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Effects of Historical Coercive Control, Historical Violence, and Lawyer Representation on Post-Separation Male Partner Violence Against Mother Litigants Who Participated in Adversarial Family Court Proceedings

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Abstract

The primary objective of this study was to test the effects of historical male partner violence and lawyer representation on post-separation male partner violence and coercive control against mother litigants participating in adversarial family court proceedings. Toward this end, staff at two women’s shelters administered a questionnaire to 40 former residents who met the sample selection criteria. Two findings are noteworthy. First, there was a decrease in mother litigant reports of post-separation physical violence requiring a visit to a hospital. Second, post-separation male partner coercive control “most/some of the time” was reported by 97.5% of all 40 separated mother litigants who also reported experiencing historical coercive control by their male partners. Recommendations and limitations are described in the final two pages.
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
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G."-, 0 , + ,.& , "&"&#.& #-&
B%<<AFI&B%<<AFI5#/""4."0"B%<!<FI&""&,'
"  "8  B%<!JFI  &$  B%<!%FI  -,,  "  "  B%<<DFI
&"."H0"  "  &#.&  B%<<MFI  ""  B%<<AFI  "&,'  ,  "
B%<!DFI,& ," B%<!CFIH-B%<<CFI #. / B%<<AFI"
B%<<CFI&, " #/B%<!JFI"+,-B%<!)FI".","B%<!<FI
 B%<!MF
4,.&"&#.& #- ,.  ,'+-& , +'(,
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= 4  ,.",  6"&  -(  ,.  #-   +  "  #&# 0  (",,&  +
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#,& 4 6."0 &  ,.",  #&"  ,.   / .  + "0&  (,
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,&,+,.#. 
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,&-, #-  :-,  "6-,  (.' #" "  G-" 0 #
,.&",,  + " ('#.4 #""6- " $",. G(& # +
#&# 0#,&& +6 0"& ",""'B. :-"&F+,.","
&0" ,.  "7& = 43 #("& $ ,. (.' #" "6- #&# 0
#,&& "##-&",' , =$ ", & /+& +-,-&0 #
#- 4(,("&", +&#G#"", 40 #&,.&",,
,. &  + B"6  % (DJ<F  ,.  ,-' 0 + #,& "  ,.
+&:-#' $ ,. $. #.  #&# 0 #,& ,"#, # $& -  (& #,
,.."&+-(,("&", -,#
 4 &(&, 6'  (#. / B!AAAF " -((&, ,"&/9 B%<<CF
.'(,.  ,.",  ,.  / . +  & - " +","  7-&' +$ 4
("&",   0"&  $ ,.  ,. 0 +  #,& (,'  + ,.&
+"#,& ,"&/" ,&9B%<!M3A<F G("", + ,. = 4
@-& .&#"("# ,',& ,&#"(@$",,,
"&,', "B%<!DF #," ,&", ="( +M<;,.&
$. , ,. & +-& #,  #& ,& " ,,& ,  O +& 0"& -&"
&-, "&"""', #"(+!A<,.&B(M)DF.
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"7&  (,  0"& "6 $&  > # "  7-&' +$ 4
("&", @@+"&"."&","+,&("&", @">>(&# 0
,.&", + +-,-& ."&3 >&# 0 #,&-& 4 ,. "&& "4@ >+"&
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$& , =",. ,.& (, 0"& "6 $ ,. +
#-,&  ""'   B. &"&#. #"  "  /"F  $&  -  ,  #",
,.&,."( ,. 4."$#,&4&-(",,,
"$&-,,& ,. 4 =#"#+ 8&# 
G(& #0+#,&""#.+,.(,0"& "6.
