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Cluster-sets resistance training induce similar functional and strength improvements than the traditional method in postmenopausal and elderly women
Abstract
Objective: To compare the effects of 12 weeks of traditional resistance training (TRT) or resistance training using Cluster-set (CS) on functional performance and physical fitness of postmenopausal and elderly women.
Methods: Participants (61.1±4.9 years, body mass 64.5±1.8 kg, height 155.7±4.7 cm) were randomized to TRT (n= 35) or CS (n=31). Anthropometric measures, muscle strength and power, gait speed, core stability, flexibility, and functional performance tests were performed before and after 12 weeks of training. The difference between protocols was the structure of rest intervals. The TRT group performed 150 seconds of rest between sets of 8 repetitions, while the CS performed 30 seconds of rest after every 2 repetitions. Two-way ANOVA with repeated measures was applied for each variable and, when needed, the Bonferroni post hoc was used. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. Results: No group by time interaction was found for any variable. Regarding between-moment comparisons, there were significant improvements for 1 repetition maximum (RM) bench press (F= 104.6; ηp²= 0.62; p <0.001), 1RM leg press (F= 74.6; ηp²= 0.53; p< 0.001), medicine ball throw (F= 64.0; ηp²= 0.26; p< 0.001), standing long jump (F= 27.6; ηp²= 0.30; p< 0.001), countermovement jump (F= 17.4; ηp²= 0.21; p <0.001), squat jump (F= 23.2; ηp²= 0.26; p <0.001), plank time (F= 31.6; ηp²= 0.33; p <0.001), 6m walking test (F= 18.0; ηp²= 0.22; p <0.001), sit-to-stand test (F= 20.4; ηp²= 0.24; p <0.001), sit and reach test (F= 56.8; ηp²= 0.47; p <0.001) and 2kg elbow curls (F= 15.9; ηp²= 0.19; p <0.001).
Conclusion: Considering that both CS and TRT methods were equally effective to improve the physical fitness and functionality of elderly women, the decision of which protocol to use should be based on individual preferences and practical aspects.
... 4,8 For example, in the comprehensive review conducted by Jukic et al, 4 it was found that 8 of the studies exclusively focused on male participants, whereas only 2 studies specifically addressed female subjects. 12,13 Similarly, 14 studies included in the review of Davies et al 8 considered exclusively males, and only 4 studies used exclusively females. [12][13][14][15] Out of the 4 studies exclusively centered on female participants, 2 investigated postmenopausal and elderly women, 12,13 and the remaining 2 focused on female athletes, including volleyball players 15 and karate practitioners. ...
... 12,13 Similarly, 14 studies included in the review of Davies et al 8 considered exclusively males, and only 4 studies used exclusively females. [12][13][14][15] Out of the 4 studies exclusively centered on female participants, 2 investigated postmenopausal and elderly women, 12,13 and the remaining 2 focused on female athletes, including volleyball players 15 and karate practitioners. 14 Therefore, it becomes apparent that further research directed toward female athletes is required. ...
... 12,13 Similarly, 14 studies included in the review of Davies et al 8 considered exclusively males, and only 4 studies used exclusively females. [12][13][14][15] Out of the 4 studies exclusively centered on female participants, 2 investigated postmenopausal and elderly women, 12,13 and the remaining 2 focused on female athletes, including volleyball players 15 and karate practitioners. 14 Therefore, it becomes apparent that further research directed toward female athletes is required. ...
Purpose: This study's purpose is to investigate the midterm effects of alternative set configurations (cluster [CL] and rest redistribution [RR]) on lower-and upper-body neuromuscular capacities in female athletes. Method: Twenty team sport female athletes were randomly assigned to a CL (n = 10) or RR (RRG; n = 10) training group. The study protocol comprised 2 pretests, 12 training sessions, and a posttest. Both groups engaged in identical exercises (squat and bench press), load intensity (75% of 1-repetition maximum), and volume (18 repetitions per exercise). The distinction between the groups lay in the total session rest time: CL group had 23 minutes (3 sets of 6 repetitions with 30 s of intraset rest every 2 repetitions and 3 min of interset rest), whereas RRG had 17 minutes (9 sets of 2 repetitions with 45 s of interset rest). Countermovement jump height and load-velocity relationship variables (load-intercept [L 0 ], velocity-intercept [v 0 ], and area under the load-velocity relationship line) were assessed during the squat and bench press exercises. Results: All dependent variables revealed greater values at post-compared with pretest (P ≤ .040; averaged Hedges g = 0.35 for CL group and 0.60 for RRG), but "time" × "group" interactions never reached statistical significance (P ≥ .144). Likewise, the comparison of the magnitude of changes between the 2 groups revealed only trivial differences, except for a small greater change in bench press area under the load-velocity relationship line for RRG (Hedges g = 0.40). Conclusions: RR is a more efficient strategy than CL for inducing strength gains in female athletes.
... recommended due to the large amount of fatigue that is developed [17], greater time-under-tension [16], metabolite accumulation [18] and greater muscle activation in later phases of the set compared to cluster set configurations [19]. However, while several studies show support for the superiority of traditional compared to cluster set configurations for the development of muscular strength [8,9,[20][21][22], others do not [23][24][25] or show no difference [26][27][28]. In addition, during specific phases of RT, movement velocity and power output are a primary focus. ...
... A total of 29 studies were included in the meta-analysis, with a total of 803 participants (cluster set: n = 388, traditional set: n = 415). The average age ranged from 17 to 63 years, with 14 studies using exclusively males [8,9,20,22,24,25,27,28,30,31,41,[43][44][45], four studies using exclusively females [23,42,46,47] and 11 using a mixed-sex sample [21,26,40,[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55]. The majority (n = 15) of studies were conducted in untrained participants [8,21,23,25,27,31,40,41,43,47,49,50,52,54,55], 13 studies included trained participants [9, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 42, 44-46, 48, 51, 53] and only one study included "athletic" participants [20]. ...
