts of India and Pakistan, and
sometimes in tropical Africa, where it has occasionally naturalized (Fryxell, 1979). In tropical Africa it is
*
Corresponding author: chengqi@caas.cn
#Authors contributed equally to this research

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
26
common in yards and abandoned dwelling sites (Seagull and Giavalis, 2004; Stetina et al., 2014; Bellaloui et al.,
2015). Cotton is one of the world’s leading agricultural crops, is plentiful and economically produced, making
cotton products relatively inexpensive (Wilkin and Arpat, 2005; Stetina et al., 2014). Cotton originated in the
African and Asian continents, and has been used for textile making for thousand years. Fragments of cloth from
the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan show that the people living there aroung 3500 BC knew how to weave
cotton into cloth. The first written mention of cotton was the Rig Veda written around 1500 BC (Khadi et al.,
2010). The most important chemical constituents of cotton are alkaloids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids,
tannins, sapnins flavonoids, cardiac glycosides and protein (Buser, 2001; Hedge et al., 2004; Knox et al., 2006;
Ezuruike and Prieto, 2014). Both China and India are two of the world’s largest producers and consumers of
food and other agricultural products. Distribution of common secondary metabolites in cotton plant is shown in
Figure 1. Chemical structures of some flavonoids in cotton is presented in Figure 2. Chemical structures of some
phenolic acids present in cotton is shown in Figure 3. Chemical structures of some phenolic acid analogs present
in cotton is shown in Figure 4.
Cultivation in China
Cotton is the leading cash crop in China (Koondhar, 2018). The cotton sown area accounts for about 30
percentage of the total sown area of all various cash crops. It is the main material used in the textile industry in
China. More than 95 percentage of textile materials were cotton during the 1950s; and it still occupies 80 percent
at present. There are some problems concerning rational location of cotton production in China. In order to solve
the problems existing in civil cotton and supply, in view of strategy, a number of cotton production bases must be
selected and built step by step in a planned way. The location of cotton production should be adjusted
progressively in accordance with existing problems. The existing cotton production regions should be
consolidated and improved. The cotton production region of the middle and lower reaches of the Huanghe river
should be renewed quickly to make it become the largest stable and high-yield cotton production region. In the
regions with suitable natural conditions and large water and soil potential, new cotton production regions should
be developed in a planned way. In the regions where natural conditions are unsuitable or the competition
between grain and cotton is sharp, cotton maybe replaced by grain and other crops. In the self-supporting regions
one should raise the yield per unit areas, not exparde the fields (Zhu, 1991).
Cultivation in India
Cotton supports the livelihood of 95 million people in India. It is the only country in the world wherein all the
four cultivated species are grown (Gossypium arboretum, Gossypium herbaceum, Gossypium hirsutum, and
Gossypium barbadense). Historically, the Asiatic cotton (G. arboretum and G. herbaceum) cultivars were grown
in India. Development of the high yielding upland cotton varieties (G. hirsutum) and the hybrids, led to the
replacement of the traditional Asiatic cotton cultivars that were considered as low yielding and of poor quality.
The Bt transgenic cotton hybrids were introduced in 2002 and now occupy 97% of the cotton acreage. Cotton
cultivation in India extends from 10 oN to 30 oN ranging from an arid to sub-humid environments. Bulk of the
cotton area (>65%) is rainfed. Erratic monsoon apart from poor soil fertility (low in organic carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and micronutrients such as zinc) are major abiotic constraints (Blaise and Kranthi, 2019). The
problems facing the textile industry in India in terms of quality and productivity are discussed. The industry is
facing problems such as shortfall in and uncertainty about cotton production, low cotton yields per hectare,
quality of cotton, and cultivation of large number of Bt cotton including varieties. The use of poor quality inputs
like seeds and pesticides results in low productivity of cotton. Cotton cultivation area zoning is essential based
on soil profile. Cotton being a long duration crop is difficult to fit in a monsoon dependent irrigated Indian
farming system, where the type of crop is decided by the amount of water in the dam.
Cultivation in Turkey
Basal et al. (2019) stated that cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.) was first introduced to Anatolia from Indian
subcontinent during the first century bce. Since then, cotton farming has been taking place in Anatolia. However,
in the real sense, the cotton breeding studies started after establishment of Republic of Turkey. Cotton breeding
studies in turkey started with introduction. Recently, there is a use of molecular methods together with classical
breeding methods to develop cotton varieties. The common objectives in Turkey are to improve the yield and
fiber quality, gain early maturity, and resistance to insect pests. The other objectives are to develop drought, salt
and heat stress tolerance in cotton. Expanding the genetic diversity and genetic base of cotton is of immense
importance for the continuity of the increase in cotton fiber yield in Turkey in the future. Cotton production in
Turkey increased from 55000 MT in 1925-1930 to 854000 MT in 2011-2015, and cotton yield increased from
396 to 1796 kg/ha. In addition to improved agronomical applications, the improvement of new cotton varieties

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
27
has been playing a crucial role for high yield. Modern tools and equipments are used in cotton cultivation from
sowing to harvest. High input cost, contaminations, small land holding, lack of infrastructure for storage after
ginning, unpredictable climate conditions, and poor irrigation management are the major challenges in cotton
production. On the other hand, the Southeastern Anatolia Project, offers a great opportunity to increase cotton
production. After the project has been completed in 2023, cotton production area in the region can reach one
million ha. Increasing cotton demand of the textile industry is the driving force for increase in the cotton
production. Cotton production is insufficient to meet consumption; therefore, Turkey imports an average of
900000-950000 tonnes of cotton each year. As the textile sector continues to be one of the indispensable sectors
for the Turkish economy, cotton will continue to be an important product (Copur et al., 2016).
