Available via license: CC BY 3.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
PAPER • OPEN ACCESS
Coconut meal as a feed ingredient and source of prebiotic for poultry
To cite this article: B Sundu et al 2020 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 492 012126
View the article online for updates and enhancements.
This content was downloaded from IP address 178.171.24.181 on 24/06/2020 at 18:13
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
1
Coconut meal as a feed ingredient and source of prebiotic for
poultry
B Sundu, U Hatta, S Mozin, N Toana, Hafsah, Marhaeni and S Sarjuni
Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Fishery, University of Tadulako, Palu, Indonesia
Email: b_sundu@yahoo.com
Abstract. The low quality protein of coconut meal, coupled with high fibre content, leads to
limited use of this agricultural by-product in the poultry diet. Attempts to maximize the amount of
coconut meal included in the broiler feed have been made through amino acids supplementation,
enzyme addition and pelleting coconut meal. Among these feed technologies and manipulation,
pelleting coconut meal appears to be more powerful in promoting the growth of broiler chickens.
The reasons for the improvement of broiler growth due to pelleting coconut meal have not been
established yet. The mechanisms of improved growth of birds might be through increased feed
intake, less energy spent and increased bulk density. Coconut meal contains a high concentration
of mannose – based polysaccharides or mannan. This substance has long been believed to have
prebiotic properties due to its capability to bind certain species of pathogenic bacteria in the
digestive tract of birds. Voluminous reports of the positive effects of mannose-based
polysaccharides from yeast have been published. Mannose –based polysaccharides from legumes,
on the other hand, have been reported to have anti-nutrient property. Surprisingly, mannose-based
polysaccharides from coconut behave like yeast mannan. A number of current studies indicated
that mannose based polysaccharides improved body weight gain and feed digestibility. The growth
of birds was negatively impacted when the birds were challenged against pathogenic bacteria of E.
coli. Wet droppings and diarrhea incidences were not found in E. coli-challenged birds when the
diets were supplemented with coconut mannan. In conclusions, coconut meal can be used as a feed
ingredient for poultry unless the coconut meal was pelleted or enzymatically treated. Mannose-
based polysaccharide from coconut was effective to promote growth and acted as prebiotic.
1. Introduction
Global production of coconut in 2017 was 60.8 million tons and 31.2% of the production was contributed
by Indonesia [1]. Today, Indonesia has been the largest coconut producer in the world. The valuable
product of coconut is coconut oil, derived from the meat of the nut. Two common ways to produce
coconut oil in Indonesia are through wet and dry processes, generating coconut dregs and copra cake
respectively. Although these two coconut by-products are abundantly produced in the coconut-producing
provinces in Indonesia, their utilization in poultry feed is still limited due to the presence of fibrous
carbohydrates, particularly mannose-based polysaccharides [2] and thus negatively affected the passage
time of the diets in the digestive tract of broilers [3].
Attempts to optimize the use of coconut by-products such as copra cake and coconut dregs have been
the main concern in our laboratory over the last two decades. Nutritional manipulation, biological
treatment, physical modification and enzymatic application were some of the ways used in our laboratory
to improve the feeding value of these agricultural by-products. Research on the improvement of nutritive
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
2
value of the coconut by-products reported worldwide come up with inconsistent results. Instead of
focusing on improving their feeding value, we are also now looking at another side of the coin by
investigating mannose-based polysaccharides present in the coconut [4].
Over the last three decades, studies on the use of prebiotic from mannose-based polysaccharide have
been the main focus of animal nutritionists due to the resistance of antibiotic uses in poultry feed. The use
of prebiotic has come up as one of the choices to replace antibiotic growth promoter. Mannose based
carbohydrate from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been available in the market and its use has been
widespread and regarded as a pro-nutrient. However, mannose based carbohydrate from legume was
believed to be anti-nutrient and thus its inclusion in the diets downgraded the quality of the diet [5]. It
seems that mannose based carbohydrates had different phisyco-chemical properties, depending upon their
chemical structureand their origin. Since mannose based carbohydrates in the coconut were presents in
large quantity, a question needs to be addressed whether coconut mannose based polysaccharides behave
like yeast or legume-based polysaccharides ?. A number of recent findings confirmed that mannose based
polysaccharides from coconut could be used as prebiotic to replace antibiotic growth promoter.
