Content uploaded by Abdul Adamu
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Abdul Adamu on Jun 22, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship
Volume 10, No 1, Feb 2020 [101-112]
Solutions to Herders-Farmers Conflict in Nigeria: The Academic
Perspectives and Business Implications
Mohammed Abubakar Mawoli1
*
and Abdul Adamu2
1Department of Business Administration, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai, Nigeria.
2Department of Business Administration, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The solution to herders-farmers violent clashes in Nigeria has remained elusive due to lack
of consensus, especially between the Federal Government of Nigeria and affected north-
central and southern states’ Governments, regarding the right methodology for curbing the
menace. This lingering lack of consensus is attributable to the sentimentalization of this
sensitive national issue given the wide ethnic and religious differences between two
warring groups – the ‘herders’ who are predominantly Muslims and Fulani, and the crop
farmers who are predominantly Christians from the middle-belt. The quest of this paper,
therefore, is to identify any key stakeholder group that uses scientific methods devoid of
sentiments to study any phenomenon before concluding fact-based findings. It is against
this backdrop that this study strives to examine academics’ recommendations on the
sustainable panacea to Herders-Farmers conflict in Nigeria. The paper is empirical in
nature to the extent that it employed library-and-desk research methods for data
collection. The population of the study constitutes journal articles on Herders-Farmers
clashes in Nigeria. Twenty-eight papers were sourced and analyzed using content analysis.
The study found that the majority of the academics recommended conflict resolution
mechanisms, mass orientation, and ranches as the sustainable panaceas to the constant
herders-farmers conflict in Nigeria. The study, therefore, recommends that the ranches
proposed by the Federal Government of Nigeria should be piloted in some affected states to
be able to appraise its real potentials rather than totally rejecting it without subjecting it
to any form of experimentation.
Keywords: Fear, Peace, Ranching, Sustainable Development.
1. INTRODUCTION
Competition for common, limited and declining natural resources often trigger violent conflict
across the world which is counter-productive (Adenkunle and Adisa, 2010; Moore, 2005). Thus,
the clashes between herders and farmers can be traced to time immemorial. However, the
volatility and intensity of resource-based conflict are usually heightened when the conflicting
groups or users of the resources belong to different ethnic nationalities with differing faiths and
socio-cultural values as in the case with cattle herders and crop farmers in Nigeria, and vice
versa. Arguably, this explains why the reported herders-farmers’ conflicts in the centre of
northern Nigeria are fewer compared to other parts of Nigeria, notably North-Central and
Southern Nigeria. In essence, the capacity, tolerance, readiness and willingness of community,
tribal, and political leaders to manage the frequent herders-farmers’ clashes in collaborative
ways can minimize the escalation of crisis whenever they occur.
Several factors that cause incessant herders-farmers conflict in Nigeria are water scarcity,
desertification, unchecked population expansion, increasing unemployment rate, porous
*
Corresponding Author: iammawoli@gmail.com
Mohammed Abubakar Mawoli and Abdul Adamu / Solutions to Herders-Farmers Conflict in Nigeria…
102
national borders, encroachment into grazing routes and reserves, nomadism, ignorance about
the grazing routes and laws, soil compartment and loss of soil fertility, crop damage by cattle,
indiscriminate bush burning, fake news and media propaganda, politicization, rural banditry
and cattle rustling, insecurity in the Sahel region, proliferation of small harms, reprisals,
deficient government responses, and phobia and hate speeches (Blench and Dendo, 2003;
Fasona and Omojola, 2005; Adenkunle and Adisa, 2010; International Crisis Group, 2017; Umoh,
2017; and Chukwuemeka, Aloysius and Enah, 2018). Scholars are agreed that as long as the root
causes of herders-farmers conflict are not overcome or eliminated by the government(s) and
key stakeholders, the desired peace necessitating sustainable socio-economic development of
rural and national economies will remain elusive and a mirage (Okeke, 2014; International Crisis
Group, 2017).
The search for peace has made federal, state and local governments as well as key stakeholders
(academics, religious bodies, ethnic groups, statesmen, political parties, civil society groups,
media, and the international community) to proffer several solutions to mitigate or ending the
crisis. Two recommendations that have been made are ranching and anti-open grazing bill.
