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Participatory Development of Strategies for the Transformation of Agriculture
Abstract
The integrated management of water and land resources in the Zayandeh Rud basin is facing many challenges aggravated by large fluctuations in the annual rainfall and the volume of upstream water reservoirs over the last 10–20 years. Severe droughts have led to drastic changes in surface water supply for all stakeholders in the basin, and to an unpredictable irrigation water supply for agriculture. A factor adding to problems in water availability and access is the current practice to transfer water from the Zayandeh Rud basin to neighbouring basins.
... We found the ZRB to be an appropriate case study firstly because of the high level of social conflict among the stakeholders, which underlines the necessity for application of a participatory approach. Second, there are recently established/empowered organizations (e.g., RBO and Farmers Trade Union) that have not been studied in the basin yet (Grundmann et al., 2020). Last, there is a basis for further investigations, which was established in a previous research and development project on integrated water resources management in the ZRB ; this provides a chance to organize and carry out several focus group discussions and iterative workshops. ...
Power is a central concept in studying complex governance systems as it determines how stakeholders influence each other to achieve their preferred outcomes. Little is still known about complex power dynamics in water governance networks. Along this line, this study aims to investigate who influences whom and how in river-basin governance in the case of Zayandeh-Rud river basin (ZRB) in Iran. We applied a participatory stakeholder analysis (SA) and a social network analysis (SNA) to identify the relevant stakeholders and investigate their attributes and network-based characteristics in the ZRB's water governance system. A mixed-methods approach was used for information gathering using several interviews, focus groups, workshops, and a survey. We assembled different forms of power with interest to exclusively analyze the power dynamics in water governance system. We developed a multiplex social influence network comprising 24 stakeholders related together through four types of power-laden relationships with differing strengths. Our findings show that stakeholders with the same degree of power and interest may play different roles in the governance processes, which can be explained by their position and power relations in the multiplex network. We conclude that combining the results of SA and SNA analyses can contribute to better understanding of how water resources are governed and by whom, but a careful conceptualization of power is needed for meaningful interpretations. Our findings have important implications for diagnosing the power dynamics of stakeholders, conducting negotiations and conflict resolution processes, and facilitating social learning and mutual development of engagement strategies.
This research delves into the impact of human-induced regime shifts on ecosystem services in Iran's Zayandeh-Rud River Basin, during the onset of the Anthropocene epoch marked by rapid changes attributed to human activities. Employing network analysis techniques, including in-degree and out-degree centrality, pivotal actors or drivers contributing to these shifts were identified. A total of 43 experts and researchers in humanities and environmental sciences completed questionnaires to assess the relationship network of regime shift drivers within the river basin, revealing the significant influence of governmental administration, water transfer projects, and water allocation. These factors were found to drive regime shifts, subsequently impacting environmental well-being. The study also thoroughly analyzed the ecosystem services and factors affecting human and environmental welfare affected by these shifts. Insights gained from this research offer crucial information for the development of effective management strategies and policies aimed at mitigating and adapting to regime shifts. By highlighting the key drivers and their impact on ecosystem services, the research provides actionable strategies for addressing regime shifts in the study area. Ultimately, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the intricate interplay between human activities, regime shifts, and environmental well-being, essential for informed decision-making and sustainable management practices.
Population growth, industrial development in Isfahan Province but also the development of new agricultural areas in the catchment increasingly put pressure on the water resources of the Zayandeh Rud. Additionally, the region has experienced more frequent and more intense drought periods over the past decade. Due to this the water situation in the region is exacerbating in quantitative and qualitative terms. The local farmers, and in particular the farmers in Roodasht, are affected by the consequences almost every year. It’s obvious that tensions between decision-makers and farmers are rising.
Convinced that this complex situation can only be solved with new thinking and mutual action, 75 farmers and agricultural functionaries met in December 2016 to work together on possible solutions. Using the participatory method of “Citizens‘ Juries“ the participants developed concrete recommendations for optimizing agriculture and agricultural water use. Their main recommendations are summarized in this report.
