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Coconut meal as a feed ingredient and source of prebiotic for poultry

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The low quality protein of coconut meal, coupled with high fibre content, leads to limited use of this agricultural by-product in the poultry diet. Attempts to maximize the amount of coconut meal included in the broiler feed have been made through amino acids supplementation, enzyme addition and pelleting coconut meal. Among these feed technologies and manipulation, pelleting coconut meal appears to be more powerful in promoting the growth of broiler chickens. The reasons for the improvement of broiler growth due to pelleting coconut meal have not been established yet. The mechanisms of improved growth of birds might be through increased feed intake, less energy spent and increased bulk density. Coconut meal contains a high concentration of mannose – based polysaccharides or mannan. This substance has long been believed to have prebiotic properties due to its capability to bind certain species of pathogenic bacteria in the digestive tract of birds. Voluminous reports of the positive effects of mannose-based polysaccharides from yeast have been published. Mannose –based polysaccharides from legumes, on the other hand, have been reported to have anti-nutrient property. Surprisingly, mannose-based polysaccharides from coconut behave like yeast mannan. A number of current studies indicated that mannose based polysaccharides improved body weight gain and feed digestibility. The growth of birds was negatively impacted when the birds were challenged against pathogenic bacteria of E. coli . Wet droppings and diarrhea incidences were not found in E. coli -challenged birds when the diets were supplemented with coconut mannan. In conclusions, coconut meal can be used as a feed ingredient for poultry unless the coconut meal was pelleted or enzymatically treated. Mannose-based polysaccharide from coconut was effective to promote growth and acted as prebiotic.
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Coconut meal as a feed ingredient and source of prebiotic for poultry
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The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
1
Coconut meal as a feed ingredient and source of prebiotic for
poultry
B Sundu, U Hatta, S Mozin, N Toana, Hafsah, Marhaeni and S Sarjuni
Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Fishery, University of Tadulako, Palu, Indonesia
Email: b_sundu@yahoo.com
Abstract. The low quality protein of coconut meal, coupled with high fibre content, leads to
limited use of this agricultural by-product in the poultry diet. Attempts to maximize the amount of
coconut meal included in the broiler feed have been made through amino acids supplementation,
enzyme addition and pelleting coconut meal. Among these feed technologies and manipulation,
pelleting coconut meal appears to be more powerful in promoting the growth of broiler chickens.
The reasons for the improvement of broiler growth due to pelleting coconut meal have not been
established yet. The mechanisms of improved growth of birds might be through increased feed
intake, less energy spent and increased bulk density. Coconut meal contains a high concentration
of mannose – based polysaccharides or mannan. This substance has long been believed to have
prebiotic properties due to its capability to bind certain species of pathogenic bacteria in the
digestive tract of birds. Voluminous reports of the positive effects of mannose-based
polysaccharides from yeast have been published. Mannose –based polysaccharides from legumes,
on the other hand, have been reported to have anti-nutrient property. Surprisingly, mannose-based
polysaccharides from coconut behave like yeast mannan. A number of current studies indicated
that mannose based polysaccharides improved body weight gain and feed digestibility. The growth
of birds was negatively impacted when the birds were challenged against pathogenic bacteria of E.
coli. Wet droppings and diarrhea incidences were not found in E. coli-challenged birds when the
diets were supplemented with coconut mannan. In conclusions, coconut meal can be used as a feed
ingredient for poultry unless the coconut meal was pelleted or enzymatically treated. Mannose-
based polysaccharide from coconut was effective to promote growth and acted as prebiotic.
1. Introduction
Global production of coconut in 2017 was 60.8 million tons and 31.2% of the production was contributed
by Indonesia [1]. Today, Indonesia has been the largest coconut producer in the world. The valuable
product of coconut is coconut oil, derived from the meat of the nut. Two common ways to produce
coconut oil in Indonesia are through wet and dry processes, generating coconut dregs and copra cake
respectively. Although these two coconut by-products are abundantly produced in the coconut-producing
provinces in Indonesia, their utilization in poultry feed is still limited due to the presence of fibrous
carbohydrates, particularly mannose-based polysaccharides [2] and thus negatively affected the passage
time of the diets in the digestive tract of broilers [3].
Attempts to optimize the use of coconut by-products such as copra cake and coconut dregs have been
the main concern in our laboratory over the last two decades. Nutritional manipulation, biological
treatment, physical modification and enzymatic application were some of the ways used in our laboratory
to improve the feeding value of these agricultural by-products. Research on the improvement of nutritive
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
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doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
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value of the coconut by-products reported worldwide come up with inconsistent results. Instead of
focusing on improving their feeding value, we are also now looking at another side of the coin by
investigating mannose-based polysaccharides present in the coconut [4].
Over the last three decades, studies on the use of prebiotic from mannose-based polysaccharide have
been the main focus of animal nutritionists due to the resistance of antibiotic uses in poultry feed. The use
of prebiotic has come up as one of the choices to replace antibiotic growth promoter. Mannose based
carbohydrate from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been available in the market and its use has been
widespread and regarded as a pro-nutrient. However, mannose based carbohydrate from legume was
believed to be anti-nutrient and thus its inclusion in the diets downgraded the quality of the diet [5]. It
seems that mannose based carbohydrates had different phisyco-chemical properties, depending upon their
chemical structureand their origin. Since mannose based carbohydrates in the coconut were presents in
large quantity, a question needs to be addressed whether coconut mannose based polysaccharides behave
like yeast or legume-based polysaccharides ?. A number of recent findings confirmed that mannose based
polysaccharides from coconut could be used as prebiotic to replace antibiotic growth promoter.