2. Physical and nutritional profiles of coconut by-products
2.1. Physical profile
Database on nutrients profile of feedstuffs has well been recorded by NRC [6]. Therefore, formulating a
poultry diet was mainly based on NRC recommendation, either in the aspects of nutrient requirements or
nutrients contents of feed ingredients. Feed formulation for poultry recommended by NRC [6] produced,
in many cases, disappointing results, particularly when non-conventional raw materials were used. This is
because each ingredient possesses its own physical and biochemical characteristics Ezieshi and Olomu
[7]. Unfortunately, data on physical characteristics of feedstuffs were scarcely reported. Sundu et al. [8]
have initiated to list the physical characteristics of nine feedstuffs, but this might be the only report
available in the database.
Physical characteristics of feedstuffs (table 1) such as bulk density and water holding capacity can be
used as the quick predictors to determine the quality of the ingredients [9]. The association of these
physical characteristics with feed intake has long been believed [9,10] since the low bulk density and high
water holding capacity could deteriorate the nutritive value of the diets. These two physical characteristics
are possibly related to fibrous components. Bulky feed might occupy bigger space in the digestive tract of
chickens and high WHC diet might bind more water leading to the chickens having higher water intake.
Relationship between bulk density and feed intake was linearly correlated with the equation of Y =
985.44 X + 121.15 and R2= 0.9577 while the relationship between water holding capacity and feed
intake was Y = -62.57 X + 489.56 and R2 = 0.7951 [11]. A possible reason to elaborate on the decreased
intake due to these physical characteristics is that the ability of feedstuffs to bind water trigger the birds to
consume more water than the feed. Sundu et al. [11] fed birds with the diets with different water holding
capacity. The authors found that the birds fed with high water holding capacity consumed less feed.
Studies on the area of the effect of water holding capacity on growth performance of broilers were
limited. Robertson et al. [12] reported that a 20% lower body weight gain of broilers was found when the
chickens were offered a lower bulk density diet. Dansky [13] reported that fibrous diet did not negatively
affect the growth performance of birds provided that the bulk density was over 0.44 g/cm3. However, this
value of bulk density might not work in the modern strain of broilers with a higher growth rate. Sundu et
al. [11] offered diets with a bulk density of 0.53 g/cm3, but optimal growth could not be reached. The
authors recommended a diet with the bulk density of over 0.69 g/cm3.
2.2. Nutritional value of coconut meal
Coconut meal is the residue of the extraction of coconut oil. This by-product has long been used in
poultry diet. Results of the coconut meal use in the poultry diet come up with limited success due to the
fact that coconut meal quality varies widely according to its intrinsic nutrients, extraction process, and
storage conditions. Nutrients profiles of coconut meal are shown in tables 2 and 3.