Over the past years, climate change and water resources depletion have resulted in extreme water shortage and ongoing desertification in Roodasht, a region in Central Iran highly dependent on agriculture and harbouring a fragile ecosystem. Consequently, tensions between different water users have increased. In order to develop and implement feasible approaches for sustainable land use that help stakeholders in preventing or reversing land degradation and using water resources efficiently, a vulnerability assessment was necessary. Using Füssel’s vulnerability approach, 16 factors for assessing the vulnerability of farmers to water scarcity in Roodasht have been classified. The main aspects of their vulnerability are (1) their exposure to poor and uncertain water availability, (2) low agricultural production with low efficiency in water use and land management and little diversification of products, (3) high risk of farmer pauperization with limited investment capacities and a risk of abandoning agriculture followed by migration, (4) inhibited regional entrepreneurship restricting development of local employment options and markets, and (5) poor efforts on environmental conservation in the region. As a result, there is a high risk of further desertification and social conflicts. Access to economic resources, promotion of collaborative networks, access to knowledge and information, and access to infrastructure and technology could be drivers of an adjusted land use policy in the region.
Traditional agricultural communities manage biodiversity at various scales, creating dynamic landscape mosaics of fields, gardens, orchards, pastures and ecosystem patches. Agricultural biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge are essential to the climate change resilience of these landscapes, but their roles are largely overlooked by researchers and policy makers. A review of 172 case studies and project reports from around the world shows that agricultural biodiversity contributes to resilience through a number of, often combined, strategies: the protection and restoration of ecosystems, the sustainable use of soil and water resources, agro-forestry, diversification of farming systems, various adjustments in cultivation practices and the use of stress-tolerant crops and crop improvement. Using social–ecological systems theory as a conceptual framework, these practices are examined to identify indicators of resilience in agricultural landscapes. The indicators are a first step in the development of a framework for assessing and building climate change resilience, intended both for local communities and for the scientists and organizations working closely with them. The framework can be used to (i) identify biodiversity management practices and social institutions that can be encouraged as ways to strengthen resilience, (ii) monitor the resilience of a landscape/community over time and (iii) aggregate and compare data across communities and landscapes.
The present study investigates alternative scenarios of timing and reduced water supply in terms of their impacts on agricultural land use, farm revenue and food crop production. It aims to evaluate the implications for the development of different farming systems in one of the most water-scarce irrigation districts in the Zayandeh-Rud River Basin in central Iran, the Roudasht irrigation district. A modified version of Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) model was used to assess the scenarios. The results from the scenario simulations illustrate that there is substantial potential for improving the management of the limited water supply in the Roudasht irrigation network to reach higher water productivity, agricultural output and gross margins from agricultural activities. A management plan to target a limit in the irrigation water supply only for the month of peak demand, e.g. 60% to 80% of the baseline water supply for May in Roudasht, may have less adverse effects than planning to limit the annual water supply by the same amount but without specifying the monthly timing of the water supply. These results highlight the relevance and impact of the timing of water supply when devising adaptive measures related to the irrigation water supply.
For centuries, the Zayandeh Rud as the “life giving river” in the Central Iranian Plateau has attracted people. In times of the Persian Empire, the city of Isfahan grew to a famous and vital metropolis. Today, the Zayandeh Rud catchment is home to more than four million people and both an important industrial and – due to its fertile soils – agricultural region. Moreover, it hosts a uniquely diverse fauna and flora. The river’s attraction, however, has also led to a steady growth of water demand for different purposes. In order to guarantee a fair distribution of the valuable water resources, the Persian scholar Sheikh Bahaei invented a sophisticated system of water distribution rules in the 17th century. These rules – the so called Sheikh Bahaei scroll – are valid until today, but with increasing competition between the water using sectors it seems to be time to rethink the traditional system.
The river Zayandeh Rud is the most important surface water in central Iran. The catchment area has beenaffected by two drought periods within the last 15 years. Decreasing surface and groundwater availabilityhas been accompanied by an increase in water withdrawal for irrigation, domestic uses, industry, and watertransfers to neighbouring provinces. This has led to severe ecological and social consequences. While theIranian government is officially committed to the IWRM idea, water management decisions have still beenbased on supply-driven strategies, and supply and demand have mainly been balanced by water transferprojects.