2. Physical and nutritional profiles of coconut by-products
2.1. Physical profile
Database on nutrients profile of feedstuffs has well been recorded by NRC [6]. Therefore, formulating a
poultry diet was mainly based on NRC recommendation, either in the aspects of nutrient requirements or
nutrients contents of feed ingredients. Feed formulation for poultry recommended by NRC [6] produced,
in many cases, disappointing results, particularly when non-conventional raw materials were used. This is
because each ingredient possesses its own physical and biochemical characteristics Ezieshi and Olomu
[7]. Unfortunately, data on physical characteristics of feedstuffs were scarcely reported. Sundu et al. [8]
have initiated to list the physical characteristics of nine feedstuffs, but this might be the only report
available in the database.
Physical characteristics of feedstuffs (table 1) such as bulk density and water holding capacity can be
used as the quick predictors to determine the quality of the ingredients [9]. The association of these
physical characteristics with feed intake has long been believed [9,10] since the low bulk density and high
water holding capacity could deteriorate the nutritive value of the diets. These two physical characteristics
are possibly related to fibrous components. Bulky feed might occupy bigger space in the digestive tract of
chickens and high WHC diet might bind more water leading to the chickens having higher water intake.
Relationship between bulk density and feed intake was linearly correlated with the equation of Y =
985.44 X + 121.15 and R2= 0.9577 while the relationship between water holding capacity and feed
intake was Y = -62.57 X + 489.56 and R2 = 0.7951 [11]. A possible reason to elaborate on the decreased
intake due to these physical characteristics is that the ability of feedstuffs to bind water trigger the birds to
consume more water than the feed. Sundu et al. [11] fed birds with the diets with different water holding
capacity. The authors found that the birds fed with high water holding capacity consumed less feed.
Studies on the area of the effect of water holding capacity on growth performance of broilers were
limited. Robertson et al. [12] reported that a 20% lower body weight gain of broilers was found when the
chickens were offered a lower bulk density diet. Dansky [13] reported that fibrous diet did not negatively
affect the growth performance of birds provided that the bulk density was over 0.44 g/cm3. However, this
value of bulk density might not work in the modern strain of broilers with a higher growth rate. Sundu et
al. [11] offered diets with a bulk density of 0.53 g/cm3, but optimal growth could not be reached. The
authors recommended a diet with the bulk density of over 0.69 g/cm3.
2.2. Nutritional value of coconut meal
Coconut meal is the residue of the extraction of coconut oil. This by-product has long been used in
poultry diet. Results of the coconut meal use in the poultry diet come up with limited success due to the
fact that coconut meal quality varies widely according to its intrinsic nutrients, extraction process, and
storage conditions. Nutrients profiles of coconut meal are shown in tables 2 and 3.
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Table 1. Physical characteristics of some feedstuffs
Feedstuffs Bulk density Water Holding Capacity Relative volume
(cm3/g)
Unmodified 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 1 mm
Copra meal 0.56 0.49 4.14 4.69 10.6
Titricale 0.69 0.65 3.08 3.47 6.3
Rye 0.73 0.57 2.32 3.36 5.8
Millrun 0.36 0.44 4.16 6.64 11.7
Palm kernel cake 0.67 0.57 2.93 3.52 6.9
Wheat 0.72 0.66 2.49 3.29 5.3
Fishmeal 0.55 0.53 1.64 1.51 5.0
Soybean meal 0.73 0.58 2.77 3.30 6.5
Corn 0.69 0.56 1.71 1.94 4.8
Source: Sundu et al. [11]
Table 2. Nutrient content of coconut meal
Fractions Percentage References
Dry matter 91-96 [6,14]
Crude protein 15-25 [6,14,15]
Gross energy 4,375 – 5,872 [6,14]
Metabolizable energy 1525 - 2179. [6,8]
Crude fibre 7-15 [6,14,16]
Lipid 4.77 - .6.9 [8,14]
Ash 6.7 8.0 [14,16]
Table 3. Amino acids profiles of coconut meal
Protein NRC [6] Lachanche and
Molina [17]
Sundu
[18]
Crude protein 19.2 21.9 21.7
Arginine 1.97 2.32 0.31
Cysteine 0.28 NC NC
Glycine 0.82 0.60 0.93
Histidine 0.36 0.24 0.57
Isoleucine 0.63 0.50 0.81
Leucine 1.18 0.99 1.59
Lysine 0.50 0.55 0.55
Methionine 0.28 0.31 0.33
Phenylanine 0.88 0.60 1.03
Threonine 0.58 0.48 0.84
Tyrosine 0.44 0.35 0.45
Serine 0.79 0.68 1.20
Valine 0.91 0.78 1.02
Tryptophane 0.12 0.14 NC
NC: not calculated
Protein contents of coconut meal were between15 and 25%. This relatively high protein of coconut
meal might be beneficial if the protein is available for the chickens. However, data on the solubility of
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
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doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
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coconut meal indicate that the protein quality of coconut meal was low. Lachance and Molina [17]
reported a 35% solubility of coconut meal when it was extracted by using bromelain. Using Protease
enzyme could increase protein solubility of coconut meal to 45%. Our in-vivo study indicated the
protein digestibility of coconut meal was 55% when it was fed to broiler chickens. The low in essential
amino acids content only meets 45 – 50% and 34-62% of the methionine and lysine requirements [1]. The
low amino acids digestibility (table 2) and availability might be due to the fact that the amino acids
undergo heat damage due to drying and oil extraction processes.