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
3
Table 1. Physical characteristics of some feedstuffs
Feedstuffs Bulk density Water Holding Capacity Relative volume
(cm3/g)
Unmodified 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 1 mm
Copra meal 0.56 0.49 4.14 4.69 10.6
Titricale 0.69 0.65 3.08 3.47 6.3
Rye 0.73 0.57 2.32 3.36 5.8
Millrun 0.36 0.44 4.16 6.64 11.7
Palm kernel cake 0.67 0.57 2.93 3.52 6.9
Wheat 0.72 0.66 2.49 3.29 5.3
Fishmeal 0.55 0.53 1.64 1.51 5.0
Soybean meal 0.73 0.58 2.77 3.30 6.5
Corn 0.69 0.56 1.71 1.94 4.8
Source: Sundu et al. [11]
Table 2. Nutrient content of coconut meal
Fractions Percentage References
Dry matter 91-96 [6,14]
Crude protein 15-25 [6,14,15]
Gross energy 4,375 – 5,872 [6,14]
Metabolizable energy 1525 - 2179. [6,8]
Crude fibre 7-15 [6,14,16]
Lipid 4.77 - .6.9 [8,14]
Ash 6.7 – 8.0 [14,16]
Table 3. Amino acids profiles of coconut meal
Protein NRC [6] Lachanche and
Molina [17]
Sundu
[18]
Crude protein 19.2 21.9 21.7
Arginine 1.97 2.32 0.31
Cysteine 0.28 NC NC
Glycine 0.82 0.60 0.93
Histidine 0.36 0.24 0.57
Isoleucine 0.63 0.50 0.81
Leucine 1.18 0.99 1.59
Lysine 0.50 0.55 0.55
Methionine 0.28 0.31 0.33
Phenylanine 0.88 0.60 1.03
Threonine 0.58 0.48 0.84
Tyrosine 0.44 0.35 0.45
Serine 0.79 0.68 1.20
Valine 0.91 0.78 1.02
Tryptophane 0.12 0.14 NC
NC: not calculated
Protein contents of coconut meal were between15 and 25%. This relatively high protein of coconut
meal might be beneficial if the protein is available for the chickens. However, data on the solubility of
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
4
coconut meal indicate that the protein quality of coconut meal was low. Lachance and Molina [17]
reported a 35% solubility of coconut meal when it was extracted by using bromelain. Using Protease
enzyme could increase protein solubility of coconut meal to 45%. Our in-vivo study indicated the
protein digestibility of coconut meal was 55% when it was fed to broiler chickens. The low in essential
amino acids content only meets 45 – 50% and 34-62% of the methionine and lysine requirements [1]. The
low amino acids digestibility (table 2) and availability might be due to the fact that the amino acids
undergo heat damage due to drying and oil extraction processes.
Table 4. Nutrient digestibility of coconut meal
Nutrients Digestibility
Dry matter 44.7
Neutral Detergent Fibre 39.8
Jejunal viscosity (cP) 1.41
Apparent Metabolizable energy (Mj/kg) 9.12
Crude protein (%) 63.1
Arginine 85.6
Glycine 69.7
Histidine 61.4
Isoleucine 73.6
Leucine 76.1
Lysine 51.3
Methionine 71.1
Phenylanine 79.3
Threonine 63.0
Tyrosine 65.2
Serine 71.4
Valine 75.6
Source: Sundu [18]
Saittagaroon et al [19] identified the mono-saccharides profiles of coconut polysaccharides. The
authors reported that of the total carbohydrates present in coconut meal, 61% was polysaccharides,
containing 42% mannose and 58% glucose. Balasubramaniam [20] found that the majority of coconut
polysaccharides were mannan and galactomannan, being 26 and 61% respectively. Studies on the
extraction of coconut meal by using 24% NaOH [21] and 18% NaOH [22] generated residue as mannose-
based polysaccharides or mannan. We duplicated the procedure of Kusakabe and Takashi [21] in our
laboratory and found 29 to 34% residue as mannan [2]. These values were comparatively higher than
legume mannan (1.49 and 2.12% in soybean meal) and 31% yeast mannan [23, 24].
3. Growth performance of broilers fed the coconut-supplemented diets
Although coconut meal contains up to 25% protein, its quality was low due to the presences of Maillard
product and fibrous fraction such as mannan. These two components impaired the digestibility of the
nutrients. Since the coconut protein is partly located inside the cell wall and the protein might be damaged
due to heat treatments during oil extraction, the amino acids were not fully available for poultry.
Accordingly, the use of coconut meal in poultry diet could deteriorate the growth of 3-weeks old broiler
chicks [25]. Attempts to improve the quality of the coconut meal-containing diets have been done by
amino acids supplementation. Thomas and Scott [26] formulated a coconut diet with the addition of
lysine. The authors found an increased body weight gain of birds fed lysine-supplemented coconut diet.
However, the growth of birds was still far below the growth of birds fed the corn-soy diet. Sundu et al.
[11] even added the coconut diet with lysine and methionine, but the results were disappointing when it
was compared to the growth of birds fed the corn-based diet.