... The average age ranged from 17 to 63 years, with 14 studies using exclusively males [8,9,20,22,24,25,27,28,30,31,41,[43][44][45], four studies using exclusively females [23,42,46,47] and 11 using a mixed-sex sample [21,26,40,[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55]. The majority (n = 15) of studies were conducted in untrained participants [8,21,23,25,27,31,40,41,43,47,49,50,52,54,55], 13 studies included trained participants [9, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 42, 44-46, 48, 51, 53] and only one study included "athletic" participants [20]. Detailed participant and intervention characteristics are shown in Tables 1 and 2. ...
Background
The acute responses to cluster set resistance training (RT) have been demonstrated. However, as compared to traditional sets, the effect of cluster sets on muscular and neuromuscular adaptations remains unclear.Objective
To compare the effects of RT programs implementing cluster and traditional set configurations on muscular and neuromuscular adaptations.Methods
Systematic searches of Embase, Scopus, Medline and SPORTDiscus were conducted. Inclusion criteria were: (1) randomized or non-randomized comparative studies; (2) publication in English; (3) participants of all age groups; (4) participants free of any medical condition or injury; (5) cluster set intervention; (6) comparison intervention utilizing a traditional set configuration; (7) intervention length ≥ three weeks and (8) at least one measure of changes in strength/force/torque, power, velocity, hypertrophy or muscular endurance. Raw data (mean ± SD or range) were extracted from included studies. Hedges’ g effect sizes (ES) ± standard error of the mean (SEM) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated.ResultsTwenty-nine studies were included in the meta-analysis. No differences between cluster and traditional set configurations were found for strength (ES = − 0.05 ± 0.10, 95% CI − 0.21 to 0.11, p = 0.56), power output (ES = 0.02 ± 0.10, 95% CI − 0.17 to 0.20, p = 0.86), velocity (ES = 0.15 ± 0.13, 95% CI − 0.10 to 0.41, p = 0.24), hypertrophy (ES = − 0.05 ± 0.14, 95% CI − 0.32 to 0.23, p = 0.73) or endurance (ES = − 0.07 ± 0.18, 95% CI − 0.43 to 0.29, p = 0.70) adaptations. Moreover, no differences were observed when training volume, cluster set model, training status, body parts trained or exercise type were considered.Conclusion
Collectively, both cluster and traditional set configurations demonstrate equal effectiveness to positively induce muscular and neuromuscular adaptation(s). However, cluster set configurations may achieve such adaptations with less fatigue development during RT which may be an important consideration across various exercise settings and stages of periodized RT programs.
... This avoided double counting individuals from those studies in the meta-analysis. While extracting the data from the studies, we noticed that several studies [34,61,79,80] reported the effects of alternative set structures on muscular endurance as assessed by the work completed during repetitions to muscular failure. Therefore, although not originally planned we also meta-analysed the effects of alternative set structures on muscular endurance. ...
... Therefore, the total number of participants was reduced to 366 (209 males, 117 females, and 40 unspecified). Of the seventeen included studies, two studies included only females [59,79], five studies [60,61,80,86,89] included males and females, two studies did not specify sex [58,88], and the remaining studies included only males. Participants in eight studies had at least 6 months of resistance training experience, in three studies participants had no previous resistance training experience, while prior resistance training experience was not reported in six studies. ...
... Mean study duration was approximately 7 weeks (range 4-12 weeks). Only four studies specified adherence with the intervention [55,57,79,90] which was generally very high. Ten studies compared RR to TS, and seven studies compared CS to TS. Exercises during training interventions were performed using exclusively weight machines in seven studies, Smith machines or free-weights in three studies, while the combination of these training modalities was used in four studies. ...
Background
The acute effects of resistance training (RT) set structure alteration are well established; however, less is known about their effects on chronic training adaptations.Objective
The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to synthesise the available evidence on the effectiveness of traditional (TS), cluster (CS) and rest redistribution (RR) set structures in promoting chronic RT adaptations, and provide an overview of the factors which might differentially influence the magnitude of specific training adaptations between set structure types.Methods
This review was performed using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines encompassing the literature search of five databases. Studies in English that compared muscular strength, endurance, and/or hypertrophy adaptations, as well as vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts in the slopes of force–velocity profiles between TS and CS or RR set structures (i.e., alternative set structures) were included. Risk of bias assessment was performed using a modified Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions were performed where possible.Results17 studies met the inclusion criteria, none had more than one risk of bias item assessed as high risk. Pooled results revealed that none of the set structures were more effective at inducing strength (standardised mean difference (SMD) = − 0.06) or hypertrophy (SMD = − 0.03). TS were more effective at improving muscular endurance compared to alternative set structures (SMD = − 0.38), whereas alternative set structures tended to be more effective for vertical jump performance gains (SMD = 0.13), but this effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.190). Greater velocity and power outputs at submaximal loads (SMD = 0.18) were observed when using alternative set structures compared to TS. In addition, alternative set structures promoted greater shifts of the slope of force–velocity profiles towards more velocity dominant profiles compared to TS (SMD = 0.28). Sub-group analyses controlling for each alternative set structure independently showed mixed results likely caused by the relatively small number of studies available for some outcomes.Conclusion
Modifying TS to an alternative set structure (CS or RR) has a negligible impact on strength and hypertrophy. Using CS and RR can lead to greater vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts to more velocity dominant force–velocity profiles compared to training using TS. However, TS may provide more favourable effects on muscle endurance when compared to CS and RR. These findings demonstrate that altering TS to alternative set structures may influence the magnitude of specific muscular adaptations indicating set structure manipulation is an important consideration for RT program design.Protocol registrationThe original protocol was prospectively registered (CRD42019138954) with the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews).