Existing simulation models have not been used for management decisions because theirdevelopment lacked participatory elements and therefore they are considered as being biased. The aim ofthe project IWRM Isfahan is to develop a locally adapted IWRM process for the catchment area whichintegrates organisational, participative and technical measures. To this end, three different simulationmodels have been developed and merged into a Water Management Tool (WMT). WMT serves as themain instrument for a better understanding of water management processes within the catchment area andit provides the authorities in charge with a decision support tool. In order to achieve ownership andacceptance of the results and recommendations, accompanying measures like reforms in water governanceor the establishment of WMT commissions need to be realized.
The first steps in this direction havealready been taken applying participatory methods. Initial estimations show that the implemented measuresas a whole carry the potential for successful conflict resolution.
Diverse, severe, and location-specific impacts on agricultural production are anticipated with climate change. The last IPCC report indicates that the rise of CO 2 and associated " greenhouse " gases could lead to a 1.4 to 5.8 °C increase in global surface temperatures, with subsequent consequences on precipitation frequency and amounts. Temperature and water availability remain key factors in determining crop growth and productivity; predicted changes in these factors will lead to reduced crop yields. Climate-induced changes in insect pest, pathogen and weed population dynamics and in-vasiveness could compound such effects. Undoubtedly, climate-and weather-induced instability will affect levels of and access to food supply, altering social and economic stability and regional competiveness. Adaptation is considered a key factor that will shape the future severity of climate change impacts on food production. Changes that will not radically modify the monoculture nature of dominant agroecosystems may moderate negative impacts temporarily. The biggest and most durable benefits will likely result from more radical ag-roecological measures that will strengthen the resilience of farmers and rural communities, such as diversification of agroecosytems in the form of polycultures, agroforestry systems , and crop-livestock mixed systems accompanied by organic soil management, water conservation and harvesting, and general enhancement of agrobiodiversity. Traditional farming systems are repositories of a wealth of principles and measures that can help modern agricultural systems become more resilient to climatic extremes. Many of these ag-roecological strategies that reduce vulnerabilities to climate variability include crop diversification, maintaining local genetic diversity, animal integration, soil organic management, water conservation and harvesting, etc. Understanding the ag-roecological features that underlie the resilience of traditional agroecosystems is an urgent matter, as they can serve as the foundation for the design of adapted agricultural systems. Observations of agricultural performance after extreme climatic events (hurricanes and droughts) in the last two decades have revealed that resiliency to climate disasters is closely linked to farms with increased levels of biodiversity. Field surveys and results reported in the literature suggest that agroecosystems are more resilient when inserted in a complex landscape matrix, featuring adapted local germplasm deployed in diversified cropping systems managed with organic matter rich soils and water conservation-harvesting techniques. The identification of systems that have withstood climatic events recently or in the past and understanding the agroecological features of such systems that allowed them to resist and/or recover from extreme events is of increased urgency , as the derived resiliency principles and practices that underlie successful farms can be disseminated to thousands of farmers via Campesino a Campesino networks to scale up agroecological practices that enhance the resiliency of agroecosystems. The effective diffusion of agroecological technologies will largely determine how well and how fast farmers adapt to climate change.
Farming systems research and extension have been given increasing attention in the last 30 years. In the 80's it was felt, that there was an increasing need for exchange of different concepts and experiences among scientists all over the world. International Symposia on farming systems were held in the United States of America. As a consequence of this, in 1988 the International Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension (AFSR+E) was founded. Today on all continents, regional associations or groups are active and follow common goals as follows: a) to overcome the methodological bottlenecks of strictly disciplinary approaches and high level specialisation in research by strengthening the potential of synthesis of different methodologies developed and applied to different disciplines (e.g. natural sciences, social sciences) towards a systems methodology which internalises the interrelationships between sectors of disciplines. b) to overcome the empirical bottlenecks resulting from a gap between the results of disciplinary-based research and farmers' behaviour and decision-making by integrating farmers (target groups) and institutions related to agricultural development at various levels of research towards finding solutions to problems. These common goals have evolved in a long historical development and reflect wide differentiation in the discussions of the last 30 years. Nowadays, it seems as if the academic community working in farming and rural systems research and extension, would have come to a more common and consistent view. The common features in this development and the current state of the art will be discussed in the following sections.
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