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
5
The failure to improve the quality of coconut meal diet by supplementation of amino acid in young
chicks is partly due to the smaller gut capacity of chicks and poor capability of young chicks to digest
nutrients entrapped inside the cell wall. It is not difficult to explain that when the gut is small and the
capability to digest fibrous components is low, the birds consume less feed and thus growth is impaired.
Addition of exogenous enzyme into the diet to break down the cell wall could logically beneficial to
improve the feeding value of the diet. Since β-mannan is present in coconut meal with relatively high
concentration, supplementation of the diet with mannan degrading enzymes could generate more
available carbohydrate for the broiler. An early study of Pluske et al. [27] on the use of mannan degrading
enzym in coconut containing diets indicated that the use of mannan-degrading enzyme increased body
weight of birds and decreased mortality. A more current study conducted by Sundu et al [25] indicated
that dry matter digestibility and AME of the diet was also increased.
The use of pelleting technology has been reported for more than 6 decades since Patten et al. [28]
published a report on the use of pelleted diets. The efficacy of this technology to improve the feeding
value of the diets has been well documented [29,30]. This improvement becomes evident when the
poultry was feed by a low bulk density diet. The improved broiler performance due to pelleting the diets
might be through a number of mechanisms, namely: increased feed intake, increased feed digestibility and
less energy spent. Pelleting coconut meal can be a way to improve its quality as this agricultural by-
product is bulky. Sundu et al. [11] pioneered a study of inclusion pelleted coconut meal in broiler diet.
They found that the growth performance of broiler chickens increased to the same level of the growth of
broiler chickens fed the corn-soy diet. These findings could be an indication that the main problem of
using coconut meal in poultry diet might be related to its physical properties rather than chemical
contents. Interestingly, when the pelleted coconut meal was reground and offered to broiler chickens, the
growth performance of birds was poor [11].
4. Coconut mannan as a pro-nutrient
The issue on the antibiotic resistance has triggered the animal nutritionists to replace the use of antibiotic
growth promoter in poultry diets. Several products such as prebiotic, probiotic and phytobiotic have
appeared in the market to tackle the problem of antibiotic resistance. Mannose based carbohydrates come
up as a replacer for antibiotic growth promoter. Studies on these products have been intensively reported
and the results of using mannose based carbohydrates as a growth promoter to replace antibiotic were
promising.
Mannose based polysaccharides or mannan in nature were mainly derived from three different sources,
namely legume mannan, yeast mannan and palm mannan. Mannans in legumes are usually present in the
form of galactomannan, having a beta linkage. The linkages were made up of a β (1-4) D-mannopyranose
units as a backbone and D-galactopyranose units attaching as a side chain [31]. Majority of mannan in
legumes has a large quantity of galactose unit with the mannose to galactose ratio of 1.63 in guar gum and
3.12 in soybean meal. The galactose units present in legume have the capability to strongly bind water
and thus make the solutions more viscous. It is well accepted that viscous substrate could block the
beneficial nutrients from intestinal enzymatic hydrolysis in the digestive tract of poultry. This condition
can downgrade the quality of the diet due to impaired digestibility. From this perspective, it could be said
that legume mannans are anti-nutrients and thus its inclusion in the diet deteriorated feed quality.
Mannan in yeast, on the other hand, is an alpha mannan, possessing a backbone of α (1-6) mannose
units and being substituted by α (1-2) and α (1-3) mannose units as side chains. This yeast mannan is
generally found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae [32]. Mannan from yeast has been believed to be a pro-
nutrient as this mannans have prebiotic properties [33]. Mannan in coconut is composed of β (1-4)
mannose units with a very small quantity of galactose unit in a side chain [34]. Since mannan from palm
nut has not been widely studied, its property might behave like one of the two mannans. The question
needs to be addressed here is what does exactly the palm mannan behave, like a legume mannan as anti-
nutrient or a yeast mannan as a pro-nutrient?