=&, ,.  + ""'   B,,, +&  (, "(F  &0"
>-& 4 "&& "4@ = 4I ,.  # &0" >-& 4  " "+,&
"&& "4@= 4
-& 4,."&& "4,.& ,. 0 #?$#,&4&-(
$& /',.",.& ,.0 #?#&# 0#,&4&-(
,&(&,> 4 =#",'$&0+."&","(&# 0+-,-&
,.&",  "  +"&@  "&,'  "  "# ",  "  &(&,  = 4
 #", 4 ,.", #("&  $ ,. ,.& G(& # 4  ,-", "
#-(  0 #  -& 4  ,.  "&& "4  ,.  G(& # 4  #&# 0
#,&  0 # BH'  "  1. %<<MF  +$ 4  ,.  "&& "4
&(&,>&+&:-,."&",. 4.&0+(&# 0+-,-&
,.&",  "  +"&  +  ."&",  (&# 0  +-,-&  ,.&",  "  +"&
+$ 4("&", @B(M)AF0 ,'#&# 0#,&."."&+-
8#, ,.", "& (, + 0 # -& 4 "&& "4 " 7 ,
A
#,&?0 #  8#,    ,.  " -,#  "+,&  "&& "4
&""&,'""8" B%<!DF&(&,  "&= 4
&"."H0""&#.&B%<<MF#,"&"""', #
"(+ !A;  B$9 .,& #-( " " +" ,-,
"  (&  ",  -6"(F 4&  ""'   $" -  ,
""'L  ","  +&  ""   :-, " &    / "&,'  "
"# ", $. #,"  8&,"( ,.& ("&, # (", 4
"",&' 0&# ", "- 8&,,.+""' 
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& "6' (& #,6,. #&# 0 #,& 4 0 # "   ,-", "
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+$,.+,.,-'
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# , ,. ,&",-&&0 $,.'$& 4,"#. 067#, 0
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,$  $9  .,&  6-,  '  ;<  $&  #-    ,.  "(
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 4(&, ,. ,"6  #",,.",%!BD%DEF+,.
,.& ,.&"4&&,&4'"4&,.",,. &"$'&$&
#"("6$. !JB;<<EF+,. ,.& "4&&,&4'
 "4&$ ,.,. 0"-", +,. &"$'&
 8&#4"&(&,", &(&,6',.&"+",.&
 , 4",0"& $ ,.,'(+&(&,", (# =#"')%BM<<EF+
,.  ,.&  "  %M  BC<<EF  +  ,.  +",.&  $&  &(&,  6'
"$'&$ ,.%JBJCDEF+,.,.&"DB!%DEF+,.+",.&
6 4&(&,6'4"" "$'&"DB!%DEF+,.,.&
"%)BDCDEF+,.+",.&6 4&(&,6'(& 0","$'&


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 4(&, "6D  #",,.",!;B)DEF+,.,.&
 , 4",,."("(( +& "#&  "#,"#,&&B("#
6F"AB%%DEF4,,.+,&("&", !CB;%DEF"(( +&
"!;B)DEF4,,..(&#,"4 8&#6,$"((' 4
+& " 4,, 4 " #,"#, && (& & , ("&", ? 0&#$"
!%DE"CDE"+,&("&", ? 0&#. ,"6"&0",.",C
B!CDEF  ,.&   , 4",  "((   +&  "  &,#, 0  &&  (& &  ,
("&",   " D  B!%DEF 4,  ,.  +,&  ("&",  !<  B%D<EF
"((   +&  "  &,#,   &&  "  !<  B%D<EF  4,  ,.  .
!C
(&#,"4 8&#(& & ,("&", "&" BD<EF" L&
"+,&("&", 


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 4(&, "6J&0",.",,.. 4.,(&(&, +
,.& ,."($&##&"6-,,".",.(&6
+,. &("&,&(& &,"+$ 4("&", ? 0&#3%ABC%DEF
")!BCCDEF&(#, 0'I,. &("&,&9-+0 #""6-
"4" ,,.&3%%BDD<EF"!AB;CDEF&(#, 0'" 4""
$"(&#& (, &-4"6-3%CBJCDEF"%%BDD<EF
&(#, 0'

.=&, "& +#&&", """'$#-#,$"
"   ",  ,&  4  ,.  4& ,  $. #.  ,. .",.  -
G(& #6+&("&",  $& "# ",$ ,. ,." -
"+,&,.("&",  .#&&", 6,$$.,.&,.("&, # (",
-4.,," .",.,&",,6+&" "+,& ("&", $" ,
 4 =#",BQ<CRJM<F$0&,.&$"" 4 =#",( , 0
#&&", 6,$$.,.&('#.4 #"&, ""6-$",.