While the federal government led by President Muhammadu Buhari has demonstrated a
preference for ranching, some state governments in the middle-belt and south have prioritized
no-open grazing act. The federal government’s justifications for ranching are that it would
constrain cattle movement, encourage sedentary settlements for herders, enhance cultural
integration, create a cattle-feed market for farmers, create a cattle-manure market for herders,
and attract livestock support services (veterinary hospitals, research centres, abattoirs, leather
and dairy factories). In contrast, the state’s anti-open grazing bill is premised on the need to
protect the lives, crops and properties of indigenous farmers and to forestall the perceived
Islamization of the Middles-Belt and South-Eastern states of Nigeria by the Fulani tribes through
herding. Both sides (i.e. the Federal Government of Nigeria and affected states) have since
commenced implementation of ranching (if consented-to by any state government) and no-open
grazing law. This apparent lack of consensus solution tends to have escalated the confusion,
mistrust, tension, and fear in the land.
Inquest for unbiased and objective solutions to the herders-farmers conflict, this study focused
on the submission of the academic scholars which are generally regarded as the fountain of
truth devoid of sentiments and emotion with a view to determine their recommendations on
this national issue.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Group of scholars have conceptualized conflict differently as a phenomenon (something that
exists), behavioural outcome (something that is caused), and activity or process (something that
is systematic or sequential). As a phenomenon, De Dreu and Gelfand (2008) defined conflict as a
social phenomenon that occurs across species, time periods, and cultures. That is a fight or
quarrel that occurs between or among individuals and ethnic-racial groups from time to time.
This suggests that conflict is ineliminable but manageable. In the same vein, Brauch and
Scheffran (2012) recognized conflict as a contest between two or more actors (individuals,
societal groups, states, or groups of states) over scarce and sought-after material and
immaterial goods, where the parties pursue contradictory aims or means. Similarly, Adetoye
and Omilusi (2015) described conflict as a form of struggle and rivalry for material and non-
material objects to which individuals and groups attach importance.
As a behavioural outcome, “conflict is manifested through adversarial social action, involving
two or more actors with the expression of differences often accompanied by intense hostilities”
(Jeong, 2010:3). Here, conflict connotes the action of one party (rightly or wrongly) that arouse
the reaction of another party (rightly or wrongly) as a way of communicating dissatisfaction,
International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship
Volume 10, No 1, Feb 2020 [101-112]
103
disagreement, or unacceptance which often degenerate into violence. According to Rahim
(2010), conflict is an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement or
dissonance within or between social activities. In essence, conflict arises during human
interactions in the workplaces, homes, occasions, and places of worship.
From a process perspective, De Dreu, Harinck, and Van Vianen (1999) stated that conflict is a
process that commences when an individual or group perceives differences and opposition
between itself and another individual or group about interests and resources, beliefs, values, or
practices that matter to them. Nicholson (1992) perceived conflict as an activity which takes
place when conscious beings (individuals and groups) wish to carryout mutually inconsistent
acts concerning their wants, needs or obligations. Gillin and Gillin (1949) clarified that conflict is
a social process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the
antagonist by violence or threat of violence.
In this study, conflict is regarded as the outcome of mismanaged disagreement between two or
more parties (individuals, groups, communities or nations) over differences in personal, social,
cultural, political and economic goals, aspirations or pursuits. Besides that, conflict also can be
caused by personal factors such as envy and mistrust, economic factors such as struggle for
limited resources and high unemployment rate, social factor such as income inequality and
poverty, cultural factors such as differences in value and religious faith, and political factors
such as flawed election and greedy attitude to stay in power until death.
Several theories have explained the causes of conflict (Lumumba-Kasongo, 2017). First, the
state-centric state or classical theory of conflict states that the right of a state to preserve and
protect its sovereignty and autonomous entity often lead to conflicts especially with external
aggressors or internal secessionists. In addition, the concentration of political power and
positions in the hands of one or a few ethnic groups in a multi-ethnic society can trigger conflict.
However, Waltz (1979) observed that the balance of power among different ethnic groups can
serve as a deterrent to conflict. In the Nigerian context, the encroachment of foreign nomadic
Fulani herders into farmlands owned by other ethnic nationalities in North-Central and
Southern Nigeria and the glaring government failure to forestall the encroachments as well as
the insecurity of lives and properties that ensued has made self-protection by ethnic
nationalities is inevitable. Such encroachment (offence or attack) and defence stance of both
parties caused the recurrent conflict between Fulani herders and sedentary farmers in most
parts of Nigeria and beyond.
Second, classical liberalism theory of conflict maintains that countries that have
institutionalized liberal democracy (where political powers are obtained through elections and
popular votes) and capitalism (where ownership of means of production resides with private
individuals) experience sustainable peace as against conflict if the reverse were to be the case.