To answer this challenging question, Sundu et al. [35] extracted mannose based polysaccharides from
coconut and used it in broiler diets. The authors found that coconut mannan could effectively improve the
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
6
growth performance of broiler chickens. A study of Yamin [36] indicated that inclusion of 0.05% coconut
mannan in broiler diet improved body weight gain and feed conversion ratio by about 7 and 12%
respectively. More interestingly, supplementation of the diets with coconut mannan increased feed
digestibility by 2.5% and decreased fecal moisture by 5.5% (see table 4). Since wet droppings have been
the main concern in the poultry industry due to the fact that watery feces are the ideal habitat for bacterial
growth and thus increase the ammonia production [37].
Table 5. Broiler peformance improvements due to coconut mannan
supplementation
Variables Increase (%) Authors
Body weight gain +7.4 Yamin [36]
FCR -12 Yamin [36]
Feed intake +6.0 Yamin [36]
Dry matter digestibility +2.5 Sundu et al. [38]
Faecal moisture -5.5 Sundu et al. [38]
Caecal pH -6.8 Sundu et al. [38]
Abdominal fat -6.1 Kannan et al. [39]
The modus operandi of the increased growth of birds fed the coconut mannan – supplemented diets
might be through the increase in the health status of birds. The increased population of beneficial bacteria
and the reduction in the population of pathogenic bacteria were possibly the reasons for improved health
status. To maintain the minimal population of pathogenic bacteria in the gut, beneficial microbes
modified the microhabitat of the gut through the reduction in caecal pH. Once the pH of the gut dropped,
this environment favors the beneficial microbes to grow [40]. Addition of the diets with coconut mannan
was able to reduce caecal pH by 6.8% (table 4). The efficacy of coconut mannan to overcome the
pathogenic bacteria intervention become evident when the coconut mannan was offered to E.coli-
challenged broilers, their growth was not negatively affected, being the same growth as broilers fed the
commercial manno-oligosccahrides or antibiotic avilamycin [41].
Table 6. Effect of interaction between diet and E.coli challenge on body weight gain, feed intake, FCR
and excreta dry matter
Type of additive
E. coli
Variables
Body weight
gain (g)
Feed intake
(g)
FCR Excreta dry
matter (%)
Control - 479a 866a 1.82b 22.9a
+ 334b 679b 2.03a 14.9b
Control + PKP - 474a 812a 1.71b 23.8a
+ 469a 807a 1.72b 23.7a
Control + CP - 474a 813a 1.71b 24.9a
+ 471a 815a 1.73b 24.0a
Control + Avilamycin - 477a 804a 1.69b 25.0a
+ 470a 797a 1.70b 24.5a
Source: Sundu et al. [34]
Fitriyani [41] reported that the incidence of wet droppings, diarrhea and decreased weight were not
found in the E.Coli-challenged birds when coconut mannan was added into the diets [41]. Sundu et al.
[35] found that when control birds were offered E.coli in the drinking water for a week, their body weight
gain dropped. However, coconut mannan could maintain the growth of E.coli-challenged birds (See table
5). It seems that coconut mannan might improve the immune status of birds as this was found in the E.coli
– challenged birds fed the yeast manno-oligosaccharides diet [42]. Reasons for the improvement in
growth performance of mannooligosaccharides-supplemented birds were due to the capability of these
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
7
carbohydrates to bind pathogenic bacteria in the digestive tract of broilers and flush them out of the
cloaca. This can lead to an increased population of beneficial microbes in the gut. The increased immune
status was also found in the birds fed the yeast manno-ologosaccharides diet. The mechanism of improved
bird performance because of the supplementation of diets with coconut mannan is not yet understood
whether the improvement is due to the role of coconut mannan per se or coconut mannan undergoes
physical and chemical hydrolysis in the digestive tract of broilers to produce manno-oligosaccharide.
However, the production of mannooligosaccharides due to physical grinding in the gizzard and acid
hydrolysis in the proventriculus might be low. Accordingly, improved body weight gain of broiler
chickens was only statistically detected when the birds fed the 0.05% coconut mannan, below 0.05%, the
improvement of body weight was insignificant [43].
5. Conclusions
The use of coconut meal in broiler diet could positively affect the growth performance of broilers
provided that coconut meal was physically and enzymatically treated. Coconut mannan behaves like yeast
mannan as these two mannans could promote the growth of broilers, even when the birds were challenged
against E. coli contamination.