Table 4. Nutrient digestibility of coconut meal
Nutrients Digestibility
Dry matter 44.7
Neutral Detergent Fibre 39.8
Jejunal viscosity (cP) 1.41
Apparent Metabolizable energy (Mj/kg) 9.12
Crude protein (%) 63.1
Arginine 85.6
Glycine 69.7
Histidine 61.4
Isoleucine 73.6
Leucine 76.1
Lysine 51.3
Methionine 71.1
Phenylanine 79.3
Threonine 63.0
Tyrosine 65.2
Serine 71.4
Valine 75.6
Source: Sundu [18]
Saittagaroon et al [19] identified the mono-saccharides profiles of coconut polysaccharides. The
authors reported that of the total carbohydrates present in coconut meal, 61% was polysaccharides,
containing 42% mannose and 58% glucose. Balasubramaniam [20] found that the majority of coconut
polysaccharides were mannan and galactomannan, being 26 and 61% respectively. Studies on the
extraction of coconut meal by using 24% NaOH [21] and 18% NaOH [22] generated residue as mannose-
based polysaccharides or mannan. We duplicated the procedure of Kusakabe and Takashi [21] in our
laboratory and found 29 to 34% residue as mannan [2]. These values were comparatively higher than
legume mannan (1.49 and 2.12% in soybean meal) and 31% yeast mannan [23, 24].
3. Growth performance of broilers fed the coconut-supplemented diets
Although coconut meal contains up to 25% protein, its quality was low due to the presences of Maillard
product and fibrous fraction such as mannan. These two components impaired the digestibility of the
nutrients. Since the coconut protein is partly located inside the cell wall and the protein might be damaged
due to heat treatments during oil extraction, the amino acids were not fully available for poultry.
Accordingly, the use of coconut meal in poultry diet could deteriorate the growth of 3-weeks old broiler
chicks [25]. Attempts to improve the quality of the coconut meal-containing diets have been done by
amino acids supplementation. Thomas and Scott [26] formulated a coconut diet with the addition of
lysine. The authors found an increased body weight gain of birds fed lysine-supplemented coconut diet.
However, the growth of birds was still far below the growth of birds fed the corn-soy diet. Sundu et al.
[11] even added the coconut diet with lysine and methionine, but the results were disappointing when it
was compared to the growth of birds fed the corn-based diet.
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doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
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The failure to improve the quality of coconut meal diet by supplementation of amino acid in young
chicks is partly due to the smaller gut capacity of chicks and poor capability of young chicks to digest
nutrients entrapped inside the cell wall. It is not difficult to explain that when the gut is small and the
capability to digest fibrous components is low, the birds consume less feed and thus growth is impaired.
Addition of exogenous enzyme into the diet to break down the cell wall could logically beneficial to
improve the feeding value of the diet. Since β-mannan is present in coconut meal with relatively high
concentration, supplementation of the diet with mannan degrading enzymes could generate more
available carbohydrate for the broiler. An early study of Pluske et al. [27] on the use of mannan degrading
enzym in coconut containing diets indicated that the use of mannan-degrading enzyme increased body
weight of birds and decreased mortality. A more current study conducted by Sundu et al [25] indicated
that dry matter digestibility and AME of the diet was also increased.
The use of pelleting technology has been reported for more than 6 decades since Patten et al. [28]
published a report on the use of pelleted diets. The efficacy of this technology to improve the feeding
value of the diets has been well documented [29,30]. This improvement becomes evident when the
poultry was feed by a low bulk density diet. The improved broiler performance due to pelleting the diets
might be through a number of mechanisms, namely: increased feed intake, increased feed digestibility and
less energy spent. Pelleting coconut meal can be a way to improve its quality as this agricultural by-
product is bulky. Sundu et al. [11] pioneered a study of inclusion pelleted coconut meal in broiler diet.
They found that the growth performance of broiler chickens increased to the same level of the growth of
broiler chickens fed the corn-soy diet. These findings could be an indication that the main problem of
using coconut meal in poultry diet might be related to its physical properties rather than chemical
contents. Interestingly, when the pelleted coconut meal was reground and offered to broiler chickens, the
growth performance of birds was poor [11].
4. Coconut mannan as a pro-nutrient
The issue on the antibiotic resistance has triggered the animal nutritionists to replace the use of antibiotic
growth promoter in poultry diets. Several products such as prebiotic, probiotic and phytobiotic have
appeared in the market to tackle the problem of antibiotic resistance. Mannose based carbohydrates come
up as a replacer for antibiotic growth promoter. Studies on these products have been intensively reported
and the results of using mannose based carbohydrates as a growth promoter to replace antibiotic were
promising.