Thus, attempts to block participation in the political or economic process can degenerate into a
conflict between the oppressor (government) and the oppressed (citizens).
Third, the social-conflict theory advanced by Karl Marx postulates that the excesses and
limitations of capitalism (private property, wage labour, capital accumulation, competition,
externalities, and unequal opportunities) create a class struggle between the capitalists and
proletarians. It is typical of the capitalist to exploit workers through unfair remuneration and
poor work environment thereby creating two social classes: the rich and richer capitalist and
the poor and poorer workers. On the other hand, it is typical of workers to unite and protest and
demand salary raise and better work condition. This parallel stance can be a source of conflict.
Fourth, the feminist theory of conflict posits that gender inequality as empowered men over
women in most societies of the world. It posits that women are supposed to enjoy equal rights
Mohammed Abubakar Mawoli and Abdul Adamu / Solutions to Herders-Farmers Conflict in Nigeria…
104
and privileges as men in all societies, however, the reality is that women rights and privileges
are often relegated leading to conflicts in homes, marriages, workplace, and politics.
The fifth theory of conflict is post-colonialism theory. Colonialism is about domination,
oppression, and slavery of the weak group usually by a stronger group. In contrast, post-
colonialism (political independence) is usually preceded by decolonization in the disobedience,
resistance, treaties, protests and armed struggle against colonial authorities. Lumumba-
Kasongo (2017) asserted that the relationship between oppression (colonialism) and freedom
(independence) is permanently conflicting.
3. METHODS
This paper is empirical in nature to the extent that it employed library-and-desk research
methods for data collection. The population of the study constitutes journal articles on herders-
farmers clashes in Nigeria. Twenty-eight papers (Adebayo and Olaniyi, 2008; Adekunle and
Adisa, 2010; Abbas, 2011; Gefu and Kolawole, n.d.; Chukwuma and Atelhe, 2014; Okeke, 2014;
Aliyu, 2015; Dimelu et al. 2016; Bala, n.d.; Johnson et. al. 2017; Roseline and Amusain, 2017;
International Crisis Group, 2017; Shehu, 2017; Amusan et. al. 2017; Idowua, 2017; Idowub, 2017,
Ogbeide, 2017; Ukamaka et al. 2017; Ogo-Oluwa, 2017; Eje et.al. 2017; Umoh, 2017;
Chukwuemeka et’ al. 2018; Ajibefun, 2018; Njoku, 2018; Nwobi, 2018; Udemezue, et’ al. 2018;
Oli et al. 2018; Omokhoa and Okuchukwu, 2018) were sourced and analyzed using content
analysis. Content analysis is “any technique for making inferences by systematically and
objectively identifying specified characteristics of messages” (Holsti, 1968:601). It is frequently
applied in describing the attributes of the message (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias, 2009).
Frequency counts and percentages were used to summarize the recording units (words and
phrases such as ranch, grazing reserves, grazing routes, policing, conflict resolution, anti-
grazing law, etc.) and context units. Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2009:239) affirmed that
“most content analysis research is quantitative in one form or the other”.
3.1 Findings and Business Implications
Recommendations from past studies on herders-farmers conflict were collated and analyzed
with the intent of determining the proffered solutions to the crisis. The finding and
corresponding business implications are presented under the following sub-headings:
3.2 Dialogue for Conflict Resolution
The most recommended remedy for the resolution of the herders-farmers conflict is the
‘dialogue and conflict resolution’ approaches at community levels. Specifically, 17 studies
amounting to 60.7 per cent recommended this approach. Indeed, conflict is totally unavoidable
in every human setting, however, its early detection and proper management could forestall
conflict escalation from individual to group levels, and from group to communal levels, and
beyond as witnessed in the case of herder-farmer clashes in Nigeria. Violent conflicts between
herders and farmers in the past had not only led to the depletion of the most important business
and economic asset – the human capital – but has equally led to the destruction of valuable
tangible farming assets such as crops, cattle, and produce stores as well as intangible farming
business assets such as the eroding of mutual trusts and business relationships. This
development negates the hallmark of business - the accumulation and preservation of business
assets for productive and commercial activities with many attendant benefits, namely labour
employment, profit maximization, revenue generation, apprentice training opportunities, and
poverty reduction. In fact, the alternative to the well established traditional approach to conflict
resolution between herders and farmers is reprisal, chaos, war and anarchy in the land which
International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship
Volume 10, No 1, Feb 2020 [101-112]
105
are antithetical to a conducive business environment. Okeke (2014) cautioned that conflicts
between farmers and herders in Nigeria can only be resolved when the consequences of not
doing so can no longer be ignored; that is when the conflict threaten national peace, stability,
and unity.