Cultivation in Pakistan
Cotton is the most important cash crop also in Pakistan. It is called, white gold in the farming community of the
country due to its ability to generate revenue for the farmers. Cotton has a pivotal role in the economy of
Pakistan as it is the main source of foreign exchange earnings, which directly contribute towards the gross
domestic product (GDP) of the country. Seed cotton yield has been significant enhanced in the recent times due
to the development and introduction of new germplasm and Bt cotton cultivars in the country. Furthermore,
cotton breeding techniques and improved production methods have brought about betterment in the overall
scenario of cotton. However, besides the historical rise in its production, the yield of cotton is reading a plateau
due to several reasons. There are several factors affecting the cotton productivity in Pakistan. Due to insect
susceptible nature of cotton, insect pests are the main suppressors of cotton productivity in all over the world,
which are mainly managed by the use of insecticides. In addition to insect pests, unavailability of good quality
seed, cotton diseases like cotton leaf curl disease (CLCuD), drought and heat stresses, laborious picking and un-
predicting cotton pricing and shifting of cropping patterns in the cotton zone are the major constraints (Ali et al.,
2019).
Cultivation in Australia
Australia is known worldwide for producing cotton of the finest quality. Cotton production has an important
position in the economy of Australia, earning foreign exchange of two billion dollars annually. Australian cotton
production is highly mechanized and its production systems are quite specialized with emphasis on more crops
per drop. But, several factors are making Australian cotton production challengeable, such as climate change,
water scarcity, emergence of new insects, diseases and weeds, waterlogged soils and rising production cost.
Australian cotton growers, as well as, cotton scientists put sincere efforts to cope up with these important issues.
New agronomic tools, for example, the skip-row technique for water saving in the dry land area, timely planting,
and use of glyphosate-tolerant and Helicoverpa-resistant cultivars also were adopted to increase the yield
potential. Synergy among weather forecasting, fertilizer, water and pest management mode is being considered
for high efficiency of cotton production systems (Kaur et al., 2019).
Cultivation in African countries
Africa contributes about 8% of the global cotton production. In African continent, there are total six cotton
basins among which West African basin is the most important. Sub-Saharan Africa has a climate favorable for
pest growth and these results in severe attack of pests on cotton and subsequent yield losses. In West Africa,
approximately 25-35% of cotton yield is lost because of pests. In addition to pest damage, many other challenges
are faced by the farmers like low seed germination, insufficient seed storage facilities, low soil fertility, low
literacy and lack of trainings. Cotton production in Africa could be increased by increasing the seed availability,
support to agricultural research, and a capacity-building strategy, so that the farmers could get maximum profits
from cotton (Amanet et al., 2019).
Cultivation in Iran
China, India, Pakistan, United States, Uzbekistan, and Brazil are main cotton producer countries, and Iran with
annual production of nearly 253604 tons was the nineteenth country in the world cotton production. Total cotton
harvested area in 2009 for Iran was almost 105370 ha with average yield of 2.4 tons per hectare, and the highest
production belonged to Khorasan-Razavi and Khorasan-Jonobi province with production of 100503 and 33907
tons, respectively; Alborz province cotton production is 8052 with average yield of 4.9 ton per hectare (Pishgar-
Komleh et al., 2012). The shares of energy inputs for cotton production is shown in Figure 5. China is one of the
largest cotton producing country in the world, and among 31 provinces in mainland China, 24 provinces produce
cotton and about 300 million people are involved in cotton production. Cotton is one of the most important cash
crops in China and cotton is a pillar agricultural commodity in many regions and benefits a large rural population

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
28
(UNEP, 2002). Xinjiang leads in agricultural outputs in China, especially cotton production (Scull, 2008).
Appiah et al. (2014) have suggested new policies maybe introducing incentives for farmers to use natural
resources in a more sustainable way to maintain a sustainable agricultural production, especially cotton
production in Xinjiang and an integrated framework of policies for production, natural resources and
environment is required. China cotton production by producing region from 1980-2014 is presented in Figure 6.
China’s cotton policies are shown in Figure 7.
Cultivation and sustainability
Mollaee et al. (2019) revealed that cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is currently grown in 100 countries and
fulfills one‐third of the global demand for natural fiber. Irrespective of production regions, cotton production
across the world is constrained by the high incidence of pests and diseases, weed pressure and evolution of
herbicide resistance in weeds, salinity and soil degradation, and climate aberrations such as drought, floods, and
heat waves. Crop production potentials and constraints can vary with countries. Introduction of genetically
modified (GM) cotton and its adoption by major producing countries have changed the global trends in cotton
production. Although adoption of GM cotton has ensured a reduction in the usage of insecticides and improved
in broad‐spectrum weed control due to the flexibility in herbicide‐based weed management, sustainability of GM
cotton could be challenged by the evolution of resistance in insects and weed biotypes. Enhanced adoption of
commercially available GM cotton may narrow down the existing genetic diversity of cotton varieties. To ensure
sustainability, there should be crop improvement programs by diversifying the genetic base of cotton varieties to
handle any biotic and abiotic stresses and a future change in climate. Current management practices of cotton
include frequent tillage, which limit a complete adoption of conservation agriculture systems and overhead
systems of irrigation. The use of cover crops and narrow row spacing may minimize tillage with the additional
benefits of reduced weed pressure, improved soil health and a reduction in soil compaction and degradation.