... Therefore, whether resistance training is utilized by athletes or patients, monitoring exercise intensity is crucial to guaranteeing its safety and effectiveness. When performing resistance training, the Borg scale (6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20) and CR-10 are frequently used to assess perceived exhaustion (RPE). They are basic, simple to use, and appropriate for both patients and non-patients to exercise 7 . ...
... Elastic bands are one type of resistance training tool that is often used 9 . Different types of exercise and training methods provide similar functional and strength improvements , but also biomarker's serum changes 10,11 . In order to identify specific exercise effects, new scales of perceived exertion, needs to be examined 12 . ...
... It is known that explosive strength and strength endurance are 2 strength manifestations of paramount importance for performance in many sports (1,34). From the 10 studies examining RR set structures in the review by Jukic et al. (21), 7 evaluated explosive-strength performance as the velocity (or power) attained at submaximal loads (3,7,16,18,23,24,31) and 3 evaluated strength-endurance performance as the number of repetitions completed to failure (8), number or repetitions performed in a given time (6), or the time to task failure during an isometric submaximal contraction (18 20.72; p 5 0.038). However, despite that for actions that influence sports performance (e.g., jumps, sprints, change of direction, throws, etc.), the ability to maintain high mechanical outputs over time is generally more important than the number of repetitions completed to failure or the ability to maintain a submaximal force output; surprisingly, no study has used this variable as an indicator of strength-endurance performance when comparing the long-term adaptations between TR and RR set configurations. ...
... Our hypothesis regarding the adaptations in strengthendurance performance was rejected because the training adaptations were comparable for both groups in the case of the SQ and greater for the RRG in the case of the BP. Of note is that previous studies comparing the long-term adaptations in strength-endurance performance between TR and alternative set structures (RR or cluster) generally reported the number of repetitions completed to failure or in a given time or the ability to maintain a submaximal force output as indicators of strengthendurance performance (6,8,18). The meta-analysis by Jukic et al. (21) .07]) ...
Janicijevic, D, González-Hernández, JM, Jiménez-Reyes, P, Márquez, G, and García-Ramos, A. Longitudinal effects of traditional and rest redistribution set configurations on explosive-strength and strength-endurance manifestations. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-This study aimed to compare the long-term effects of resistance training programs based on traditional and rest redistribution set configurations on explosive-strength and strength-endurance performance of lower-body and upper-body muscles. Thirty physically active men were randomly assigned to a traditional group (TRG: 6 sets of 5 repetitions with 3 minutes of interset rest) or a rest redistribution group (RRG: 30 sets of 1 repetition with 31 seconds of interrepetition rest). The training program lasted 6 weeks (2 sessions·wk 21), and in each training session, the squat and bench press exercises were performed with maximal concentric effort against approximately the 75% of the 1 repetition maximum. Before and after training, explosive-strength performance (peak velocity reached at submaximal loads during the countermovement jump and bench press throw) and strength-endurance performance (mean set velocity of 10 repetitions using both traditional and cluster sets in the squat and bench press) were assessed. Significant improvements in all dependent variables were observed after training for both the TRG (p # 0.004; effect size [ES] 5 0.63-3.06) and RRG (p # 0.001; ES 5 0.58-3.23). The magnitude of the changes was comparable for both groups with the only exception of the larger improvements observed in the RRG for the bench press mean set velocity using both traditional (ES 5 0.77) and cluster (ES 5 0.82) set configurations. Traditional and rest redistribution set configurations are equally effective to improve lower-body explosive strength, lower-body strength endurance, and upper-body explosive strength, whereas rest redistribution set configurations could induce greater adaptations in upper-body strength endurance.
... Despite this, Miller et al. [72] suggests that a supervised inter-repetition paradigm is both feasible and enjoyable for older adults. However, to our knowledge, longer CS training interventions in older adults is limited to three studies [73][74][75]. Ramirez-Campillo et al. [73] compared the effects of 12 weeks of HSRT using CS or TS configurations versus non-training controls in 52 older women. Both groups completed a total of 3 × 8 repetitions at 45%, 60% and 75% of baseline 1RM. ...
... Despite somewhat positive results in the aforementioned studies, not all evidence suggests an additional benefit of CS over TS in aged populations. For example, most recently, Dias et al. [74] used the same TS and CS structures as Ramirez-Campillo et al. [73] and found no between-group differences after 12 weeks of RT in a sample of 66 postmenopausal elderly women. Although direct evidence is limited, at the very least, additional rest periods implemented during CS appear feasible for older adults despite similar reported muscular adaptations and improvements in maximum strength compared to TS. Prospectively, the application of CS into RT programs may also allow older adults to perform HSRT at higher-loads and velocities to support functional improvements (Table 1); though evidence is equivocal. ...
Resistance training (RT) is a fundamental component of exercise prescription aimed at improving overall health and function. RT techniques such as cluster set (CS) configurations, characterized by additional short intra-set or inter-repetition rest intervals, have been shown to maintain acute muscular force, velocity, and ‘power’ outputs across a RT session, and facilitate positive longer-term neuromuscular adaptations. However, to date CS have mainly been explored from a human performance perspective despite potential for application in health and clinical exercise settings. Therefore, this current opinion piece aims to highlight emerging evidence and provide a rationale for why CS may be an advantageous RT technique for older adults, and across several neurological, neuromuscular, cardiovascular and pulmonary settings. Specifically, CS may minimize acute fatigue and adverse physiologic responses, improve patient tolerance of RT and promote functional adaptations (i.e., force, velocity, and power). Moreover, we propose that CS may be a particularly useful exercise rehabilitation technique where injury or illness, persistent fatigue, weakness and dysfunction exist. We further suggest that CS offer an alternative RT strategy that can be easily implemented alongside existing exercise/rehabilitation programs requiring no extra cost, minimal upskilling and/or time commitment for the patient and professional. In light of the emerging evidence and likely efficacy in clinical exercise practice, future research should move toward further direct investigation of CS-based RT in a variety of adverse health conditions and across the lifespan given the already demonstrated benefits in healthy populations.