References
[1]FAO 2017 FAOSTAT Agriculture Data (Http://apps.fao.org)
[2]Sundu B, Hatta U and Chaudhry A S 2012 Potential use of beta mannan from copra meal as a feed
additive for broilers Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 68 707-16
[3]Sundu B 2009 Gastro-intestinal response and passage time of pelleted diets in the digestive tract of
broilers Int. J. Poult. Sci. 8 976-9
[4]Sundu B, Hatta U, Bahry S and Damry H B 2018 Effect of palm polyssacharides on growth
performance, feed digestibility and carcass percentage of broilers Int. J. Poult. Sci. 17 57-62
[5]Jackson M E, Fodge D W and Hsiao H Y 1999 Effects of ß-mannanase in corn soybean meal diets
on laying hen performance Poult. Sci. 7 1737- 41
[6]NRC 1994 Nutrient Requirements of Poultry (Washington DC: National Academy Press)
[7]Ezieshi E V and Olomu J M 2004 Comparative performance of broilers chickens fed farying levels
of palm kernel meal and maize offal Pak. J. Nutr. 3 254-7
[8]Sundu B, Kumar A and Dingle J 2005 Comparisons of feeding values of palm kernel meals and
copra meal for broilers Recent Advan. Anim. Nutr. Australia 15 28
[9]Mratz F R, Boucher R V and McCartney M G 1957 The influence of the energy: volume ratio on
growth response in chickens Poult. Sci. 36 1217-21
[10]Kyriazakis I and Emmans G C 1995 The voluntary feed intake of pigs given feed based on wheat
bran, dried citrus pulp and grass meal, in relation to measurements of feed bulk Br. J. Nutr. 73
191-207
[11]Sundu B, Kumar A and Dingle J 2005 The importance of physical characteristics of feed for young
broilers Queensland Poult. Sci. Symp. 12 63-75
[12]Robertson E I, Miller R F and Heuser G F 1948 The relation of energy to fibre in chick rations Poult.
Sci. 27 736-41
[13]Dansky L M 1952 Factors affecting the energy requirement of growing chicks Thesis (NewYork:
Cornell University)
[14]Carvalho L F, Melo D S P, Pereira C R M, Rodrigues M A M, Cabrita A R J and Fonseca A J M
2005 Chemical composition, in vivo digestibility, N degradability and enzymatic intestinal
digestibility of five protein supplements Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 119 171-8
[15]Thorne P J, Wiseman J, Cole D J A and Machin D H 1989 The digestible and metabolisable energy
value of copra meals and their prediction from chemical composition Anim. Prod. 49 459-66
[16]Panigrahi S, Machin D H, Parr W H and Bainton J 1987 Responses of broiler chicks to dietary copra
cake of high lipid content Br. Poult. Sci. 28 589-600
[17]Lachanche and Molina 1974 Lachance P A and Molina M R 1974 Nutritive value of a fibre-free
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
8
coconut protein extract obtained by an enzymatic chemical method J. Food Sci 39 581-4
[18]Sundu B 2008 Amino acid digestibilities of copra meal by Poultry J. Agripet. 8 16-20
[19]Saittagaroon S, Kawakishi S and Namiki M 1983 Characterisation of polysaccharides of copra meal
J. Sci. Food Agric. 34 855-60
[20]Balasubramaniam K 1976 Polysaccharides of the kernel of maturing and matured coconuts
J. Food Sci 41 1370-3
[21]Kusakabe I and Takashi R 1988 Enzymatic preparation beta 1-4 mannooligosaccharides and beta 1-4
gluco-mannooligosaccharides Meth. Enzymol. 160 518-23
[22]Velasco J R and Meimban J 1989 Studies on coconut SAPAL III Mannan in the developing nut
Philippine J. Coconut Studies 14 23-5
[23]Hsiao H Y, Anderson D M and Dale N M 2006 Levels of B-mannan in soybean meal Poult. Sci. 85
1430-2
[24]White L A, Newman M C, Cromwell G L and Lindeman M D 2002 Brewer’s dried yeast as a source
of mannan oligosaccharydes for weanling pigs J. Anim. Sci. 80 2619-28
[25]Sundu B, Kumar A and Dingle J 2006 Response of broiler chicks fed increasing levels of copra meal
and enzymes Int. J. Poult. Sci. 5 13-8
[26]Thomas O A, and Scott M L 1962 Coconut oil meal as a protein supplement in practical poultry
diets Poultry Sci. 41 477 – 84.