&"+&/ 4,".",.,&",,6+&""+,&("&", 
BQ;<R<DF
!M
" ,  $ +-"  4 =#",( , 0 #&&",  6,$
$6 4,&",+&" 7-&' ,.&4#'$"&+".( ,"
6+&""+,&("&", BQDCR<<!F& ,  (&,",,
,  ,.",  $.  (#, 4  ,.  #& (, 0  ,", , #  ,.  &"
&(&, +& ,. 7-&  &:- & 4.( ," L",  " &4#'
$"& $&,"$"'-,,. "("&,& "6- B"6 !;F
$0&$+-"&6-,( , 0#&&", 6,$$.,.&,.
&"+&,. 7-&'&:- & 4.( ," L", $"-,"("&,&
('#.4 #" "6- 6+&" "+,& ,. ("&",  B Q M)  R
<<!F
 0,.# &"60"& "6  ,'+&(,-6#, %;
B;F+,. &'6,.6+&""+,&("&", 
B"6  )F  $  #&",  ,$  0"& "6  &(&, 4  $.,.&  &  ,
0 #  &  ('#.4 #"  "6-  # ,,  6'  ,.  "  ("&,&
"4" , && 0 #, ##-&&6+&" "+,&("&", 
#&&",  $"  ,. (&+&   && , ,, ,. ,&4,. "
 &#,  + ,. "# ",  6,$ ,. 0 # " ('#.4 #"
"6-6+&""+,&("&", +-,.",&(&,+0 #&
('#.4 #"  "6-  G(& #  6'    &  &  0 #,   6+&
("&",   $"  ( , 0'  #&&",  $ ,.  &(&,  +  0 #  &
('#.4 #""6-"+,&,.("&", B QD< R<!F&0&
,.& $""  4 =#", ( , 0 #&&",  6,$ 0 # 6 4
!A
#- #", , ,. 7-4 " ('#.4 #" "6- 6 4
#- #",,,.7-4BQ;)R<DF
&&", """' $& "#-#, && , G(&
"# ",  6,$ ##& 0&(&#-&& N-# 4 ,. "
("&,&96."0 &6+&""+,&("&", B"6JF$#&+&
-6,"#"6-6+&""+,&("&", $"#&",6'- 4
,.#&+& 4""(&#& (, &-4"6-',. 4 =#",
#&&",   "&  &(&,  .  &-,  &0"  "  &6-,  ( , 0
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+,.,.&(&#-&&O##&"6-,,."("&,&9,"
.",.  (&6  "+,&  ("&",   "    +" '  0 #  "+,&
("&", B Q JM  R<<!F+&,-",',.$ 4.,",,"#.,
," .",. (&6 ,&  4 #-,' " "##
"&&"4,  #-  ,  6  "  6#"-  "  :-,   "6-,
$.,.&,.,".",.(&6+"("&,&6+&""+,&
("&", $&"/$,7-4 #-&,$", #- ,.
-&0':-, " &
"' (&."(,. , # 4"'  4 =#", = 4 + ,. 
,-' "&" &", ,#&# 0 #,& G&#  6' " ("&,&
(# =#"'"6-,+,.,.& , 4",,."(&(&,
  4&  +  #&# 0  "  ("&,&  #,&  6+&  "  "+,&
("&", 4""("&,&#&# 0#,&$",&4'"# ",
$ ,.  +"  ("&,&  &(&,  +  "  0"& ,'  +  "0&  -,#
(# =#"' & +&:-, &(&, + G(& # 4  #&# 0  ,"#, #
+$ 4  ("&",   $&  ,&4'  "# ",  $ ,.&  +&:-,
,.&   , 4",  &(&,  +  / 4  ,"  .",. ,&",,  &
+&:-,&(&,+G(& # 4"("&,&0 #""6-"
%J
&  +&:-,'  G(&  ##&  "6-,  "  ("&,&  -6,"#
"6-"-+0 #""6-"4" ,,.&

.  +$ 4  ,.&  &#",   N$  +&  ,.  = 4
&(&, ,. ,-'
&,  = 4    ,.  "0&  8#,  +  #&# 0  #,& 4
6."0 & 6' " ("&,& (&0  ( & #" -((&, +&
&# 4 ,. #- +>" (",,&+ #&# 0 " #,& 4
6."0 &@ ,. = ,  + +" ' 0 # ,. +" ' "$"#,
(&-4", ,",
#6#"-+,. &#, - 4"0&.",.8#,"
("&, &#,'"#. &0 #"& -'$&#,. #- 
+"(",,&+#&# 0"#,& 46."0 &""+"#,&,6
# &6'+" '#-&,7-4 ,&  4,.6, ,&,+
,.#. 