... From a practical standpoint, previous studies showed that untrained young and older adults can obtain many health benefits (e.g. increased functionality and cardiovascular improvements) from minimal dose RT protocols involving two sets of 3 to 4 basic exercises with a training frequency of one or two session per week (Barbalho et al., 2017;Dias et al., 2020;Fisher et al., 2014;Seguro et al., 2019;Souza et al., 2019). ...
... A previous study suggested that high-velocity RT might be a feasible and safe strategy to revert or prevent functional decline during acute hospitalization (Martínez-Velilla et al., 2019). Thus, the performance of few repetitions using high-velocity concentric muscle action combined with long rest intervals and/or intra-set short pauses could provide significant gains on functionality while prevent higher cardiovascular stress (Dias et al., 2020;Lamotte et al., 2010). Considering that the use of light to moderate loads (e.g. 30 to 60% of 1 RM) are recommended to optimize muscle power (Fragala et al., 2019), this might be easily achieved with small implements such light dumbbells or elastic devices. ...
The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has emerged at the end of 2019 and caused a global pandemic. The disease predominantly affects the respiratory system; however, there is evidence that it is a multisystem disease that also impacts the cardiovascular system. Although the long-term consequences of COVID-19 are not well-known, evidence from similar diseases alerts for the possibility of long-term impaired physical function and reduced quality of life, especially in those requiring critical care. Therefore, rehabilitation strategies are needed to improve outcomes in COVID-19 survivors. Among the possible strategies, resistance training (RT) might be particularly interesting, since it has been shown to increase functional capacity both in acute and chronic respiratory conditions and in cardiac patients. The present article aims to propose evidence-based and practical suggestions for RT prescription for people who have been diagnosed with COVID-19 with a special focus on immune, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. Based on the current literature, we present RT as a possible safe and feasible activity that can be time-efficient and easy to be implemented in different settings.
... Resistance training significantly increased muscle strength and power; however, vitamin D supplementation did not influence these results. The positive effects of resistance training on muscle strength and physical function have been consistently demonstrated in postmenopausal and older women [47][48][49][50][51]. The lack of results for the effect of vitamin D on muscle function, alone or combined with resistance training, is in agreement with previous studies [52,53], including a meta-analysis [54]. ...
... Ramirez-Campillo and colleagues found after 12 weeks of thrice weekly cluster set training (12 clusters of 2 repetitions with 30 s rest, 45-75% 1RM) there were significantly greater improvements in 10-m walking speed, 30-s sit to stands, timed-up and go, and quality of life when compared to the traditional resistance training group and control [33]. However, Dias et al. [34] observed similar improvements following either cluster sets or traditional resistance training in muscular strength, power, endurance and walking speed in the same population. Therefore, there is promising evidence that suggests utilising cluster sets can result in improvements in muscle function for cardiac patients. ...
The integration of resistance training for cardiac patients leads to important health outcomes that are not optimally obtained with aerobic exercise; these include an increase in muscle mass, maintenance of bone mineral density, and improvements in muscular fitness parameters. Despite the proliferation of evidence supporting resistance exercise in recent decades, the implementation of resistance training is underutilised, and prescription is often sub-optimal in cardiac patients. This is frequently associated with safety concerns and inadequate methods of practical exercise prescription. This review discusses the potential application of cluster sets to prescribe interval resistance training in cardiac populations. The addition of planned, regular passive intra-set rest periods (cluster sets) in resistance training (i.e., interval resistance training) may be a practical solution for reducing the magnitude of haemodynamic responses observed with traditional resistance training. This interval resistance training approach may be a more suitable option for cardiac patients. Additionally, many cardiac patients present with impaired exercise tolerance; this model of interval resistance training may be a more suitable option to reduce fatigue, increase patient tolerance and enhance performance to these workloads. Practical strategies to implement interval resistance training for cardiac patients are also discussed. Preliminary evidence suggests that interval resistance training may lead to safer acute haemodynamic responses in cardiac patients. Future research is needed to determine the efficacy and feasibility of interval resistance training for health outcomes in this population.
... Dias et al. also observed an increase in gait speed in postmenopausal women after 12 weeks of 2 strength-training protocols (cluster-set and traditional inter-repetitions rest method). 41 Our results, however, add to the existing knowledge showing that such walking velocity increase was due to longer steps and a tendency of shorter stride duration. Thus, the CT intervention promotes several improvements in gait parameters that allow postmenopausal women to walk faster. ...
Objective To analyze the effect of combined training (CT) in postural control and gait parameters in postmenopausal women.
Methods A parallel-group, randomized, control study was conducted with 16 weeks of combined training ( n = 16) versus a non-training control group ( n = 12) in postmenopausal women (aged 59.3 ± 8.0). Pre and postintervention assessments included postural control (using an AMTI force platform – Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc., Watertown, MA, USA) and gait impairments (using baropodometry). In addition, the upper limb strength and abdominal tests, as well as aerobic capacity, assessed functional indicators.
Results The CT intervention in postmenopausal women resulted in improved gait (stride length ( p = 0.006); speed ( p = 0.013); double support time ( p = 0.045); and improved postural control (displacement area of postural sway in a normal base of support with eyes open ( p = 0.006). Combined training increased functional indicators (abdominal - p = 0.031; aerobic capacity - p = 0.002).
Conclusion In conclusion, combined aerobic plus strength training effectively improved gait and balance control in older women. The postmenopausal women from the CT group walked faster and with bigger steps after the intervention than the control group. In addition, they presented decreased postural sway in standing and decreased the percentage of double support time while walking, which means improved static and dynamic balance control and functional indicators.