3.3 Orientation and Education of the Herders and Farmers
Table 1 shows that orientation and education of the herders as well as farmers’ is the second
leading recommendation with a frequency of 14, amounting to 50%. This suggests that the
majority of the herders and rural farmers are uneducated and uninformed about government
laws, policies and programmes which impede peaceful coexistence. This is one point that the
critics of the ranching system and fulaniphobia propagandists needs to factor in their analysis,
predictions, and judgment. An average herder is illiterate with neither Islamic nor western
education. Aliyu (2015) reported that 75 per cent of cattle herders had no formal education.
Now, the question is how the illiterate pastoralists propagate Islam in the North-central and
southern Nigeria when they lack the capacity to do so? Besides, the demands and rigour of cattle
grazing occupation make it difficult for the Fulani herders to spare time for the propagation of
Islamic faith. One wonders whether the rapid spread of Islam in Europe and the USA is also
orchestrated by Fulani pastoralists. The business implication of this phobia propaganda is that it
scares away husbandry and pastoral investors thereby stifling the growth and development of
rural economies where more than 70 per cent of Nigerian population lives. Lots of value chain
support for both crop and cattle farming are unharnessed due to this stance.
3.4 Ranching
Table 1 shows that out of several recommendations made by the authors of the 28 selected
papers, ranching has the third-highest frequency counts of 13, which represent 46.4 per cent.
This is consistent with the federal government position that creation and management of
ranches would provide a lasting solution to the herders-farmers conflict, provided that state
governments consented the idea by leasing out lands for such purposes. If ranching policy
receives the needed support of all key stakeholders for its successful implementation by the
federal government and investors, the rural economies of the states that make up Nigeria will
witness rapid growth along the value-chain of livestock farming business. First, investors can
build ranches, rent them out to herders and generate incomes on a sustainable basis. Second,
crop-farmers would begin to enjoy smooth farming activities with abundant harvest due to
stoppage of man-caused damages to the crops; this would increase annual income from sales of
farm produce. Third, crop remnants would no longer be regarded as a free gift of nature
awaiting free grazing by herders’ cattle. The stationary nature of ranch farming stimulates
demand for crop remnants (animal feeds) which further generates huge subsidiary income to
the farmers. Fourth, ranching enables the accumulation and gathering of cattle waste which is a
good source of organic manure that helps improve the quality of soil and crop yield. In fact,
farmers can swap fodder with cattle wastes just to exploit the barter alternative. Fifth, ranching
or cattle colonies could attract basic physical and socio-economic infrastructure ranging from
tarred roads, water supply systems, veterinary hospitals, health centres, abattoir, schools,
research institutes, dairy and skin markets among others which can benefit members of the
sedentary cattle migrants and indigenous farmers’ settlements. Sixth, the ranches across the
nation may be dominated by the Fulani tribes which would foster cultural integration and
national unity with the indigenous communities as enshrined and promoted by Section 15(3c)
of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999 as amended) which reads “for the
purpose of promoting national integration, it shall be the duty of the state to encourage inter-
marriage among persons from different places of origin, or of different religious, ethnic or
linguistic association or ties”. Seventh, another big potential of ranches is that they could grow
to become the centre of a tourist attraction with its accumulated benefits, namely labour
employment, the vibrancy of hotel, eatery and transportation services amongst others. Eight, it
Mohammed Abubakar Mawoli and Abdul Adamu / Solutions to Herders-Farmers Conflict in Nigeria…
106
could also checkmate the sprayed and transmission of diseases between cattle and humans
especially through cross-country migration, nomadism and open-grazing. Ninth, ranching could
reduce time committed to herding, thereby freeing labour hours for the acquisition of literacy
and vocation skills in which a majority of the herders are chronically lacking. Afuoku and Isife
(2010) found that 70 per cent of Fulani herders in Niger Delta had no western education. Such
extra labour hour could be channelled into crop production from which the farming herders will
experience and appreciate the cost, suffering, sacrifice and risks involved in the manual or
labour intensive crop farming. Tenth, security against cattle rustling can be enhanced through
ranching and business loss resulted from the reduction of crimes prevented by the used of
ranches.