Modeling studies could help to forecast and minimize different production constraints; however, modeling
approaches should bring a holistic picture considering different aspects of crop production rather than isolated
scenarios. More avenues also exist for the efficient utilization of by‐products. In a nutshell, science and
technology should work hand in hand to minimize the uncertainties and explore more avenues for a profitable,
environment‐friendly and sustainable cotton production system. Radhakrishnan (2017) found that sustainability
is an objective that refers to the environment and economic and social issues of any culture. Cotton farming
systems are diverse and the issues associated with cotton cultivation vary owing to environmental, agro-
ecological, climatic, socioeconomic and political situations. The role of biotechnology in cotton farming is
important in producing durable hybrids and reducing the amount of insecticides and fertilizers. Global standards
have been instituted to cultivate organic crops and voluntary sustainability initiatives assess many sustainability
issues in cotton production. The cotton industry reaches out to all involved, from small poverty-stricken farmers
to chic fashion stores in different parts of the globe. There is a call for a mass-market transformation in which
sustainable cotton is the norm and for a change in global perspectives and the emergence of sustainable strategies
to improve the livelihood of 250 million families involved in producing this valuable crop. Cotton production
contributes considerably to Uzbekistan's export earnings. The various reforms implemented to increase the
operational autonomy of agricultural producers considered the stability of cotton production, yet often at the
expense of farm incomes. Options for improving the farm incomes can be achieved through modifications of the
cotton policy settings. Such options are analyzed by replacing the present area-based yield prescriptions by
tradable cotton targets between cotton-growing farms. The net benefits would increase due to the difference in
land fertility and location to irrigation canal between contracted farms. However, the sustainability of such
policy modifications would depend on strong mechanisms for price negotiation and conflict resolution (Shavkat
and Djanibekov, 2015). China has also been giving consideration to how it can sustain it supply of cotton given
current demands on the use of its agricultural land, particularly to grow food. Once strategy has been to
increasingly locate its cotton production in its northwest, especially in Xinjiang (Zhao and Tisdell, 2009). If the
Chinese economy continues to grow and develop at a fast pace, this is likely to result in significant structural
change in Chinese agriculture as rural-to-urban migration continues. In turn, this may result in changes that favor
merging of farms and greater mechanization in agriculture, that is a trend towards more industrial-type
specialized farms. The long term implications of such changes for China’s cotton industry are unclear but they
may result in a decline in cotton production in all regions of China, except in its northwest. Interestingly, the
supply of cotton from China has continued increasing despite the economic and environmental difficulties which
its cotton-growers face. The depth and nature of these difficulties vary between the major cotton-producing
regions of China. Another point is water is in short supply in the Yellow River Region and almost all the
available water resources have been utilized in Northwest regions of China. Besides, will less agricultural labour
available in China, there are likely to be economic pressures to increasingly mechanize and adopt more capital-

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
29
intensive techniques for agricultural production, raise the size of farms and import agricultural produce rather
than rely as heavily as in the past on domestic production. These complex economic changes may make it very
difficult for China to sustain the level of its cotton production in the long term. Cotton production in the northern
part of Ghana has contributed so much to the economic development of the inhabitants and the textile industry as
a whole. It has been a source of livelihood for many if not all. Over the years, issues concerning cotton have
been of great concern and sensitive to the government and people of the north. This paper therefore, seeks to
explore the history behind cotton cultivation in northern Ghana, mode of marketing, the challenges confronting
the sector and the prospects it holds for the Ghanaian textile industry. Information relevant to this study was
gathered through interview, using descriptive case study research design approach to assess the phenomena of
then and now of cotton production in Ghana. The study has shown that the cotton sector when well organized
will provide income for folks in northern Ghana and invariably provide raw materials for the Ghanaian textile
industry. It identifies the major setbacks militating against cotton cultivation in Ghana and recommendations for
the way forward. The bottlenecks identified include poor farmer organization, lack of farm inputs, research into
improved seeds and new technology in the cultivation of cotton (Asinyo et al., 2019). Ethiopia is one of the
African countries that produce and export cotton. It has a long tradition of cotton cultivation with an estimated
area of 2.6 million hectares suitable for this product. Of these 65% is found in 38 high potential cotton producing
areas and the remaining 0.9 million ha or 35% is in 75 medium potential districts. Of the total land under cotton
cultivation, 33% is cultivated by small holders, 45% by private farms and 22% are state owned farms. But,
Ethiopia shares only 5% of total cotton produced in Africa. This is because it recently cultivates only 3% of the
total suitable land for cotton production. Ethiopia produces an average of 33,842.11 metric tonnes in the year
2000-2018. The production trend shows some declining stage since 2012. Natural and technological constraints
were existed for cotton production in this country. The country also participates on the export market and earned
an average of $14,336,667 especially in the last decade. Currently the country exports with an average price of
$1.45. Cotton market has also some constraints like price disincentives and lack of market information. Despite
its inefficiency the cotton sector still has its own vital economic role on textile industry and employment
creation. It employs about 52,754 smallholder farmers. Therefore, it is recommended that the government, the
producers and other relevant stakeholders should work in collaboration to solve the constraints (Zeleke et al.,
2019). Bt cotton was among the first transgenic crops to be used in commercial agriculture. A gene from the soil
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been transferred to the cotton genome. This gene codes for production
of a protein that is toxic to the cotton bollworms, severe insect pests in most cotton-growing regions of the
world. In the United States and China, Bt cotton was commercialized in the mid-1990s, and today, the
technology covers around 30-40% of the cotton area in both countries. Recent studies demonstrate that US and
Chinese Bt adopters realize significant pesticide and cost savings. In 1996, Mexico and the United States became
the first two countries to plant Bt cotton commercially. (Bt) cotton reduces use of insecticides, cuts farmers'
production costs, and increases yields. Global adoption of Bt cotton has risen dramatically from 800,000 hectares
in its year of introduction in 1996 to 5.7 million hectares (alone and stacked with herbicide- tolerant cotton) in
2003. Significant economic and production advantages have resulted from growing Bt cotton globally. Bt cotton
can substantially reduce the number of pesticide sprayings, which reduces worker and environmental exposure to
chemical insecticides and reduces energy use. The quality of life for farmers and their families can be improved
by the increased income and time savings offered by Bt cotton. These economic, environmental, and social
benefits are being realized by large and smallholder farmers alike in eight countries around the world. Bt cotton
was planted on over 15 million hectares in 11 countries in 2009 and has contributed to a reduction of over 140
million kilograms of insecticide active ingredient between 1996 and 2008. It is estimated that between 1996 and
2005 the deployment of Bt cotton has reduced the volume of insecticide active ingredient used for pest control in
cotton by 94.5 million kilograms and increased farm income through reduced costs and improved yields by
US$7.5 billion. The efficacy of Bt maize and cotton against major pest species has been associated with an
estimated 136.6 million kg global reduction in insecticide active ingredient used between 1996 and 2006 (29.9%
reduction). Benefits vary by country and region and are heavily weighted towards cotton production, which has
historically been one of the largest users of insecticides in the world. Many cotton production strategies ( from
the pest control point of view ) have been applied in cotton production world – wide, these strategies are :- 1-
Insecticides treatment Strategy (ITS) ; 2- Integrated pest management ( IPM ) strategy ( IPMS); 3-Pheromone
technology strategy ( PTS ) ; 4-Sterile insect release ( SIR ) strategy ( SIRS ); 5- Biological control Strategy (
BCS); 6- Bt-transgenic strategy ( Bt.S) and Organic strategy ( OS ) . This review focuses on the Bt cotton world
use, benefits and production (Albeltagy, 2014). The main cotton producing countries China and India gave
commercial approval for Bt cotton in 1997 and 2002, respectively. Today Bt varieties have reached over 50% of
the total cotton area in China. The Bt technology is a mean to control lepidopteran cotton pests, hence offering
the possibility to reduce the application of chemical pesticides and lowering production costs. Previous studies,

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
30
which assess the Bt technology, claim a sharp reduction in pesticide use accompanied by significant human
health and environmental benefits. In these studies, the conclusions on benefits were derived from a comparison
between Bt and non-Bt varieties rather than from an analysis of the pest control effects of Bt crops. Furthermore,
costs of possible long-term ecological effects of Bt crops were not included and, none of the studies has taken
into account the uncertainty that underlies the main parameters. Thus, there is a danger that if results from case
studies are generalized, wrong conclusions are drawn about prospects, opportunities and constraints of Bt crops
on a global scale. The approach presented here complements previous studies by using a stochastic partial
budgeting model that captures the key pest control properties of Bt cotton taking into account uncertainty (Pemsl
et al., 2003).