... Muscle contraction at high velocity is fundamental to the functional performance of older adults (Dias et al., 2020a). In particular, vertical jump performance (VJ) is associated with muscle strength and power, being important factors in the decrease in the number of falls in frail elderly people (Fragala et al., 2019). ...
The use of technology to approximate science to practice has been receiving attention, especially related to low-cost and portable devices. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the validity and reproducibility of the Jumpo® application to measure vertical jump performance in older adults. 52 older women were invited to the survey. The evaluation consisted of the simultaneous application of countermovement and squat jumps through the contact mat and the application (Jumpo®). The results showed excellent correlation and inter-instrument agreement for the countermovement jump (ICC = 0.97; p <0.001; R2 = 0.0057) and squat jump (ICC = 0.95; p <0.001; R2 = 0.0006). The analysis intra-rater (ICC = 0.98, p <0.001), (ICC = 0.94, p <0.001) showed high values of reproducibility. As for inter-rater, they presented high reproducibility for 1
... This is important at the whole-body level if we consider that the altered phenotype of an individual is a result of an allostatic load that is sustained for an appropriate interval of time; hence, the faster the recovery, the sooner the desired alteration in the phenotype [55]. More studies in female and untrained exercisers are needed to confirm the potential optimization of CS-RT adaptations by CrM, especially if the similar effects of traditional RT and CS-RT in postmenopausal and elderly women are taken into account [56]. ...
Creatine monohydrate (CrM) supplementation has been shown to improve body composition and muscle strength when combined with resistance training (RT); however, no study has evaluated the combination of this nutritional strategy with cluster-set resistance training (CS-RT). The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the effects of CrM supplementation during a high-protein diet and a CS-RT program on lower-limb fat-free mass (LL-FFM) and muscular strength. Twenty-three resistance-trained men (>2 years of training experience, 26.6 ± 8.1 years, 176.3 ± 6.8 cm, 75.6 ± 8.9 kg) participated in this study. Subjects were randomly allocated to a CS-RT+CrM (n = 8), a CS-RT (n = 8), or a control group (n = 7). The CS-RT+CrM group followed a CrM supplementation protocol with 0.1 g·kg−1·day−1 over eight weeks. Two sessions per week of lower-limb CS-RT were performed. LL-FFM corrected for fat-free adipose tissue (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) and muscle strength (back squat 1 repetition maximum (SQ-1RM) and countermovement jump (CMJ)) were measured pre- and post-intervention. Significant improvements were found in whole-body fat mass, fat percentage, LL-fat mass, LL-FFM, and SQ-1RM in the CS-RT+CrM and CS-RT groups; however, larger effect sizes were obtained in the CS-RT+CrM group regarding whole body FFM (0.64 versus 0.16), lower-limb FFM (0.62 versus 0.18), and SQ-1RM (1.23 versus 0.75) when compared to the CS-RT group. CMJ showed a significant improvement in the CS-RT+CrM group with no significant changes in CS-RT or control groups. No significant differences were found between groups. Eight weeks of CrM supplementation plus a high-protein diet during a CS-RT program has a higher clinical meaningfulness on lower-limb body composition and strength-related variables in trained males than CS-RT alone. Further research might study the potential health and therapeutic effects of this nutrition and exercise strategy.
... These differences can be justified because only the MBT-1kg was included as part of the RT program. Indeed, when the same medicine ball weight is used both in the test and the intervention, significant gains tend to occur [7,8,46]. Conversely, when the MBT is not included in the RT program, the findings are less conclusive about the transference effects of RT on this parameter. ...
We analyzed the effects of velocity-monitored resistance training (RT) with a velocity loss of 20% on strength and functional capacity in institutionalized older adults. Thirty-nine participants (78.8 ± 6.7 years) were divided into a control group (CG; n = 20) or an RT group (n = 19). Over 10 weeks, the RT group performed two sessions per week, and the mean velocity of each repetition was monitored in the leg-press and chest-press exercises at 40-65% of one-repetition maximum (1RM). The set ended when the participants reached a velocity loss of 20%. The CG maintained their daily routine. At pre-and post-test, both groups were assessed in the 1RM leg-press, 1RM chest-press, handgrip strength, medicine ball throw (MBT), walking speed, and sit-to-stand (STS). At baseline, we did not find significant differences between groups. After 10 weeks, we observed significant differences (p < 0.001-0.01) between groups in the 1RM leg-press, 1RM chest-press, MBT-1 kg, and STS. The RT group performed a total number of repetitions of 437.6 ± 66.1 in the leg-press and 296.4 ± 78.9 in the chest-press. Our results demonstrate that velocity loss effectively prescribes the volume in older adults and that a threshold of 20% improves strength-related variables in this population.
A decline in function and loss of mass, a condition known as sarcopenia, is observed in the skeletal muscles with aging. Sarcopenia has a negative effect on the quality of life of elderly. Individuals with sarcopenia are at particular risk for adverse outcomes, such as reduced mobility, fall-related injuries, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Although the pathogenesis of sarcopenia is multifaceted, mitochondrial dysfunction is regarded as a major contributor for muscle aging. Hence, the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies to improve mitochondrial function during aging is imperative for sarcopenia treatment. However, effective and specific drugs that can be used for the treatment are not yet approved. Instead studies on the relationship between food intake and muscle aging have suggested that nutritional intake or dietary control could be an alternative approach for the amelioration of muscle aging. This narrative review approaches various nutritional components and diets as a treatment for sarcopenia by modulating mitochondrial homeostasis and improving mitochondria. Age-related changes in mitochondrial function and the molecular mechanisms that help improve mitochondrial homeostasis are discussed, and the nutritional components and diet that modulate these molecular mechanisms are addressed.