Mannose based polysaccharides or mannan in nature were mainly derived from three different sources,
namely legume mannan, yeast mannan and palm mannan. Mannans in legumes are usually present in the
form of galactomannan, having a beta linkage. The linkages were made up of a β (1-4) D-mannopyranose
units as a backbone and D-galactopyranose units attaching as a side chain [31]. Majority of mannan in
legumes has a large quantity of galactose unit with the mannose to galactose ratio of 1.63 in guar gum and
3.12 in soybean meal. The galactose units present in legume have the capability to strongly bind water
and thus make the solutions more viscous. It is well accepted that viscous substrate could block the
beneficial nutrients from intestinal enzymatic hydrolysis in the digestive tract of poultry. This condition
can downgrade the quality of the diet due to impaired digestibility. From this perspective, it could be said
that legume mannans are anti-nutrients and thus its inclusion in the diet deteriorated feed quality.
Mannan in yeast, on the other hand, is an alpha mannan, possessing a backbone of α (1-6) mannose
units and being substituted by α (1-2) and α (1-3) mannose units as side chains. This yeast mannan is
generally found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae [32]. Mannan from yeast has been believed to be a pro-
nutrient as this mannans have prebiotic properties [33]. Mannan in coconut is composed of β (1-4)
mannose units with a very small quantity of galactose unit in a side chain [34]. Since mannan from palm
nut has not been widely studied, its property might behave like one of the two mannans. The question
needs to be addressed here is what does exactly the palm mannan behave, like a legume mannan as anti-
nutrient or a yeast mannan as a pro-nutrient?
To answer this challenging question, Sundu et al. [35] extracted mannose based polysaccharides from
coconut and used it in broiler diets. The authors found that coconut mannan could effectively improve the
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
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doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
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growth performance of broiler chickens. A study of Yamin [36] indicated that inclusion of 0.05% coconut
mannan in broiler diet improved body weight gain and feed conversion ratio by about 7 and 12%
respectively. More interestingly, supplementation of the diets with coconut mannan increased feed
digestibility by 2.5% and decreased fecal moisture by 5.5% (see table 4). Since wet droppings have been
the main concern in the poultry industry due to the fact that watery feces are the ideal habitat for bacterial
growth and thus increase the ammonia production [37].
Table 5. Broiler peformance improvements due to coconut mannan
supplementation
Variables Increase (%) Authors
Body weight gain +7.4 Yamin [36]
FCR -12 Yamin [36]
Feed intake +6.0 Yamin [36]
Dry matter digestibility +2.5 Sundu et al. [38]
Faecal moisture -5.5 Sundu et al. [38]
Caecal pH -6.8 Sundu et al. [38]
Abdominal fat -6.1 Kannan et al. [39]
The modus operandi of the increased growth of birds fed the coconut mannan – supplemented diets
might be through the increase in the health status of birds. The increased population of beneficial bacteria
and the reduction in the population of pathogenic bacteria were possibly the reasons for improved health
status. To maintain the minimal population of pathogenic bacteria in the gut, beneficial microbes
modified the microhabitat of the gut through the reduction in caecal pH. Once the pH of the gut dropped,
this environment favors the beneficial microbes to grow [40]. Addition of the diets with coconut mannan
was able to reduce caecal pH by 6.8% (table 4). The efficacy of coconut mannan to overcome the
pathogenic bacteria intervention become evident when the coconut mannan was offered to E.coli-
challenged broilers, their growth was not negatively affected, being the same growth as broilers fed the
commercial manno-oligosccahrides or antibiotic avilamycin [41].
Table 6. Effect of interaction between diet and E.coli challenge on body weight gain, feed intake, FCR
and excreta dry matter
Type of additive
E. coli
Variables
Body weight
gain (g)
Feed intake
(g)
FCR Excreta dry
matter (%)
Control - 479a 866a 1.82b 22.9a
+ 334b 679b 2.03a 14.9b
Control + PKP - 474a 812a 1.71b 23.8a
+ 469a 807a 1.72b 23.7a
Control + CP - 474a 813a 1.71b 24.9a
+ 471a 815a 1.73b 24.0a
Control + Avilamycin - 477a 804a 1.69b 25.0a
+ 470a 797a 1.70b 24.5a
Source: Sundu et al. [34]
Fitriyani [41] reported that the incidence of wet droppings, diarrhea and decreased weight were not
found in the E.Coli-challenged birds when coconut mannan was added into the diets [41]. Sundu et al.
[35] found that when control birds were offered E.coli in the drinking water for a week, their body weight
gain dropped. However, coconut mannan could maintain the growth of E.coli-challenged birds (See table
5). It seems that coconut mannan might improve the immune status of birds as this was found in the E.coli
– challenged birds fed the yeast manno-oligosaccharides diet [42]. Reasons for the improvement in
growth performance of mannooligosaccharides-supplemented birds were due to the capability of these
The 2nd International Conference of Animal Science and Technology
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 492 (2020) 012126
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doi:10.1088/1755-1315/492/1/012126
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carbohydrates to bind pathogenic bacteria in the digestive tract of broilers and flush them out of the
cloaca. This can lead to an increased population of beneficial microbes in the gut. The increased immune
status was also found in the birds fed the yeast manno-ologosaccharides diet. The mechanism of improved
bird performance because of the supplementation of diets with coconut mannan is not yet understood
whether the improvement is due to the role of coconut mannan per se or coconut mannan undergoes
physical and chemical hydrolysis in the digestive tract of broilers to produce manno-oligosaccharide.