Figure 1. Distribution of common secondary metabolites in cotton plant (Egbuta et al., 2017).

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
31
Figure 2. Chemical structures of some flavonoids in cotton (Egbuta et al., 2017).
Figure 3. Chemical structures of some phenolic acids present in cotton (Egbuta et al., 2017).
Figure 4. Chemical structures of some phenolic acid analogs present in cotton (Egbuta et al., 2017).
Figure 5. The shares of energy inputs for cotton production (Pishgar-Komleh et al., 2012).

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
32
Figure 6. China cotton production by producing region from 1980-2014.
Figure 7. China’s cotton policies.
Cottonseed oil
Cottonseed contains hull and kernel. The hull produces fiber and linters, and the kernel contain oil, protein,
carbohydrate and other constituents such as vitamins, minerals, lecithin, sterols and etc. Cotton seed oil is

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
33
extracted from cotton seed kernel and also termed as heart oil is among the most unsaturated edible oils. It does
not need to be as fully hydrogenated for many a cooking purposes as is required in case of some of the more
polyunsaturated oils. Cottonseed oil has a ration of 2: 1 of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids and generally
consists of 65-70% unsaturated fatty acids including 18-24% monounsaturated (oleic), and 42-52%
polyunsaturated (linoleci) and 26-35% saturated (plamitic and stearic). Cottonseed oil is described by scientists
as being naturally hydrogenated because of the levels of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids in its. Typical fatty acid
composition in different forms of cottonseed oil is shown in Table 1. Tocopherol content in various edible oils is
shown in Table 2. Analytical values on different parameters for various cottonseed oil is presented in Table 3.
Mean gossypol content and the range of gossypol in different gossypium species is presented in Table 4. The
range of fatty acid content of four cotton species is shown in Table 5. The main biotechnological goals for oil
quality improvements are increasing oil content and quality, making cottonseed oil healthier, and gossypol free
cotton. Inside the cotton seed is shown in Figure 7.
Table 1. Typical fatty acid composition in different forms of cottonseed oil.
Fatty acid
Cottonseed cooking oil
*Partially hydrogenated
Myristic (14:0)
0.8
0.9
Palmitic (16:0)
24.4
22.5
Palmitoleic (16:1)
0.4
0
Stearic (18:0)
2.2
5.5
Oleic (18:1)
17.2
50.0
**Linoleic (18:2)
55.0
20.3
**Linolenic (18:3)
Summary
% Saturates
27
29
% Monounsaturates
18
50
% Polyunsaturates
55
21
*Partially hydrogenated cottonseed oil (Iodine value, approximately 80).
**Essential Fatty Acids; Linolenic is an Omega-3 Fatty Acid.
Table 2. Tocopherol content in various edible oils.
Oil Crop
Total
(mg/100 g)
Contents
(mg/100 g)
a-Tocopherol
equivalent
a
b
g
Canola
66
19
43
4
23
Corn
104
26
75
3
33
Cottonseed
65
35
30
-
38
Olive
13
12
1
-
12
Palm
26
6
11
9
8
Peanut
13
9
4
1
9
Rapeseed
67
22
19
26
24
Soybean
104
10
70
24
17
Sunflower
65
62
3
-
62
Table 3. Analytical values on different parameters for various cottonseed oil.
Cottonseed Cooking Oil
(RBD)*
Hydrogenated Cottonseed Shortening
Lovibond colour (Red Max.)
2.0–6.0
2.0-2.5
Free fatty acid (as Oleic % Max.)
0.05
0.05
Peroxide value (meq/kg. Max)
1.0
0.5
Iodine value
103-116
50-70
AOM stability (hrs.)
15
100-200+
Cloud point (oF)
30-38
-
Melting point (oF)
50-60
100-118
Pour point (oF)
-
102-140
Smoke point (oF)
430
-
Cold test (hrs.)
-
-
Flavour
Bland
Bland
Density (lb/gal @ 108oC)
-
7.46
*RBD- Refined, Bleached & Deodorized; CSO Bulletin, 2000 Digital Edition Published on ww.cottonseed.com
Table 4. Mean gossypol content and the range of gossypol in different gossypium species (% free gossypol).

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
34
Species
Seed
Kernel
G. arboretum
0.69 (0.30-1.25)
1.31 (0.65-2.38)
G. herbaceum
0.77 (0.43-1.09)
1.44 (0.82-1.96)
G. hirsutum
0.77 (0.42-1.25)
1.39 (0.73-2.35)
G. barbadense
1.11 (0.73-1.49)
1.78 (.122-2.35)
Table 5. The range of fatty acid content of four cotton species.