Exercise has emerged as fundamental therapeutic medicine in the management of cancer. Exercise improves health-related outcomes including quality of life, neuromuscular strength, physical function and body composition, and is associated with a lower risk of disease recurrence and increased survival. Moreover, exercise during or post-cancer treatments is safe, can ameliorate treatment-related side effects, and may enhance the effectiveness of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. To date, traditional resistance training (RT) is the most used RT modality in exercise oncology. However, alternative training modes, such as eccentric, cluster set, and blood flow restriction are gaining increased attention. These training modalities have been extensively investigated in both athletic and clinical populations (e.g., age-related frailty, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes), showing considerable benefits in terms of neuromuscular strength, hypertrophy, body composition, and
44 physical function. However, these training modes have only been partially or not at all investigated in cancer populations. Thus, we outline the benefits of these alternative RT methods in patients with cancer. Where evidence in cancer populations is sparse, we provide a robust rationale for the possible implementation of certain RT methods, where results have been positive in other clinical populations. Finally, we provide clinical insights for research which may help future RT investigations in patients with cancer and suggest clear practical applications for targeted cancer populations and related benefits.
Cluster Training (CT) has been shown to induce strength at lower perceived efforts compared to traditional training (TRT) with sets performed to repetition failure. These findings have not yet been extended to remote online training in middle-aged to older people. Thus the present study aimed at investigating whether a cluster set online training with bodyweight exercises is similar in its effectiveness a more demanding traditional strength training employed with a traditional set structure. A total of n = 21 participants (14 female, 55 ± 12 years, 76.4 ± 16.1 kg, 1.71 ± 0.10 m, 74 ± 72 min of activity/w) were randomly assigned to either a CT or volume-, load-, and work-to-rest-ratio-matched TRT. After an initial 6-week run-in-phase, all participants were engaged into an online live-instructed full-body workout twice a week (40 min each) for a period of 6 weeks. Rates of perceived efforts (RPE) were assessed for each session (session RPE; sRPE). Changes in maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at leg press (LP) and abdominal press (AP) as well as one-minute-sit-to-stand and Y-Balance-Test (YBT) were compared between BASELINE and PRE (ΔRUN-IN) and between PRE and POST (ΔINTERVENTION). In LP, TRT showed greater improvements with large effect sizes in ΔINTERVENTION compared to ΔRUN-IN. In CT, greater improvements with moderate effects were found in ΔINTERVENTION compared to ΔRUN-IN. In AP, both CT and TRT showed larger improvements with large effect sizes in ΔINTERVENTION compared to ΔRUN-IN. In YBT, a significant and large main effect for time was found indicating larger improvements for ΔINTERVENTION compared to ΔRUN-IN. CT showed lower sRPE than TRT. Both CT and TRT led to similar adaptations in MVC and balance performance. However, the perceived effort of CT was rated lower than for TRT. Therefore, conducting resistance training with a cluster set structure seems to be a suitable approach for training programs in middle-aged and older people.
The loss of muscle mass and strength in elderly population (especially after the age of 65–70) represents a public health problem. Due to the high prevalence of frailty in older adults, cardiovascular or low-intensity exercise is implemented as first choice option. Although beneficial these training schemes are not as effective as strength-based resistance training for increasing muscle strength and hypertrophy. In fact, when performed progressively and under professional supervision, strength-based training has been proposed as an important and valid methodology to reduce sarcopenia-related problems. In this mini-review, we not only summarize the benefits of weight resistance training but also highlight practical recommendations and other non-conventional methods (e.g., suspension training) as part of an integral anti-sarcopenia strategy. Future directions including cluster set configurations and high-speed resistance training are also outlined.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability and agreement between the test and retest of the 10-repetition maximum (10-RM) test for leg press and bench press in breast cancer survivors (BCS). Thirty-one BCS participated in this study, age 54.87 ± 5.7 years. All performed 10-RM tests and retests for the leg press 45° and the bench press. For reliability analyses, an intraclass coefficient correlation (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV) were performed. The limits of agreement were calculated using a Bland-Altman plot with 95% CIs. For absolute and relative error of measurement, we used standard error of measurement and minimally detectable change. The result showed a high reliability for the bench press and leg press; ICC of 0.94 and 0.98, respectively. CV was <10% for both exercises. The systematic error were 1.5 kg (10%) and 6.1 (8%) for the bench press and leg press, respectively. The standard errors of measurements were 0.96 kg (6.08%) and 4.11 kg (5.27%) for the bench press and leg press, respectively. The minimally detectable changes were 2.72 kg (17.20%) and 5.62 kg (7.21%) for the bench press and leg press, respectively. In breast cancer survivors, the muscular strength measurement for the 10-RM test showed a high to very high rate of reliability and agreement, with acceptable error of measurement.
Background
Cluster sets (CSs) are a popular resistance training (RT) strategy categorised by short rest periods implemented between single or groups of repetitions. However, evidence supporting the effectiveness of CSs on acute intra-session neuromuscular performance is still equivocal.
Objective
The objective of this investigation was to determine the efficacy of a single session of CSs to attenuate losses in force, velocity and power compared to traditional set (TS) training.
Methods
Screening consisted of a systematic search of EMBASE, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus and SPORTDiscus. Inclusion criteria were (1) measured one or more of mean/peak force, velocity or power; (2) implemented CSs in comparison to TSs; (3) an acute design, or part thereof; and (4) published in an English-language, peer-reviewed journal. Raw data (mean ± standard deviation) were extracted from included studies and converted into standardised mean differences (SMDs) and ± 95% confidence intervals (CIs).
Results
Twenty-five studies were used to calculate SMD ± 95% CI. Peak (SMD = 0.815, 95% CI 0.105–1.524, p = 0.024) and mean (SMD = 0.863, 95% CI 0.319–1.406, p = 0.002) velocity, peak (SMD = 0.356, 95% CI 0.057–0.655, p = 0.019) and mean (SMD = 0.692, 95% CI 0.395–0.990, p < 0.001) power, and peak force (SMD = 0.306, 95% CI − 0.028 to 0.584, p = 0.031) favoured CS. Subgroup analyses demonstrated an overall effect for CS across loads (SMD = 0.702, 95% CI 0.548–0.856, p < 0.001), included exercises (SMD = 0.664, 95% CI 0.413–0.916, p < 0.001), experience levels (SMD = 0.790, 95% CI 0.500–1.080, p < 0.001) and CS structures (SMD = 0.731, 95% CI 0.567–0.894, p < 0.001) with no difference within subgroups.