However, the production of mannooligosaccharides due to physical grinding in the gizzard and acid
hydrolysis in the proventriculus might be low. Accordingly, improved body weight gain of broiler
chickens was only statistically detected when the birds fed the 0.05% coconut mannan, below 0.05%, the
improvement of body weight was insignificant [43].
5. Conclusions
The use of coconut meal in broiler diet could positively affect the growth performance of broilers
provided that coconut meal was physically and enzymatically treated. Coconut mannan behaves like yeast
mannan as these two mannans could promote the growth of broilers, even when the birds were challenged
against E. coli contamination.
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... Use of CM is not limited to ruminants' diet, rather it extends to nonruminants with their prebiotic properties (Sundu, Hatta, Mozin, Toana, & Sarjuni, 2020). The broiler birds seem to be more sensitive to CM feeding than those of layers and swine which also cannot perform well under higher inclusion levels. ...
... The findings are also supported by Diarra and Anand (Diarra & Anand, 2020) who noted feed efficiency in both grower and finisher phases deteriorated when commercial broiler diet was diluted with 10% CM, although feed intake remained unaffected. Sundu et al. (Sundu et al., 2020) mentioned that this behaviour was mainly due to physical properties of the CM rather than chemical properties or nutritive value. Despite of negative effects on production performance of broiler, meat quality either remains unaffected or improves in terms of less abdominal fat deposition upon addition of CM (Diarra, Sandakabatu, Perera, Tabuaciri, & Mohammed, 2015;Hoffman Mael, DIarra, & Devi, 2020). ...
Chapter
Various palm trees are cultivated worldwide and contribute to the economic development of different countries mainly located in Asia, America, and Africa. The main species include oil palm, date palm and coconut palm. These palm trees and their processing fruits generate huge amounts of biowastes that could be turned into values in different domains such as energy recovery, agricultural soil amendment and environment preservation. In this chapter, the latest developments on palm derived wastes conversion into efficient adsorbents for wastewaters treatment are reviewed. The impact of the nature of the palm waste, as well as the physico-chemical-thermal modification procedure on the derived carbonaceous materials (biochars, hydrochars and activated carbons) are analyzed. The adsorbents performance under various experimental conditions, for the pollutants and nutrients capture is also summarized.\r\nThis chapter shows that the properties of the palm-derived adsorbents depend not only on the nature of the feedstock, but especially on the employed modification method. The best removal efficiencies for both organic and mineral pollutants from wastewaters were obtained for hybrid modification methods and relatively high activation temperatures. Moreover, it is shown that further investigations on the modifications methods optimization, especially the activated agent nature (CO2, H2O, HNO3, etc.) and the thermal conditions (temperature, and residence time) is required. The test of pilot dynamic set-ups (such as columns and continuous stirring tank reactors) for the removal of pollutants from real contaminated wastewaters is also well recommended. Finally, the test of the reuse of loaded-palm-derived adsorbents with nutrients recovered form wastewaters in agriculture would be an excellent option towards the sustainability and the circular economy promotion.
... Use of CM is not limited to ruminants' diet, rather it extends to nonruminants with their prebiotic properties (Sundu, Hatta, Mozin, Toana, & Sarjuni, 2020). The broiler birds seem to be more sensitive to CM feeding than those of layers and swine which also cannot perform well under higher inclusion levels. ...
... The findings are also supported by Diarra and Anand (Diarra & Anand, 2020) who noted feed efficiency in both grower and finisher phases deteriorated when commercial broiler diet was diluted with 10% CM, although feed intake remained unaffected. Sundu et al. (Sundu et al., 2020) mentioned that this behaviour was mainly due to physical properties of the CM rather than chemical properties or nutritive value. Despite of negative effects on production performance of broiler, meat quality either remains unaffected or improves in terms of less abdominal fat deposition upon addition of CM (Diarra, Sandakabatu, Perera, Tabuaciri, & Mohammed, 2015;Hoffman Mael, DIarra, & Devi, 2020). ...
Chapter
Livestock animals are able to utilize non-conventional feed resources in order to convert them into valuable food items like milk, meat and eggs. Palms are a very diverse group of trees, shrubs and vines especially in tropics which produce variety of waste products during their cultivation, harvesting and industrial processes. The main species include oil palm (Elaesis guineensis and Elaesis melanococca), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), and date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). Due to their bulky nature, the wastes can cause public health problems and environmental pollution if not disposed properly. Although, some of these residues are being used for different purposes, none of their uses is as sustainable as dietary ingredient for animals. However, the fibrous nature of majority of these residues limit their use in animal feeding, whereas, a number of physical, chemical and biological treatments effectively enhance their nutritive value and palatability.