Name of the species
Extent of variability
Palmitic acid
(%)
Stearic acid
(%)
Oleic acid
(%)
Linoleic acid
(%)
G. arboretum
23.1-25.9
2.3-3.4
20.8-26.3
41.1-50.6
G. herbaceum
20.5-23.4
3.2-4.4
17.5-20.8
51.3-55.1
G. hirsutum
23.1-28.0
2.4-3.4
14.7-20.9
47.6-55.4
G. barbadense
24.4-25.5
2.6-3.0
18.7-19.7
50.0-51.7
G. arboretum
8.90-21.2
1.1-2.9
16.5-30.7
30.0-59.3
G. hirsutum
8.83-24.4
1.2-4.5
10.3-30.2
20.6-58.0
Figure 7. Inside the cotton seed (Ritchie et al., 2007).
Cotton in Traditional Iranian, Chinese and Asian Medicines and Modern Science
Herbal medicine has long been recognized as one of the oldest forms of remedies used by human beings
(Soleymani and Shahrajabian, 2018; Sun et al., 2019a,b; Shahrajabian et al., 2020a,b), and many people in
different parts of the world, especially developing countries still rely on traditional healing practices and
medicinal plants for their daily health care needs (Ogbaji et al., 2018; Shahrajabian et al., 2019a,b; Sun et al.,
2020a,b). In China, Chinese have long known the abortive properties of the plant and its effects on men sperm;

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
35
however, it was later noted that families who cooked with cottonseed oil had fewer children. Modern medical
science has found that parts of the cotton plant may have potential use in the treatment of HIV and cancer. It has
been found in one study to have the ability to inhibit cancerous growths in head and neck cancers. Since 1989,
potential treatments were tested in vitro to control the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to reduce their
enzymatic activities (Polska et al., 1989), with (-) gossypol (An et al., 2012). It can be used ingested as well as
vaginal gels for HIV control, in addition to their effect to stop the mobility of sperms that serves as birth control
and even to prevent other sexual transmitted diseases such as herpes (Ratsula et al., 1983). Plants synthesise
hundreds of chemical compounds for different functions (Shahrajabian et al., 2019c,d). Chewing the root bark of
the cotton plant is supposed to stimulate the sex organs and it has a reputation for being an aphrodisiac. In
Ayuvedic medicine and other traditional medicine systems in the Indian subcontinent plants and their parts are
used to improve blood circulation, for ear problems, colds, diarrhea and gout as well as a whole host of other
ailments. The seeds and leaves are used in South East Asia and the subcontinent to treat a variety of health
problems, and are used both internally and externally for skin problems and injuries. Powdered cotton seeds
mixed with milk are given to those whit headaches, and an infusion of the seeds and leaves which said to be
useful for cases of dysentery. Cotton seeds or the expressed juice from the leaves are used to treat skin problems,
while the leaves can be made into a poultice for sprains or painful areas of the limbs. The seeds are ground and
made into a paste with water and ginger for burns, and an infusion, a mixture of the seeds and leaves and also
mustard seeds is used for snake bites and scorpion stings. The fibers can be made into a wide variety of fabrics
ranging from lightweight voiles and laces to heavy sailcloths and thick-piled velveteens, suitable for a great
variety of wearing apparel, home furnishings, and industrial uses. Cotton fabrics can be extremely durable and
resistant to abrasion, and cotton accepts many dyes, is usually washable, and can be ironed at relatively high
temperatures. The most important chemical constituents of cotton are alkaloids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids,
tannins, sapnins flavonoids, cardiac glycosides and protein. The pharmacological investigations revealed that
they possessed anti-diabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, anticancer, antidepressant, antiepileptic, memory
enhancement, wound healing, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antiprotozoal,
insecticidal, diuretic, gastric ulcer healing and wide range of effects on reproductive systems. Health benefits of
cotton included mucus, tannins, flavonoids, essential oil and other substances is shown in Table 6. Traditional
uses and benefits of cotton is presented in Table 7. Ayurvedic health benefits of tree cotton is presented in Table
8.
Table 6. Health benefits of cotton included mucus, tannins, flavonoids, essential oil and other substances.
1- Treat respiratory diseases.
2- Treat skin problems.
3- Treat wounds or inflamed mucus membrane in the respiratory organs.
4- Beneficial for breastfeeding mothers.
5- Cure for rat bite.
6- For scorpion bite.
7- For joint pains.
8- For swollen legs.
9- For eye pains.
10- For removing bacteria in teeth.
11- For mumps.
12- For curing puss in the ears.
13- For blood and sticky motions.
14- Alternative medicine for various diseases.
Table 7. Traditional uses and benefits of cotton.
1- Juice of the root is used in the treatment of fevers.
2- Root bark is used as an abortifacient.
3- Root decoction is used to prevent abortion.
4- Powdered root bark is used to treat Lymphatic swellings.
5- Fresh leaves of tree cotton are used to treat Ulcers.
6- Macerated leaf is taken against vomiting.
7- It is used for wound dressing and curbing infection.
8- It is applied on forehead to relieve headache.
9- It cures digestive disorders.
10- It encourages proper Bile secretion in the liver.
11- It helps in uterine contraction.
12- It helps in breast enlargement.
13- It supports healthy immune system.

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
36
14- Chewing the root bark of the cotton plant is thought to stimulate the sex organs and it has a reputation for being an
aphrodisiac.
15- Seeds and leaves are used in South East Asia and the subcontinent to treat a variety of health problems, and are
used both internally and externally for skin problems and injuries.
16- Powdered cotton seeds mixed with milk are given to those with headaches.
17- An infusion of the seeds and leaves is said to be useful for cases of dysentery.
18- Cotton seeds or the expressed juice from the leaves are used to treat skin problems.
19- Leaves can be made into a poultice for sprains or painful areas of the limbs.
20- Seeds are ground and made into a paste with water and ginger for burns.
21- An infusion, a mixture of the seeds and leaves and perhaps also mustard seeds is used for snake bites and scorpion
stings.
Table 8. Ayurvedic health benefits of tree cotton.