[27] Pluske J R, Moughan P J, Thomas D V, Kumar A and Dingle J G 1997 Releasing energy from rice
bran, copra meal and canola in diets using exogenous enzymes. In Proc. the 13th Annual Alltech
symposium (Nottingham, UK: Nottingham University Press) pp 81-94
[28]Patten J W, Buskirk H H and Rauls L A 1937 A study of the relative merits of pellets and mash
poultry feeds Vet. Med. 32 423-7
[29]Callet C 1965 The relative value of pellets versus mash and grain in poultry nutrition Worlds Poult.
Sci. J. 21 23-52
[30]McCracken K J 2002 Effects of physical processing on the nutritive value of poultry diets. In:
Poultry Feeds, Supply, Composition and Nutritive Value, ed J. M. McNab and K. N. Boorman
(New York: CAB International) pp 301-16.
[31]Kapoor V P, Taravel F R, Joseleau J P, Milas M, Chanzy H and Rinaudo M 1998 Cassia spectabilis
DC seed galactomannan: structural, crystallographic and rheological studies. Carbohydrate
Research 306 231-41
[32]Cawley T N and Ballou C E 1972 Identification of two Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall mannan
chemotypes J. Bacteriol. 111 690-5
[33]Lyons T P 2002 A feed industry Kakumei Navigating from niche markets to mainstream Proc.
Alltech’s 16th Anuual Asia Pacific Lecture Tour pp 1-16
[34]Southgate D A T 1991 Determination of food carbohydrates (New York: Elsevier Science)
[35]Sundu B, Bahry S, Dien R 2018 Indonesian center for animal science research and development
(ICARD) Palm Polysaccharides in the Diet of Broilers Challenged Against Escherichia coli (A
Preliminary Study) ( Bali: Kementerian Pertanian)
[36]Yamin M 2010 Pengaruh bentuk fisik ransum yang mengandung beberapa pronutrisis terhadap
performans ayam pedaging Thesis (Palu: Universitas Tadulako)
[37]Butcher and Miles 2011 Causes and preventions of wet liiter in broiler houses (Florida, USA:
University of Florida: IFAS Extention)
[38]Sundu B, Kumar A and Dingle J 2009 Feeding value of copra meal for broilers Worlds Poult. Sci. J.
65 481-91
[39]Kannan M, Karunakaran R, Balakrishnan V and Prabhakar T G 2005 Influence of prebiotics
supplementation on lipid profile of broilers J. Poult. Sci. 4 (12) 994-7
[40]Immerseel F V, Russel J B, Flythe M D, Gantois I, Timbermont L, Pasmans F, Haesebrouck F and
Ducatelle R 2006 The use of organic acids to combat salmonella in Poultry: a mechanistic
explanation of the efficacy Avian Pathol. 35 182-8
[41]Fitryany 2010 Ekstrak beta mannan dari bungkil kelapa (Cocos nucifera L) sebagai pengganti beta
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
9
mannan komersial dan anti biotic untuk meningkatkan kesehatan ayam broiler Thesis (Palu:
Universitas Tadulako)
[42]De Lange C F M 2000 Overview of determinants of the nutritional value of feed ingredients. In:
Feed evaluation, principles and practice, ed P J Moughan, M W A Vestergen and M I Visser-
Reyneveld (The Nederlands:Wageningen Press) pp 17-32
[43]Sundu B dan Damry H B 2008 Ekstrak beta mannan dari kelapa sebagai pengganti antibiotik untuk
unggas. Laporan penelitian Fundamental (Palu: Tadulako University)