... 17 Coconut meal also contains various soluble sugars, such as glucose, mannose, galactose and arabinose, 18 dozens of amino acids, and an abundance of minerals and vitamins. 19 These nutrients are a good substrate for mushrooms because they can act as precursors for fungal metabolism. This suggested that coconut meal can be used as a supplementary material to sawdust; therefore, it can enhance the mycelial growth of oyster mushrooms. ...
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Thailand is one of the major agricultural production countries in the world. Therefore, large amounts of agricultural waste are generated as by-products of the agroindustry. The wastes are usually discarded or burnt, resulting in environmental pollution. The main goal of this research was to evaluate the use of agricultural waste for mushroom cultivation. A total of 15 mushroom isolates were recovered from mother spawns and basidiocarps. They were screened for their cellulolytic enzyme activity on Czapek agar using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as the sole carbon source. Two isolates of the oyster mushrooms, Pleurotus pulmonarius PP6 and Pleurotus ostreatus PO3, produced the best enzyme activities. To observe the mycelial growth on agricultural waste, the two oyster mushroom candidates were cultured in jars containing five different types of agricultural waste: corn husk, rice straw, coconut meal, coconut husk and sugarcane bagasse, and the jars were incubated at 25°C for six weeks. The results show that both isolates grew best on coconut meal, producing very densely packed mycelia. Meanwhile, corn husk and rice straw were also good sources for oyster mushroom cultivation. This study shows that these three substrates have the potential to be utilized in mushroom cultivation on a commercial scale.
... Our findings showed that dietary coconut oils up to 1.5 ml/kg significantly improved body weight and weight gain compared to a control group, this might be due to the bioactive compounds in coconut oil 13,14 . On the same context, use of coconut oil in broiler diets increased the growth rate during the 1-21-days period (9.9%) compared the fish oil-diet 8 . ...
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The aim of this study is to evaluate the beneficial effects of coconut essential oil on growth performance, carcass criteria, antioxidant status, and immune response of broiler chicks. A total of 192 un-sexed 7-days broiler chicks were divided into six treatment sets with four copies of 8 chicks per set. The groups were as follows: (1) basal diet (without additive), (2) basal diet plus 0.5 ml coconut essential oil/kg, (3) basal diet plus 1 ml coconut essential oil/kg, (4) basal diet plus 1.5 ml coconut essential oil/kg, (5) basal diet plus 2 ml coconut essential oil/kg and (6) basal diet plus 2.5 ml coconut essential oil/kg. The results showed that the most prevalent compound in coconut oil is 6-Octadecenoic acid (oleic acid) representing 46.44% followed 2(3H)-Furanone, dihydro-5-pentyl- (CAS) (11.36%), Hexadecanoic acid (CAS) (4.71%), and vanillin (2.53%). Dietary 1 and 1.5 ml of coconut oil improved significantly the body weight and gain of broiler chickens. Dietary supplementation of 1 ml of coconut oil improved significantly liver function compared to control and other treatment groups. The supplementation with 1 ml coconut oil significantly reduced TG and VLDL compared to control and other treatment groups, while no significant differences in TC, HDL, and LDL due to dietary coconut oil. The present findings showed that dietary coconut oil with 1 and 1.5 ml/kg feed improved significantly antioxidants status through increased antioxidant enzymes like SOD and GSH while decreasing significantly MDA levels compared to control and other treatment groups. Therefore, it was concluded that the diets of broiler chickens could be fortified with coconut oil with 1 or 1.5 ml to improve the growth, feed utilization, and antioxidant status of broiler chickens.
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Copra meal, the byproduct of coconut oil production, has been widely available at low cost but has been underutilized, with huge portions still becoming waste. Extensive research on different species have been performed to improve its use as an alternative feed ingredient, aiming to reduce the impact of fluctuating feed prices in some parts of the world where coconut is a major commodity. As for any biological product, the physical and chemical properties of copra meal play a crucial role in its use and limitations. In the case of copra meal, studies have found that additional treatments are needed to improve its nutritional composition and make it readily and efficiently available for ruminant and monogastric animals, poultry, and aquaculture applications. This paper presents a summary of up-to-date information on the physical and chemical characteristics of the product, as well as discussions on the various methods employed to improve and optimize its biological value as animal feed. There have been limited studies that have explored other effective and economical means of utilizing copra meal outside the livestock and feed industry. Hence, this paper also aims to provide a lens on future prospects and diverse applications involving copra meal, as well as to present the gaps and challenges that have to be addressed to maximize its product value and biological potential.
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The price of traditional sources of nutrients used in animal feed rations is increasing steeply in developed countries due to their scarcity, high demand from humans for the same food items, and expensive costs of raw materials. Thus, one of the alternative sources is coconut parts or coconut as a whole fruit. Coconut is known as the ‘tree of abundance’, ‘tree of heaven’, and ‘tree of life’ owing to its numerous uses, becoming a very important tree in tropical areas for its provision of food, employment, and business opportunities to millions of people. Coconut contains a rich profile of macro and micronutrients that vary depending on the parts and how they are used. It is frequently chosen as an alternative source of protein and fiber. Its uses as an antibacterial agent, immunomodulant, and antioxidant further increase its importance. Using coconut oil in ruminant feed helps to minimize methane gas emissions by 18–30%, and to reduce dry matter intake up to 4.2 kg/d. The aquaculture sectors also use coconut palm as an alternative source because it significantly improves the digestion, growth, lipid metabolism, health, and antioxidative responses. However, coconut is not widely used in poultry diets although it has adequate amount of protein and carbohydrate due to anti-nutritional factors such cellulose (13%), galactomannan (61%), and mannan (26%). This review considered the importance and potential of coconut usage as an alternative ingredient in feed and supplements in various livestock sectors as it has plentiful nutrients and functional qualities, simultaneously leading to reduced feed cost and enhanced production.