Diarrhea
Maturant
Leucorrhoea
Ear Discharge
Galactagogue
Emacitation
Epilepsy
Menstrual pain
Curing hysteria and fear
Burn skin mark removal and healing
Gossypol, a poly-phenolic with potential contraceptive effects and trans-caryophyllene, a terpenoid having
anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic properties, are examples of compounds present in cotton with potential
beneficial impact on humans and animals (Fernandes et al., 2007; Han et al., 2007; Amiel et al., 2012). Egbuta et
al. (2017) noted that three major classes of compounds and some primary metabolites have been previously
identified in the plant, and among these compounds, most terpenoids and their derivatives (51), fatty acids (4),
and phenolics (6), were found in the leaves, bolls, stalks, and stems. They have concluded that biological
activities such as anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory activities, are associated with some of these
phytochemicals, for example, β-bisabolol, a sesquiterpenoid enriched in the flowers of cotton plants, may have
anti-inflammatory product application. Considering the abundance of biologically active compounds in the
cotton plant, there is scope to develop a novel process within the current cotton fiber production system to
separate these valuable phytochemicals, developing them into potentially high-value products. Biological
activities of different compounds present in cotton is presented in Table 9.
Table 9. Biological activities of different compounds present in cotton (Egbuta et al., 2017).
Compounds
Biological activity
Terpenes
Camphene
Aromatic properties, antioxidants effects
Limonene
Flavouring properties, gastro-protective effects, anti-cancer
and anti-inflammatory activity
Myrcene
Analgesic effects, anti-microbial activity, anti-inflammatory
activity, anti-catabolic activity
α and β-pinene
Gastro-protective effects, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory
effects
Sabinene
Anti-microbial activity, anti-oxidant activity
α-thujene
Pungent activity
Caryophyllene
Anti-inflammatory effects, anti-microbial activity, regulation
of cellular lipid metabolism, flavouring properties
Farnesene
Anti-oxidant effects
Humulene
Anti-inflammatory properties, aromatic properties and
cytotoxic activity
Bisabolol
Aromatic properties, anti-inflammatory effects, anti-
carcinogenic activity, anti-microbial and anti-oxidative
properties
Caryophyllene oxide
Cytotoxic activity, phytogrowth inhibition, analgesic and anti-
inflammatory activity
3,10-dihydroxy-1,3,5,7-cadinatetraen-9-one
Phytoalexin, antifungal agent
β-sitosterol
Antimicrobial activity, anti-hypercholesteraemic and anti-
inflammatory activity

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
37
Strigol
Germination stimulant
2,3,9-trihydroxy-1,3,5,7,9-cadinapentaen-14-al;3-Me ether
Phytoalexin
2,8,9-trihydroxy-1,3,5,7,9-cadinapentaen-14-al;8-deoxy
Antifungal activity
Phenols
Chlorogenic acid
Anti-oxidant and anti-mutagenic activity
Gallic acid
Antioxidant activity, cytotoxic activity
4-hydroxybenzoic acid
Anti-microbial activity, used a preservative, oestrogenic
activity, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activity
Gossypol;(+)-from
Contraceptive and hypokalemic activity
3,3/,4/,5,7-pentahydroxyflavan; (2S,3R)-form
Cytotoxic and phytotoxic activity
3,3/,4/,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone;3/-O-β-D-glucopyranoside
Enzyme inhibitor, cytotoxic, anti-oxidant activity
Scopoletin
Anti-spasmodic and anti-inflammatory activity
Fatty acids
11,14-eicosadienoic acid
Hormonal activity
Hexadecanoic acid
Anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory activity
Octadecanoic acid
Pharmaceutical excipient, surfactant and softening activity
9-octadecenoic acid; (Z)-form
Insecticidal, anti-bacterial and fungicidal activity
Tetradecanoic acid
Defoaming agent, flavor adjuvant used in food processing
Carbohydrates
Cellulose
Capsule and tablet diluents
Proteins
3-phosphoglycerate phosphatase
Enzyme activity
Vicilin
Anti-hypertensive activity
CONCLUSIONS
Cotton is one of the most important commercial crops and it is famous as white gold. Cotton production presents
recent developments achieved by major cotton producing regions around the world, including China, India, the
USA, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, South American, Central Asia, Australia and Europe. The leaves are edible, seeds
ground into a flour and added to bakery products; an oil obtained from the seed is used in salads, canned goods
and manufactured into margarine. The root is abortifacient, emetic, and emmenagogue. An infusion of the root
bark is used to treat difficult or irregular menstruation. The pulverized roots are used to procure an abortion. The
stem bark is used in a preparation to strengthen the womb. The leaves are antipruritic, diuretic, and hypotensive.
Leaves of the red variety of cotton are used for treating high blood pressure; abdominal cramps and pain;
menstrual problems; painful ovaries; and difficult expulsion of afterbirth. The flower buds are used as an
auricular analgesic. The seeds are crushed, and the juice given to babies as a treatment for thrush. The pressed
cotton cake contains gossypol, which is used clinically as a male contraceptive. Gossyple is a toxic polyphenolic
bisesquiterpene which may have antifertility and antiviral properties. Cotton seed oil mostly extracted from
Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are also grown for cotton fiber and animal feed. It is
extracted from cottonseed kernel which are by-products of cotton fiber production. Cottonseed oil is among the
most unsaturated oils, others being safflower, corn, soybean, rapeseed and sunflower seed oils. Cottonseed oil
has a ration of 2:1 of polyynsaturated to saturated fatty acids and generally consists of 65-70% unsaturated fatty
acids including 18-24% monounsaturated (oleic) and 42-52% polyunsaturated (linoleic), and 26-35% saturated
(palmitic and stearic). The saturated fatty acids content makes it a relatively stable vegetable oil without partial
hydrogenation, so it is called as naturally hydrogenated oil. Cottonseed oil is described by scientists as being
naturally hydrogenated because of the levels of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids in it. The major cottonseed oil’s
major benefits includes, its high level of antioxidants; tocopherols that contribute to its long life on the shelf.
Cottonseed oil is cholesterol free, as it extracted from plants which make it a great choice to reduce cholesterol
level. Cotton seed oil has high concentration of vitamin E, and its oil is more efficient for heart-healthy vitamin
E than other vegetables oils, and as it is rich source of vitamin which is like antioxidant, it is important in
fighting free radicals and essential for good health like skin health, anti-aging, hair quality, and numerous
illnesses including cancers. It is obvious that the variety of traditional and modern medicinal uses of cotton is
because of its active compounds that have been mentioned in different researches. With more control of the toxic
effects of gossypol, applications on human health issues will increase.