Conclusion
CSs are a useful strategy to attenuate the loss in velocity, power and peak force during RT and should be used to maintain neuromuscular performance, especially when kinetic outcomes are emphasised. However, it remains unclear if the benefits translate to improved performance across all RT exercises, between sexes and across the lifespan.
Background:
This study examined the trends of physical fitness among children aged 3-6 years old and identified the factors associated with the change of children's physical fitness.
Methods:
Datum were from two cross-sectional surveys in 2005 and 2015. Children aged 3-6 years old in China Macao were recruited from 6 kindergartens. 6 kindergartens were selected from North, South and Central districts, and two kindergartens in each district using random cluster sampling in 2005. The same 6 kindergartens were selected in 2015. Physical fitness testing and a survey on children behavior were conducted for all children.
Results:
Standing long jump, shuttle run, sit and reach, and continuous jump of children in Macao improved significantly in some age groups from 2005 to 2015 (P < 0.05). Results of general linear model showed that: (1) The effect of height and weight on physical fitness was less than test year effect (standing long jump: partial η2 of height = 4.5%, partial η2 of time = 8.5%); (2) after adjusted age, gender and parental education level, participating in sports clubs was associated with standing long jump(β = 5.827,p = 0.048) and shuttle run (β = -0.759, p = 0.042) in 2015. Less sedentary entertainment time and participating in sports club were two Interactive protecting factors of improving throwing ability (β = 1.862, p = 0.045).
Conclusions:
The changes in height and weight were not the whole reason for the change of physical fitness among Macao preschoolers. The behaviors, including participating in sports clubs and the less time of watching TV were associated with children's running, jumping and throwing.
Purpose:
Resistance training is often performed in a traditional training style using deliberate relatively longer repetition durations or in an explosive training style using maximal intended velocities and relatively shorter repetition durations. Both improve strength, "power" (impulsivity), and speed. This study compared explosive and traditional training over a 6-week intervention in 30 healthy young adult male recreational soccer players.
Method:
Full body supervised resistance training was performed 2 times a week using 3 sets of each exercise at 80% of one repetition maximum to momentary failure. Outcomes were Smith machine squat 1 repetition maximum, 10 meter sprint time, and countermovement jump.
Results:
Both groups significantly improved all outcomes based on 95% confidence intervals not crossing zero. There were no between-group differences for squat 1 RM (TRAD = 6.3[5.1 to 7.6] kg, EXP = 5.2[3.9 to 6.4] kg) or 10 meter sprint (TRAD = -0.05[-0.07 to -0.04] s, EXP = -0.05[-0.06 to -0.03] s). Explosive group had a significantly greater increase in countermovement jump compared to the traditional group (TRAD = 0.7[0.3 to 1.1] cm, EXP = 1.3[0.9 to 1.7] cm).
Conclusion:
Both the traditional training and explosive training performed to momentary failure produced significant improvements in strength, speed, and jump performance. Strength gains are similar independent of intended movement speed. However, speed and jump performance changes are marginal with resistance training.
Background: The maximal one-repetition test (1-RM) is widely used in scientific research; however, there are conflicting results regarding its reproducibility in elderly populations. The present study aimed to analyze the reproducibility of the test both before and after a 12-week training period by using the bench press and leg press 45° 1-RM tests in the elderly, taking into consideration the training experience and strength level of the women. Methods: Elderly women (n = 376; age, 68.5 ± 14.1 years; height, 162.7 ± 5.5 cm; body mass, 71.2 ± 16.0 kg) who underwent ≥3 months of resistance training performed an initial week of familiarization and a second week of testing and retest, with a 48–72 h interval. Results: The results showed that Kappa indices ranged from 0.93 to 0.95, and the intraclass correlation coefficients were 0.99 for both the lower and upper limbs. In addition, minimal detectable changes were found that ranged between 1 and 3%, which means that changes lower than 1 kg could be detected. Conclusion: The present study confirms that the 1-RM test has high reliability and reproducibility in the elderly, for both upper and lower limbs.
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the changes in movement velocity during resistance training with different loads while the trainees attempted to move the load at a predetermined repetition duration. Twenty-one resistance-trained men (age: 25.7 ± 5 years; height: 177.0 ± 7.2 cm; mass: 85.4 ± 13.56 kg) volunteered to participate in the study. Participants performed 2 test sessions. The first to determine 1-repetition maximum (1RM) load, and the second to evaluate velocity loss during a set to failure performed at 75% and 50% of 1RM using a 2-s concentric and 2-s eccentric repetition duration, controlled by a mobile app metronome. When using 75% 1RM there was a significant loss of movement velocity between the antepenultimate and the penultimate repetition (5.33%, p < 0.05), as well as during the penultimate and the last (22.11%, p < 0.05). At 50% of 1RM the participants performed the set until momentary failure without significant velocity loss. Monitoring velocity loss during high-load resistance training through simple methods can be an important tool for standardize the intensity of effort employed during submaximal training. This can be useful in clinical conditions where maximum exertions are contraindicated or when specific logistics are lacking.
The identification of cost-effective interventions that improve the health status and prevent disability in old age is one of the most important public health challenges. Regular physical activity is the only intervention that has consistently been shown to improve functional health and energy balance and to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, diabetes, several cancers, depression and falls. In advanced age, physical activity is also effective at mitigating sarcopenia, restoring robustness, and preventing/delaying the development of disability. On the other hand, physical inactivity is recognized as one of the leading causes of several chronic degenerative diseases and is also a major contributing factor to sarcopenia and functional disability. This compelling evidence has prompted the World Health Organization to recommend engaging in regular physical activity throughout one's life course. The present review summarizes the available evidence in support of physical activity as a remedy against physical frailty and sarcopenia. The relevant pathways through which the benefits of physical activity are conveyed are also discussed.