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A study was conducted to determine the effect of diets supplemented with several palm polysaccharides on chicken performance, fecal moisture, feed digestibility and carcass percentage. Methodology: A total of 168 unsexed broiler chicks were used in this trial. The broiler chicks were kept for 4 weeks. The broilers were then transferred into metabolism cages for 1 week for digestibility and fecal moisture studies. On day 35, the broilers were sacrificed by cervical dislocation for carcass measurements. The broiler chickens were fed with starter (23% protein and 13.39 MJ of metabolizable energy) and grower (21% protein and 13.39 MJ of metabolizable energy) diets. Feed and water were provided ad libitum. Six different types of diets: Control (C), control+2 ppm avilamycin (C+avi), control+0.05% copra polysaccharide (C+cop), control+0.05% salak polysaccharides (C+salak), control+0.05% sugar palm polysaccharides (C+sug palm) and control+0.05% sago polysaccharides (C+sag) were used. A completely randomized design was used with six treatments and four replicates of 7 birds each. Results: The study indicated that diets supplemented with avilamycin, copra polysaccharides and salak polysaccharides increased body weight gain (p<0.05) compared to the control birds. Feed conversion ratio was improved due to salak polysaccharide supplementation. A decreased fecal moisture was found in birds fed the diet supplemenetd with avilamycin and sago polysaccharides. The addition of avilamycin, copra and salak polysaccharides in the diets increased feed digestibility. Conclusion: Supplemented diet significantly increased the body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, feed digestibility and decreased the fecal moisture.
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The world’s copra meal production amounted to 1.8 million tonnes in 2002 and most of it was produced in Asia. The Philippines and Indonesia contributed approximately 65% of the world’s copra meal production. The main problems of using copra meal in poultry diets are its physical properties along with its nutritional profiles. This study was conducted to determine the physical characteristics and feeding value of copra meal. Physical characteristics were determined by measuring the bulk density and water holding capacity of copra meal and a digestibility study was undertaken to investigate nutrient digestibility, jejunal digesta viscosity and apparent metabolizable energy of copra meal. A total of 28 day old male Ross chicks were given control starter and grower diets from day 1 to 35. From day 36 to 42 , the birds were fed an experimental diet. Faeces were collected for three consecutive days. Jejunal digesta was measured for viscosity and ileal digesta was used for amino acid digestibility measurements. Data indicated that bulk density and water holding capacity of copra meal were poor, being 0.49 g/cm3 and 4.69 g water / g feed respectively. Although the crude proteind and amino acids contents of copra meal were favourable to meet a broiler chicken’s requirements, their digestibilities were low and lysine digestibility being the lowest while arginine digestibility was high. Dry matter, neutral detergent fibre digestibility and apparent metabolizable energy were also low. The low digestibilities of nutrients were not due to the jejunal digesta viscosity as jejunal digesta viscosity was low.
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ROBERTSON et al. (1948) reported that an increase in volume of a diet from a value of 0.64 to one of 1.10 liters per pound of diet through the use of wheat by-products and oats lowered chick weight about 20 percent at 4 weeks of age. Their data indicated that the energy requirements for satisfactory growth were about 800 Cal. per pound of diet based on productive energy values reported by Fraps (1946). Panda and Combs (1950) employed purified cellulose and combinations of cellulose and high fiber natural feedstuffs to vary energy content of diets, and reported that the energy requirement of chicks up to 8 weeks of age was 840 Cal. per pound of diet. When energy levels ranging from 975 to 505 Cal. per pound of diet were fed, Dansky (1952) obtained maximum growth rate in chicks on all diets even when pulverized oat hulls were substituted for . . .