. &  $ ,.  ,.  &(&-# 6  ,'  +  = 4  $      $
&#,.&( #", +,.,-'$-&,/,. $
$ ."&,.","##,  ,&-,"  ,&6'.,&,"8
$ ,."' ,&,&"&#.&

. +$ 4   ,",  .- 6 # & 0"-", 4 ,.
= 4+,. ,-'",.&#", & 0+&,.3,.
%C
#,  + " &""(" ,.", &&& 4&" L 4
&-,,& ,+,.&.,&#",6,", , #"', ",I"
""( L   , ,.- + -, 0"& ", ,", , #"""' +
,."," "  ", #,& 4  #+- 4 +"#,&I"" -&0'
"(   , (& , " ":-", ,, + ,.   0"& "6 
#& 6 4-&!I4&",' 6""# ,& 6-, +&(,
:-,  "-& 4  (&,", 0"& "6  ,.  -&0' B4
#-,'" "##&&F   , ,.- + 0 ( 6 0"& ",
""'+,.","
%M
 )'"%*+
'$
&# 0#,&  --&"G"&,&
, & ,,&&&#-
0+,&("&", S
,+,.  C%DEB%AF
,  %DEB!<F
6-,'"$  %DEB!F
 <EB<F
,-,Q;<
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Table 2 )'$

 
 #""6-   &(&,
#'$
 '-/,".",.
,&",,S
DCDEB%)F ;<EB!JF %DEB!F
"
('#.4 #"?, "
"6-,.&"+&
,".",.,&",,S
C%DEB%AF %<EBMF CDEB)F
&'-,&",+&"
7-&' ,.&4#'
$"&+".( ,"S
%<EBMF M<EB)%F <EB<F
",. 7-&',&", 
,..( ,"#"-6'
'-&"("&,&S
!DEBJF )DEB!;F O
'$
 '-/,".",.
,&",,S
M<EB)%F !CDEBCF %DEB!F
"
('#.4 #"?, "
"6-,.&"+&
,".",.,&",,S
MCDEB)DF CDEB)F DEB%F
&'-,&",+&"
7-&' ,.&4#'
$"&+".( ,"S
CDEB)F A<EB)JF %DEB!F
",. 7-&',&", 
,..( ,"#"-6'
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... Only one study specifcally explored the experiences of same-sex attracted adults (Frankland & Brown, 2014). Regarding service access, 2 studies involved current or previous residents of women's or homeless shelters (Ellis et al., 2021;Levine & Fritz, 2016), and one study had recruited clients of domestic violence services (Sharp-Jefs et al., 2018). ...
... The general population studies covered in this review did recruit larger numbers of participants but often provided little information about the representativeness of the sample or how participants were selected. Only 4 of the 13 studies provided information about participant response rates (Ellis et al., 2021;Kaukinen & Powers, 2015;Myhill, 2015;Skafda et al., 2022). Response rates are important because they indicate what proportion of people who were given the chance to participate decided not to. ...
... Women with greater concern about their ex-partner's (Ellis et al., 2021) substance use substance use experience signifcantly higher levels of coercive control from that ex-partner. ...
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Overview Coercive control is the ongoing and repetitive use of behaviours or strategies (including physical and non-physical violence) to control a current or ex intimate partner (i.e. victim-survivor) and make them feel inferior to, and dependent on, the perpetrator (Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety [ANROWS], 2021). Coercive control is a relatively new area to policy, practice and research and the research evidence is still emerging. However, AIFS’ consultations with key stakeholders in the child and family sector identified coercive control as a key topic of interest for policy makers and practitioners and that there is a desire for a synthesis of current evidence. This paper synthesises the findings of a rapid literature review to describe what we know about how common coercive control victimisation is, as well as risk factors and impacts of coercive control victimisation. A victim-survivor is someone who has experienced coercive control victimisation (i.e. been the target of coercive control behaviours by a current or ex intimate partner). The term victim-survivor is used to acknowledge ‘the ongoing effects and harm caused by abuse and violence as well as honouring the strength and resilience of people with lived experience of family violence’ (Victorian Government, 2022). The findings of the rapid literature review are presented in 3 chapters: 1. How common is coercive control victimisation? 2. Risk factors associated with coercive control victimisation 3. Impacts associated with coercive control victimisation. Reference MacDonald, J.B., Willoughby, M., Gartoulla, P., Cotton, E., March, E., Alla, K. & Strawa, C. (2024). What the research evidence tells us about coercive control victimisation (Policy and Practice Paper). Melbourne: Child Family Community Australia, Australian Institute of Family Studies.