3.5 Grazing Reserves
Table l also revealed that 10 sampled papers equivalent to 35.7 per cent recommended the
creation and use of grazing reserves and cattle routes as an antidote to herders and farmers
conflict in Nigeria. Though similar to ranching (confinement of livestock to a fenced area while
feeds are sourced externally), grazing reserves is a gazetted and demarcated green field
preserved for livestock rearing and production. It was first created in Nigeria in 1965 following
enactment of “Grazing Reserve Law of Northern Nigeria” and subsequently incorporated in the
second, third and fourth National Development Plans that lasted from 1970 to 1985 (Babalobi,
2016). However, the increased population of cattle to approximately 19.5 million in 2016
(Premium Times, 2016) calls for the introduction of new grazing reserves if the movement of
cattle must be curtailed to reduce or eliminate constant violent clashes and loss of lives. The
business implications of additional grazing reserves are similar to the ones already discussed
under ranching.
3.6 Security Measures (Policing, Arrest and Prosecution)
Data analysis, as presented in Table 1, reveals that proactive and reactive security measures by
the government represent the four-most recommended solution to the herder-farmers feud (8
or 28.6%). The proactive measures in corporate intelligence gathering, adequate training of
policemen, adequate tooling and motivation of the security personnel. The reactive measures
include the prompt response by the police and supportive security agencies to distress calls
from either the cultivators or pastoralists, making arrests, and ensuring appropriate
prosecution of the suspected attackers.
3.7 Aids for the Victim Farmers and Herders
Five (17.9%) out of all recommendations are in favour of providing relief to people displaced by
herders-farmers conflict. This can reduce the tendency for reprisal attacks, check the outbreak
of diseases and encourage resettlement for a new productive life.
3.8 Creation of Cattle Routes
Table 1 reveals that four papers equivalent to 14.3 per cent supported the creation of new cattle
routes. Grazing routes are gazetted and demarcated cattle road networks aimed at stopping
trace-pass by land-users and reducing friction between farmers and herders. Cattle grazing
routes may be de-emphasized in the long run if the ranches are eventually accepted by all and
sundry. Meanwhile, preservation of the exiting grazing routes and creation of new ones will not
only allow free flow of traffic on the highways but reduce the rate of accidents caused by cattle
intruders. In business, time is money.
International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship
Volume 10, No 1, Feb 2020 [101-112]
107
3.9 Other Remedies
Other unpopular but important recommendations in the sampled studies are the amendment of
right to land use acts (10.7%) and encouragement of sedentary settlement for herders (10.7%).
Furthermore, each of the following nine different recommendations (anti-open grazing law,
regulated grazing and farming, cattle census and tracking, securing national borders, mitigating
drought and desertification, creating grazing guards, providing water reservoir, total resistance
to herders’ land use, and integrating herders-farmers in policymaking) have equal frequency
count of two, which is equivalent to 7.4 per cent. The business implication of government
proactive approach to security threats, securing national borders, registering cattle with
trackers, and creating grazing guards is that the farming business environment, as well as
investors’ confidence, will be greatly enhanced which can translate to greater livestock and crop
production. The recommendations with one per cent in this group are unbiased media report,
fodder bank, stock reserves, cattle rearing tax, and insurance cover for farmers and herders.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Efforts of the federal and state governments towards finding a lasting solution to the herders-
farmers conflict have not been generally accepted apparently for religious, ethnic and political
differences. Thus, this study examined the recommendations of studies conducted by the
academics for the purpose of identifying the objective-based solution to the seemingly unending
crisis. Arising from the findings above, the study concludes that application of conflict resolution
mechanism, mass orientation and education, and confinement of cattle rearing to ranches and
grazing-reserves remain the viable solutions to the lingering problems associated with herders-
farmers violent clashes.
This paper recommends that:
i. Both formal method (police/courts) and informal method (traditional leaders) of
settling disputes between herders and farmers should be explored to restore normalcy
in every crisis situation relating to herding and farming.
ii. Mass orientation and education for herders and farmers on the existing no-open grazing
laws in some state, grazing routes, and grazing reserves across the country should be
strengthened to encourage obedience to the law and discourage the habit of trespassing
by either party, which is often the cause of the feud.
iii. Ranches should be created and leased to herders as a mark of non-ownership of land in
order to address the fear of land usurpation in the long-run. In addition, the ranches
proposed by the Federal Government of Nigeria should be piloted in some affected
states to be able to appraise its real potentials rather than totally rejecting it without
subjecting it to any form of experimentation. The paper also recommends that the
opponents of ranches should fear nothing but fear itself, because “there is no
compulsion in (Islam) religion” (Quran 2:256) – meaning that no Muslim is allowed to
force anybody to accept the Islamic faith. Nwobi (2018) affirmed that ranching option
and grazing reserves are rejected in the south-east zone because of “the fear of being
colonized by the northerners”.