REFERENCES

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
38
Albeltagy, A. M. (2014). Bt Transgenic Cotton: The world future of cotton production. Publisher: Lampert Academic Publisghing. DOI:
10.13140/2.1.4937.9528
Ali, M. A., Farooq, J., Batool, A., Zahoor, A., Azeem, F., Mahmood, A., and Jabran, K. (2019). Cotton Production in Pakistan. In book:
Cotton Production. DOI: 10.1002/9781119385523.ch12
Amanet, K., Chiamaka, E. O., Quansah, G. W., Mubeen, M., Farid, H. U., Akram, R., and Jatoi, W. N. (2019). Cotton Production in Africa.
In book: Cotton Production. DOI: 10.1002/9781119385523.ch17
Amiel, E., Ofir, R., Dudai, N., Soloway, E., Rabinsky, T., and Rachmilevitch, S. (2012). Caryophyllene, a compound isolated from the
biblical balm gilead (Commiphora gileadensis), is a selective apoptosis inducer for tumor cell lines. Evid. Based Complement.
Altern Med. 2012, 872394.
An, T., Ouyang, W., Pan, W, et al. (2012). Amino acid derivatives of the (-) enantiomer of gossyol are effective fusion inhibitors of human
immunodeficiency virus type 1. Antiviral Research. 94(3): 276-287.
Appiah, M. K., Feiker, T., Wiredu, A. N., and Mamitimin, Y. (2014). Cotton production, land use change and resource competition in the
Aksu-Tarim river basin, Xinjiang, China. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture. 53(3): 243-261.
Asinyo, B. K., Frimpong, C., and Amankwah, E. (2019). The state of cotton production in Northern Ghana. The state of cotton production in
Northern Ghana. International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research.
Basal, H., Karademir, E., Goren, H. K., Sezener, V., Dogan, M. N., Gencsoylu, I., and Erdogan, O. (2019). Cotton Production in Turkey and
Europe. In book: Cotton production. DOI: 10.1002/9781119385523.ch14
Bellaloui, N., Stetina, S. R., and Turley, R. B. (2015). Cottonseed protein, oil, and mineral status in near-isogenic Gossypium hirsutum cotton
lines expressing fuzzy/linted and fuzzless/linted seed phenotypes under field conditions. Frontiers in Plant Science.6: 137.
Blaise, D., and Kranthi, K. R. (2019). Cotton production in India. In book: Cotton Production. DOI: 10.1002/9781119385523.ch10
Buser, M. (2001). Extruding cotton Gin byproducts to reduce chemical residues. J. Cotton. Sci. 5: 92-102.
Copur, O., Odabasioglu, C., and Gur, M. A. (2016). Cotton production in Turkey. Conference AgroSym 2016.
Egbuta, M. A., McIntosh, S., Waters, D. L. E., Vancov, T., and Liu, L. (2017). Biological importance of cotton by-products relative to
chemical constituents of the cotton plant. Molecules. 22: 93.
Ezuruike, U. F., and Prieto, J. M. (2014). The use of plants in the traditional management of diabetes in Nigeria: Pharmacological and
toxicological consideration. J. Ethnopharmacol. 155: 857-924.
FAOSTAT. (2012). Seachable online statistical database from Food and Agriculture Division of the United Nations. http://faostat.fao.org/
Fernandes, E. S., Passos, G. F., Medeiros, R., da Cunha, F. M., Ferreira, J., Campos, M. M., Pianowski, L. F., and Calixto, J. B. (2007). Anti-
inflammatory effects of compounds alpha-humulene and (-)-trans-caryophyllene isolated from the essential oil of Cordia
verbenacea. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 569: 228-236.
Fryxell, P. A. (1979). The natural history of the cotton tribe (Malvaceae, tribe Gossypieae). CollegeStation: Texa A & M University Press.
Han, S., Shen, T., and Lou, H. (2007). Dietary polyphenols and their biological significance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 8: 950.
He, Z., Shankle, M., Zhang, H., Way, T. R., Tewolde, H., and Uchimiya, M. (2013). Mineral composition of cottonseed is affected by
fertilization management practices. Agron. J. 105: 341-350.
Hegde, R. R., Dahiya, A., Kamath, M. G., Gao, X., and Jangala, P. K. (2004). Cotton Fibres; Tickle college of Engineering, University of
Tennessee: Knoxville, TN, USA, 2004.
James, C. (2012). Global status of commercialized biotech?GM crops. ISAAA briefs no. 44. Ithaca: ISAAA.
Kaur, P., Bhagria, T., Mutti, N. K., Rinwa, A., Mahajan, G., and Chauhan, B. S. (2019). Cotton Production in Australia. In book: Cotton
Production. DOI: 10.1002/9781119385523.ch16
Khadi, B. M., Santhy, V., and Yadav, M. S. (2010). Cotton: an introduction. In: Zehr UB, editor. Cotton biotechnology in agriculture and
forestry. Berlin: Springer; 2010.
Knox, O., Rochester, I., Vadakattu, G., and Lawrence, L. (2006). Composting in Australian cotton production. Aust. Cotton Grow. 46-48.
Koondhar, M. A. (2018). Effects of market price, cultivating area and price regulation on cotton production in China. African Journal of
Agricultural Research. 13(16): 858-865.
Mageshwaran, V., Satankar, V., Shukla, S. K., and Kairon, M. S. (2019). Current status of organic cotton production in India. Indian Farming.
69(02): 09-14.
Mollaee, M., Mobli, A., Mutti, N. K., Manalil, S., and Chauhan, B. S. (2019). Challenges and opportunities in cotton production. In book:
Cotton production worldwide. Chapter 19. Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell. DOI: 10.1002/9781119385523.ch18
Ogbaji, P. O., Li, J., Xue, X., Shahrajabian, M. H., and Egrinya, E. A. (2018). Impact of bio-fertilizer or nutrient solution on spinach
(Spinacea Oleracea) growth and yield in some province soils of P.R. China. Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova. 51(2): 43-52.
Pemsil, D. E., Orphal, J., and Waibel, H. (2003). Bt-cotton productivity considerations from India and China. Conference on International
Agricultural Research for Development. Gottingen, October 8-10, 2003.