... While the general public often naively hopes that separating from an abusive partner ameliorates these significant concerns, IPV commonly continues after women leave (Hardesty & Chung, 2006) either through continued physical assaults (Brownridge et al., 2008;Fleury et al., 2000;Humphreys & Thiara, 2003;Rezey, 2020), or sexual assaults (DeKeseredy et al., 2004). Importantly, women with children who leave abusive partners are often faced with bitter, high-conflict divorce and child custody and access disputes, the focus of considerable study (Ellis et al., 2021;Feresin et al., 2019;Jaffe et al., 2008;Khaw et al., 2021;Miller & Manzer, 2021;Saunders & Oglesby, 2016;Varcoe & Irwin, 2004). ...
... Abusive partners may use legal systems to continue controlling their ex-partners (Douglas, 2018;Ellis et al., 2021). As well as difficulties with the family law process, Douglas' interviews with 65 Australian women identified conflict with respect to civil protection orders, court appearances, calling inappropriate witnesses and contacting Child Protective Services. ...
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Relatively little research has examined men's use of coercive controlling tactics against female partners after separation. This mixed-methods secondary analysis of 346 Canadian women documented coercive controlling tactics used by their ex-partners (86.4% identified at least one). The composite abuse scale emotional abuse subscale and women being older were associated with men using coercive control tactics post-separation. A secondary qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews with a sub-sample of 34 women provided additional examples. Abusive partners used numerous strategies to coercively control their ex-partners by stalking/harassing them, using financial abuse and discrediting the women to various authorities. Considerations for future research are presented.
... The women noted the accumulation of these experiences and the ongoing concerns about their children's direct safety and well-being when in the care of the co-parent. The concerns around post-separation DV and experiencing mental health concerns has been documented by several other studies (e.g., Ellis et al., 2021;Moulding et al., 2015). Importantly, mothers in our study expressed concerns for their children's development. ...
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Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to add to the research literature and begin to fill the gap in knowledge about shared parenting arrangements for women with young children and who have experienced domestic violence (DV), in three Canadian provinces; Alberta, Manitoba and Ontario. Method: This paper reports on the qualitative findings from a mixed methods study on shared parenting from women with children ages 4 and under. Twenty women participated in one-on-one individual interviews through electronic platform utilizing Zoom. Thematic analysis is used to analyze the data. Results: Despite efforts to not exclusively recruit women who had experienced domestic violence (DV) from their former partner, all participants identified as survivors of DV and ongoing survivors of DV, specifically, coercive controlling behaviours. Five themes describe the women’s experiences of shared parenting with young children: 1) walking a tight-rope; 2) navigating post-separation relationships; 3) emotional realities of shared parenting; 4) shared parenting outcomes; and, 5) structural challenges. Conclusions: This paper not only adds to the significant and longstanding gap in knowledge directly from women with children ages 4 and under in shared parenting relationships, and who have experienced DV, and also helps to inform social service and legal actors. It is timely with the amendments to the Divorce Act in Canada which now includes DV as a factor in determining the best interests of the child.
... post-separation abuse has devastating health consequences for children and adults who experience violence. Longlasting negative emotional and mental health sequelae for women from post-separation abuse includes PTSD, depression and anxiety(Crosse & Millar, 2017;Ellis et al., 2021;Estefan et al., 2016).Survivors experience adverse physical health consequences relating to both physical injury and somatization of stress, including traumatic brain injury(Valera et al., 2021), chronic pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, reproductive health, neuroendocrine alterations and epigenetic changes(Ford-Gilboe et al., 2011; ...
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Although describing the characteristics of perpetrators and victims in IPH is of significance in understanding such lethal interpersonal violence in China, the relationship between perpetrators and victims is dispensable for deep understanding such lethal interpersonal violence, especially in the context of China today. In reality, strangers do not always present the greatest threat of criminal perpetration. For us, it is much more likely to be victimized in our own homes by our loved ones rather than attacked by strangers on the street.
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