Mohammed Abubakar Mawoli and Abdul Adamu / Solutions to Herders-Farmers Conflict in Nigeria…
108
REFERENCES
Abbas, I. M. (2014). No retreat no surrender conflict for survival between Fulani pastoralists
and farmers in Northern Nigeria, European Scientific Journal, 8(1), 331-346.
Adebayo, O. O. & Olaniyi, O. A. (2008). Factors associated with pastoral and crop farmers conflict
in derived savannah zone of Oyo State, Nigeria, Journal of Human Ecology, 23(1), 71-74.
Adekunle, O. A. & Adisa, S. R. (2010). An empirical phenomenological psychological study of
farmer-herdsmen conflicts in North-Central Nigeria, Journal of Alternative Perspectives in
Social Sciences, 2 (1), 1-27.
Adetoye, D. & Omilusi, M. O. (2015).Ethno-religious conflicts and democracy in Nigeria. Global
Journal of Arts Humanities and Social Sciences, 3 (1), 51-58.
Afuoka, A. U. & Isife, B. I. (2010). Causes, effects and resolution of farmers-nomadic cattle
herders conflict in Delta State Nigeria, Agricultura Tropica ET Subtropica, 43(1), 33-41.
Ajibefun, M. B. (2018). Social and economic effects of the menace of the Fulani herdsmen crises
in Nigeria, Journal of Educational and Social Research, 8 (2), 133-139.
Aliyu, A. S. (2015). Causes and resolution of conflict between cattle herders and crop farmers in
Katsina State, Master Dissertation in Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria.
Amusan, L., Abegunde, O. & Akinyemi, T. E. (2017). Climate change, pastoral migration, resource
governance and security: the grazing bill solution to farmer-herder conflict in Nigeria,
Environmental Economics, 8(3), 35-45.
Audu, S. D. (2014). Freshwater scarcity: a threat to peaceful co-existence between farmers and
pastoralists in Northern Nigeria, International Journal of Development and Sustainability,
3(1), 242-251.
Babalobi, O. O. (2016). Ranches, grazing reserves, and (Fulani) pastoralism in Nigeria: past,
present and future.
Blench, R. & Dendo, M. (2003). The transformation of conflict between pastoralists and
cultivators in Nigeria, in M. Moritz (Ed.), Journal Africa, United Kingdom: Cambridge.
Brauch, H. G. & Scheffran, J. (2012). Climate change, human security, and violent conflict:
challenges ad societal stability, London: Springer.
Chukwuemeka, E. E. O., Aloysius, A. & Eneh, M. I. (2018). The logic of open grazing in Nigeria:
interrogating the effect on sustaining development, International Journal of Family Business
and Management Studies. 2(1), 1-17.
Constitution (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
De Dreu, C. K. W., Harinck, F., & Van Vianen, A. E. M. (1999). Conflict and performance in groups
and organizations. In C. L. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial
and Organizational Psychology, Chichester, UK: Wiley, 14, 369–414).
Dimelu, M. U., Salifu, D. E., Enwelu, A. I. & Igbokwe, E. M. (2016). Challenges of herdsmen-
farmers’ conflict in livestock production in Nigeria: experience of pastoralists in Kogi State,
Nigeria, African Journal of Agricultural Research, 12 (8) 642-650.
Eje, T.I ., Angai, I. Y., Abdullahi, Y. B., Eje, P. O., Wudaba, L. E. & Ishaku, N. (2017). Pattern and
impacts of conflict between farmers and herders in Riyom Local Government Area, Plateau
State, Nigeria, International Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, 5(10), 256-271.
Fasona, M. J. & Omojola, A. S. (2005). Climate change, human security and communal clashes in
Nigeria, International Workshop in Human Security and Climate change, Holmen Fjord Hotel,
Oslo, 3-13
Frankfort-Nachmias, C. & Nachmias, D. (2009). Research methods in the social sciences (5th ed.),
London: Hodder Education.
Gefu, J. O. & Kolawole, A. (n.d.). Conflict in common property resource use: experiences from an
irrigation project, 9th Conference of the International Association for the Study of Common
Property.