Pishgar-Komleh, S. H., Sefeedpari, P., and Ghahderijani, M. (2012). Exploring energy consumption and CO2 emission of cotton production
in Iran. Journal of Renewable Sustainable Energy. 4: 033115.
Polska, B., Segal, S. J., Baron, P. A., Gold, J. W., Ueno, H., and Armstrong, D. (1989). Inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus by
gossypol. Contraception. 39(6): 579-587.
Radhakrishnan, S. (2017). Sustainable cotton production. In book: Sustainable Fibres and Textiles. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-102041-
8.00002-0
Ratsula, K., Haukkamaa, M., Wichmann, K., and Luukkainen, T. (1983). Vaginal contraception with gossypol: a clinical study.
Contraception. 27(6): 571-576.
Ritchie, G. L., Bednarz, C. W., Jost, P. H., and Brown, S. M. (2007). Cotton Growth and Development. University of Georgia Cooperative
Extension Service Bulletin 1253.
Scull, E. (2008). Environmental Health Challenges in Xinjiang. Research brief produced as part of the China Environment Forum ,s
partenship with western Kentucky University on the USAID-supported China environmental health project, western Kentucky.
Seagull, R. W., and Giavalis, S. (2004). Pre- and post- anthesis application of exogenous hormones alters fiber production in Gossypium
hirsutum L. cultivar GTO. J. Cotton Sci. 8: 105-111.
Shahrajabian, M. H., Sun, W., and Cheng, Q. (2019a). A review of astragalus species as foodstuffs, dietary supplements, a traditional Chinese
medicine and a part of modern pharmaceutical science. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. 17(6): 13371-13382.
Shahrajabian, M. H., Sun, W., and Cheng, Q. (2019b). SNA methylation as the most important content of epigenetics in traditional Chinese
herbal medicine. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 13(16): 357-369.
Shahrajabian, M. H., Sun, W., and Cheng, Q. (2019c). The influence of traditional Iranian and Chinese medicine on western and Islamic
countries. Asian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 5(2): 94-99.

J. BIOL. ENVIRON. SCI.,
2020, 14(40), 25-39
39
Shahrajabian, M. H., Sun, W., and Cheng, Q. (2019d). A review of ginseng species in different regions as a multipurpose herb in traditional
Chinese medicine, modern herbology and pharmacological science. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 13(10): 213-226.
Shahrajabian, M. H., Sun, W., and Cheng, Q. (2020a). Chinese star anise (Illicium verum) and pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium)
as natural alternatives for organic farming and health care- A review. Australian Journal of Crop Sciences. 14(03): 517-523.
Shahrajabian, M. H., Khoshkharam, M., Zandi, P., Sun, W., and Cheng, Q. (2020b). The influence of temperature on germination and
seedling growth of pyrethrum (Tanacetum Cineraiifolium) under drought stress. International Journal of Advanced Biological and
Biomedical Research. 8(1): 29-39.
Shavkat, H., and Djanibekov, N. (2015). Improving cotton production and crop diversification in Uzbekistan: tradable cotton production
targets. Conference: IAAE conference Agriculture in an Interconnected World, Milan, Italy.
Soleymani, A., and Shahrajabian, M. H. (2018). Changes in germination and seedling growth different cultivars of cumin to drought stress.
Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova. 51(1): 91-100.
Stetina, S. R., Turley, R. B., Bellaloui, N., and Boykin, J. C. (2014). Yield and fiber quality of five pairs of near-isogenic cotton (Gossypium
hirsutum L.) lines expressing fuzzless/linted and fuzzy/linted seed phenotypes. J. Crop. Improve. 28: 680-699.
Sun, W., Shahrajabian, M. H., and Cheng, Q. (2019a). The insight and survey on medicial properties and nutritive components of shallot.
Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 13(18): 452-457.
Sun, W., Shahrajabian, M. H., and Cheng, Q. (2019b). Anise (Pimpinella anisum l.), a dominant spice and traditional medicinal herb for both
food and medicinal purposes. Cogent Biology. 5(1673688): 1-25.
Sun, W., Shahrajabian, M. H., Khoshkharam, M., and Cheng, Q. (2020a). Adaptation of acupuncture and traditional Chinese herbal
medicines models because of climate change. Journal of Stress Physiology and Biochemistry. 16(1): 85-90.
Sun, W., Shahrajabian, M. H., and Huang, Q. (2020b). Soybean seeds treated with single walled carbon naotubes (SwCNTs) showed
enhanced drought tolerance during germination. International Journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research. 8(1): 9-
16.
UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program). (2002). Integrated assessment of trade liberalization and trade-related policies; a country
study on the cotton sector in China. UNEP/ETB (2002/2004): People ,s Republic of China. Cotton and Annual Products. Gain
Report Number: Ch11018. Public distribution. Prepared by M.N. Meador and W. Xinping. Approved by S. Sindelar, New York
and Geneva.
Wendel, J. F., Brubaker, C. L., and Seelana, T. (2010). The origin and evolution of Gossypium. In: Stewart JM et al. Physiology of cotton.
The Netherlands: Springer; 2010. P. 1-18.
Wilkins, T. A., and Arpat, A. B. (2005). The cotton fiber transciptome. Physiol. Plant. 124: 295-300.
Yu, K., Yu, S., Fan, S., Song, M., Zhai, H., Li, X., et al. (2012). Mapping quantitative trait loci for cottonseed oil, protein and gossypol
content in a Gossypium hirsutum × Gossypium barbadense backcross inbred line population. Euphytica. 187: 191-201.
Zeleke, M., Adem, M., Aynalem, M., and Mossie, H. (2019). Cotton production and marketing trend in Ethiopia: a review. Cogent Food and
Agriculture. DOI: 10.1080/23311932.2019.1691812
Zhao, X. F., and Tisdell, C. (2009). A comparative economic study of China ,s and Australia ,s cotton production. Economic Theory,
Applications and Issues, Working paper No. 53. School of Economics, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072.
Zhu, Z. (1991). A study on rational location of the cotton production in China. Chinese Geographical Science. 1(2): 129-140.