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THE use of coconut oil meal (copra meal) in diets for poultry and other animals has been investigated by a number of workers (Johns et al., 1919; Maynard and Fronda, 1921; Mitchell et al., 1923; Sulit, 1926; Crucillo, 1926; Temperton et al., 1941; Loosli et al., 1954; and Fronda, 1958). By and large, copra meal was found to be effectively utilized by ruminants, and in some cases by rats, but much less well by pigs, guinea pigs and poultry. The results with poultry have been so poor that several workers have suggested the presence in copra of some toxic or growth-depressing factor. Chick studies have usually resulted in poor growth, poor efficiency of feed utilization and high mortality. Laying hens have shown decreased body weight and productivity (Eamilao, 1936; Lionanag, 1951; De Los Santos, 1951; Mahadevan et al., 1957). As a result, it has been generally recommended that not more …
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Bulk density and water holding capacity (WHC) are two physical characteristics that could affect the nutritional value of the feed through their negative correlation with feed intake (Sundu et al., 2004). Information about the physical characteristics, digestibility and apparent metabolisable energy (AME) of copra meal (CM) and palm kernel meal (PKM) is scarce. This information is essential for both diet formulation. The following experiment aimed to asses the feeding value of CM and PKM with respect to bulk density, WHC, AME and their effect on digesta viscosity. The feeding values of CM and PKM were assessed in a one week digestibility trial. Fifty six 5 week -old male birds were used in four replicate metabolism cages of six birds. The CM diet consisted of 87 % CM, 6 % sunflower oil, 0.4 % vitamin and mineral mix, 3.7 % dicalcium phosphate, 0.4 % limestone, 0.5 % salt and 2 % celite, while the PKM diet contained 91.5 % PKM, 4 % sunflower oil, 0.4 % vitamins and minerals mix, 1.6 % limestone, 0.5 % salt and 2 % celite. The diets were not isocaloric nor isonitrogenous. After four days of offering the diets, faeces were collected on days five to seven. Three birds from each replicate were randomly taken and killed by cervical dislocation. Digesta from the jejenum was collected and frozen for viscosity measurement. A completely randomised design was adopted with 2 diets, each with 4 replicate cages of 7 birds. Data was analysed using analysis of variance. CM is potentially a better source of protein for chickens in comparison to PKM (Table 1). However, CM had a lower bulk density (0.49 g/cm 3) and higher WHC (4.14 g water/g feed) than PKM. These physical properties may lead to low feed intakes in birds fed CM in comparison to birds fed PKM with higher bulk density and lower WHC. The digestibility of DM, protein and NDF were higher for CM than for PKM, however, the AME of PKM was higher. The higher AME of PKM is probably due to the higher digestibility of lipid (94.7 v 93.1 %) together with the higher lipid content in PKM (11.1 v 6.9 %). The main carbohydrate in this feedstuff is -mannan, which has been reported to be viscous in the digestive tract of birds. However, the low jejunal digesta viscosity of these feedstuffs indicates that the -mannan in CM and PKM is mainly water insoluble. In conclusion, the low bulk density and higher WHC of CM need to be considered during feed formulation, as these two properties have a bulking effect which can reduce feed intake. The low digestibility of DM of CM and PKM suggest that mannan-degrading enzymes or enzyme cocktails may need to be used to improve their feeding value. These results also suggest that digesta viscosity will not be a problem when formulating diets containing CM or PKM.
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Brewers dried yeast, a source of mannan oligosaccharides (MOS), was assessed as an alternative to an antimicrobial agent (carbadox) for young pigs in two experiments. The yeast contained 5.2% MOS. Agglutination tests confirmed adsorption of several serovars of E. coli and Salmonella spp. onto the yeast product. In Exp. 1, seven replicates (five pigs per pen) of 22-d-old pigs were fed a nonmedicated basal diet or the basal diet with carbadox (55 mg/kg), yeast (3%), or a combination of 3% yeast and 2% citric acid for 28 d. Carbadox did not improve growth performance. Growth rate and feed intake were depressed (P < 0.05) in pigs fed yeast alone or in combination with acid. Log counts of total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Clostridium perfringens in feces were not affected by diet, but Bifidobacteria spp. counts were lower (P < 0.05) in pigs fed the yeast + acid diet and lactobacilli counts were higher (P < 0.05) in pigs fed yeast. Fecal pH and VFA concentrations and intestinal morphological traits were not consistently affected by diet. Serum IgG levels were elevated in the yeast + acid (P < 0.01) group. In Exp. 2, the effects of yeast and carbadox additions to the diet on enteric microbial populations in young pigs housed in isolation units were evaluated. Pigs (n = 24) were weaned at 11 d of age (4.1 kg BW) and placed in isolation chambers (two pigs per chamber) equipped with individual air filtering systems and excrement containers. Treatments were a nonmedicated basal diet and the basal diet with 55 mg/kg of carbadox or with 3% yeast. Diets were fed for 29 d, then each pig was orally dosed with approximately 9.5 × 10⁸ CFU of E. coli K88. Daily fecal E. coli K88 counts were not different (P > 0.05) among treatments, but fecal shedding of carbadox-resistant coliforms was higher (P < 0.01) during the 9-d period in pigs fed carbadox. Total fecal coliforms were consistently lower throughout the postinoculation period in pigs fed yeast (P < 0.05). Yeast reduced colonization of total coliforms in the duodenum, jejunum, cecum, and colon, but it did not have a consistent effect on colonization of E. coli K88. Pigs fed yeast tended (P < 0.10) to have higher serum IgG levels than controls. In these experiments, brewers dried yeast and carbadox had minimal effects on growth, microbial populations, and intestinal health traits of early-weaned pigs, but certain serum immunological traits were enhanced by feeding yeast.
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This book presents the proceedings of the 26th Poultry Science Symposium held in Peebles, Scotland, and is divided into five parts. Part 1 covers the current and future supply of feedstuffs, where political, agronomic and socioeconomic factors are discussed. The second and third parts, respectively, deal with the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the nutritional components of feedstuffs, while the fourth considers some of the more important factors, which are perceived to influence nutritive value like non-starch polysaccharides, secondary plant metabolites and processing among others. The fifth part is concerned with dietary enzymes like carbohydrases, lipases, α-galactosidase and phytase.