Gillin, J. W. & Gillin, J. P. (1949). A revision of a introduction to sociology, New York: The
Macmillan Company.
International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship
Volume 10, No 1, Feb 2020 [101-112]
109
Holsti, O. R. (1968). Content analysis, in G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Ed.), The handbook of social
psychology, Mass: Addison-Wesley.
Idowu, A. P. (2017). Urban violence dimension in Nigeria, AGATHOS International Review, 8,
1(8), 187-206.
Idowu D. L. (2017). Causes, consequences and resolution of environmental conflict in Nigeria.
International Journal of Social Science and Economic Research., 2(1), 2064-2076.
International Crisis Group. (2017). Herders against farmers: Nigeria’s expanding deadly conflict,
Africa Report, 252.
Jeong, H. (2010). Conflict Management and Resolution: An Introduction, London: Routledge.
Johnson, I. A. & Okunola, B. T. (2017). Pastoralism as a new phase of terrorism in Nigeria, Global
Journal of Human-Social Science, 17(4) 49-54.
Lumumba-Kasongo, T. (2017). Contemporary theories of conflict and their social and political
implications, in Gahama, J. and Lumumba-Kasongo, T. (Ed.), Peace, security and post-conflict
reconstruction in the Great Lakes Region of Africa, Baltimore, Maryland: Council for the
Development of Social Science Research in Africa.
Moore, K. M. (2005). Conflict, social capital and managing resources: a West African case study.
CABI Publishing, Cambridge, USA, 44-53
Nicholson, M. (1992). Rationality and the analysis of international conflict, Cambridge University
Press.
Njoku, A. O. (2018). Herdsmen-farmers clashes in Nigeria: implications for economic growth
and national security, Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities, 6(1), 1-19.
Nwobi, U. A. (2018) Herders and farmers conflict: implications for economic development in
Nigeria, Copernican International Journal of Metascience, Science and Technology, 2(2), 165-
182.
Ogbeide, O. A. (2017). Fulani herdsmen and communal clashes in Nigeria: issues and solutions,
Mayfair Journal of Agribusiness Management, 1(2) 50-61.
Ogo-Oluwa, S. O. (2017). Anti-grazing policy and conflict resolution between Fulani herdsmen
and farmers in Ekiti State. Asian Research Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 4(1), 1-13.
Okeke, O. E. (2014). Conflicts between Fulani herders and farmers in central and southern
Nigeria: discourse on the proposed establishments of grazing routes and reserves, AFREV
International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(1), 66-84.
Okoli, A. C. & Atelhe, A. G. (2014). Nomads against natives: a political ecology of herder-farmer
conflicts in Nasarawa State, Nigeria, American International Journal of Contemporary
Research, 4(2) 76-88.
Oli, N. P., Ibekwe, C. C. & Nwankwo, I. U. (2018). Prevalence of herdsmen and farmers conflict in
Nigeria, International Journal of Innovative Studies in Sociology and Humanities, 3(1), 30-39.
Omkhoa, I. E. & Okuchukwo. (2018). Land resource governance and harders-farmers conflict in
Nigeria, International Journal of Law, 4(3), 104-112.
Premium Times. (2016). Nigeria releases census of goats, sheep, pigs, other livestock in the
country, website: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/204577-nigeria-
releases-census-goats-sheep-pigs-livestock-country.html
Rahim, M. A. (2010). Managing conflict in organizations, Transaction Publishers.
Roseline, O. & Amusain, O. (2017). Effect of Fulani herders’ intrusion on the economic livelihood
of crop farmers in Yagba Local Government Area of Kogi State, Nigeria, International Journal
of Agricultural Policy and Research, 5 (3), 80-85.
Shehu, A. (2017). Newspaper coverage of herders/farmers conflict in Nigeria, International
Journal of Communication, 22(1), 213-225.
Umoh, N. R. (2017). Pastoralism in Nigeria’s Middle-belt region: a resource or a curse?
International Journal for Development and Economic Sustainability, 5(1), 11-30.
Walz, K. (1979). The theory of international politics, London: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.
Mohammed Abubakar Mawoli and Abdul Adamu / Solutions to Herders-Farmers Conflict in Nigeria…
110
Appendix
Frequency Distribution on the Recommended Solution to Herders-Farmers’ Conflict in Nigeria
Recommended solution to
Herders-Farmers’ conflict
Freq.
Per cent
Ranking
Sources
Establishment of dialogue and
conflict resolution platforms at the
community, local government and
state government levels
17
60.7
1
Adebayo and Olaniyi (2008), Adekunle and
Adisa (2010), Gefu and Kolawole (n.d.), Okoli
and Atelhe (2014), Audu (2014), Dimelu et. al.
(2016), International Crisis Group (2017), Eje
et.al (2017), Idowu (2017), Ogbeide (2017),
Johnson et. al. (2017), Ogo-Oluwa (2017),
Chukwuemeka, Aduma and Eneh (2018),
Ajibefun (2018), Njoku (2018), Nwobi (2018),
Udemezue, Ede and Udeji (2018)
Orienting and educating herders
and farmers
14
50
2
Adekunle and Adisa (2010), Abbas (2011), Okoli
and Atelhe (2014), Audu (2014), Aliyu (2015),
Dimelu et. al. (2016), Bala (n.d.), Ogbeide
(2017), Umoh (2017), Eje et.al (2017), Ukamaka
et al. (2017), Ajibefun (2018), Udemezue, Ede
and Udeji (2018), Oli et. al. (2018)
Ranching
13
46.4
3
Gefu and Kolawole (n.d.), Okoli and Atelhe
(2014), International Crisis Group (2017),
Amusan et. al. (2017), Iduwu (2017), Ogbeide
(2017), Ogo-Oluwa (2017), Eje et.al (2017),
Chukwuemeka, Aduma and Eneh (2018),
Ajibefun (2018), Njoku (2018), Nwobi (2018),
Omokhoa and Okuchukwu (2018).
Grazing reserves (beaconing,
gazetting, and enforcement)
10
35.7
4
Aliyu (2015), Johnson et. al. (2017), Roseline
and Amusain (2017), Okoli And Atelhe (2014),
Ogo-Oluwa (2017), International Crisis Group
(2017), Gefu And Kolawole (N.D.), Idowu
(2017), Oli et. al. (2018), Omokhoa and
Okuchukwu (2018).
Government proactive and
reactive security measures
8
28.6
5
Audu (2014), International Crisis Group (2017),
Ajibefun (2018), Eje et.al (2017), Idowu (2017),
Johnson et. al. (2017), Oli et. al. (2018),
Omokhoa and Okuchukwu (2018).
Assist farmers with modern
farming tools and techniques to
restore soil fertility (resettlement
interventions)
5
17.9
6
Adekunle and Adisa (2010), Dimelu et. al.
(2016), Ukamaka et al. (2017), Nwobi (2018),
Idowu (2017)
Cattle routes (beaconing,
gazetting, and enforcement)
4
14.3
7
Adekunle and Adisa (2010), Aliyu (2015), Gefu
and Kolawole (n.d.), Roseline And Amusain
(2017)
Amending Right to Land Use to
accommodates needs of herders
and farmers
3
10.7
8
Abbas (2011), Aliyu (2015), Gefu and Kolawole
(n.d.), Umoh (2017)
Sedentary settlements for
nomadic herders
3
10.7
8
Aliyu (2015), Ogbeide (2017), Okeke (2014)
Anti-open grazing bill/law
2
7.4
9
Umoh (2017), Idowu (2017)
Regulating grazing and farming
activities
2
7.4
9
Okoli and Atelhe (2014), Omokhoa and
Okuchukwu (2018).
Cattle census and tracking
2
7.4
9
Nwobi (2018), Umoh (2017)
Herders-farmers integration in
policymaking
2
7.4
9
Aliyu (2015), Ukamaka et al. (2017)
Address environmental problems
of drought and desertification
2
7.4
9
Okoli and Atelhe (2014), International Crisis
Group (2017)
Total resistance to herders’ land
acquisition
2
7.4
9
Umoh (2017), Nwobi (2018)
Creating and training grazing
guards and state police
2
7.4
9
Ogo-Oluwa (2017), Eje et.al (2017),
Water reservoir for cattle
2
7.4
9
Roseline, et al. (2017), Oli et. al. (2018),
Securing national boarders against
2
7.4
9
International Crisis Group (2017), Ogo-Oluwa
International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship
Volume 10, No 1, Feb 2020 [101-112]
111
foreign herders and Strengthening
regional cooperation
(2017);
Unbiased media report
1
3.6
10
Shehu (2017)
Fodder bank (stock reserve)
1
3.6
10
Gefu and Kolawole (n.d.)
Cattle rearing tax
1
3.6
10
Idowu (2017)
Insurance cover for farmers
1
3.6
10
(Idowu 2017)
Legend: N= 28
Source: Content Survey, 2018