Age-related declines in health and function make locomotion increasingly difficult leading to reductions in non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), skeletal muscle size and strength, and increased adiposity. Exercise is an important strategy to attenuate loss of function through the life cycle. Despite claims to the contrary, high-intensity exercise is important for the prevention of obesity and sarcopenia with advancing age. Therefore, the purpose of this mini-review is to present literature supporting the contention that low volume, high-intensity aerobic and/or resistance training can slow sarcopenia, sustain ease of movement, stimulate NEAT, and attenuate the accretion of fat mass.
Prior resistance training (RT) recommendations and position stands have discussed variables that can be manipulated when producing RT interventions. However, one variable that has received little discussion is set end points (i.e. the end point of a set of repetitions). Set end points in RT are often considered to be proximity to momentary failure and are thought to be a primary variable determining effort in RT. Further, there has been ambiguity in use and definition of terminology that has created issues in interpretation of research findings. The purpose of this paper is to: 1) provide an overview of the ambiguity in historical terminology around set end points; 2) propose a clearer set of definitions related to set end points; and 3) highlight the issues created by poor terminology and definitions. It is hoped this might permit greater clarity in reporting, interpretation, and application of RT interventions for researchers and practitioners.
Studies examining resistance training are of importance given that increasing or maintaining muscle mass aids in the prevention or attenuation of chronic disease. Within the literature, it is common practice to administer a set number of target repetitions to be completed by all individuals (i.e. 3 sets of 10) while setting the load relative to each individual?s predetermined strength level (usually a one-repetition maximum). This is done under the assumption that all individuals are receiving a similar stimulus upon completing the protocol, but this does not take into account individual variability with regard to how fatiguing the protocol actually is. Another limitation that exists within the current literature is the reporting of exercise volume in absolute or relative terms that are not truly replicable as they are both load-dependent and will differ based on the number of repetitions individuals can complete at a given relative load. Given that the level of fatigue caused by an exercise protocol is a good indicator of its hypertrophic potential, the most appropriate way to ensure all individuals are given a common stimulus is to prescribe exercise to volitional fatigue. While some authors commonly employ this practice, others still prescribe an arbitrary number of repetitions, which may lead to unfair comparisons between exercise protocols. The purpose of this opinion piece is to provide evidence for the need to standardize studies examining muscle hypertrophy. In our opinion, one way in which this can be accomplished is by prescribing all sets to volitional fatigue.
Resistance exercises can be considered to be multi-joint (MJ) or single-joint (SJ) in nature. Many strength coaches, trainers, and trainees believe that adding SJ exercises to a resistance training (RT) program may be required to optimize muscular size and strength. However, given that lack of time is a frequently cited barrier to exercise adoption, the time commitment resulting from these recommendations may not be convenient for many people. Therefore, it is important to find strategies that reduce the time commitment without negatively affecting results. The aim of this review was to analyze and discuss the present body of literature considering the acute responses to and long-term adaptations resulting from SJ and MJ exercise selection. Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they were experimental studies comparing the effects of MJ, SJ, or MJ ? SJ on dependent variables; studies were excluded if they were reviews or abstracts only, if they involved clinical populations or persons with articular or musculoskeletal problems, or if the RT intervention was confounded by other factors. Taking these factors into account, a total of 23 studies were included. For the upper and lower limbs, analysis of surface electromyographic (sEMG) activation suggests that there are no differences between SJ and MJ exercises when comparing the prime movers. However, evidence is contrasting when considering the trunk extensor musculature. Only one study directly compared the effects of MJ and SJ on muscle recovery and the results suggest that SJ exercises resulted in increased muscle fatigue and soreness. Long-term studies comparing increases in muscle size and strength in the upper limbs reported no difference between SJ and MJ exercises and no additional effects when SJ exercises were included in an MJ exercise program. For the lumbar extensors, the studies reviewed tend to support the view that this muscle group may benefit from SJ exercise. People performing RT may not need to include SJ exercises in their program to obtain equivalent results in terms of muscle activation and long-term adaptations such as hypertrophy and strength. SJ exercises may only be necessary to strengthen lumbar extensors and to correct muscular imbalances.
Our current state of knowledge regarding the load (lighter or heavier) lifted in resistance training programmes that will result in ‘optimal’ strength and hypertrophic adaptations is unclear. Despite this, position stands and recommendations are made based on, we propose, limited evidence to lift heavier weights. Here we discuss the state of evidence on the impact of load and how it, as a single variable, stimulates adaptations to take place and whether evidence for recommending heavier loads is available, well-defined, currently correctly interpreted or has been overlooked. Areas of discussion include electromyography amplitude, in vivo and in vitro methods of measuring hypertrophy, and motor schema and skill acquisition. The present piece clarifies to trainers and trainees the impact of these variables by discussing interpretation of synchronous and sequential motor unit recruitment and revisiting the size principle, poor agreement between whole-muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and biopsy-determined changes in myofibril CSA, and neural adaptations around task specificity. Our opinion is that the practical implications of being able to self-select external load include reducing the need for specific facility memberships, motivating older persons or those who might be less confident using heavy loads, and allowing people to undertake home- or field-based resistance training intervention strategies that might ultimately improve exercise adherence.
To compare the effects of high-load, low-repetition maximum (LRM) and low-load, high-repetition maximum (HRM) resistance training regimens on muscular fitness in untrained adolescents. Forty-five untrained adolescents of both sexes (13.7±0.8 years; 161.3±7.5 cm, 56.8±13.4 kg) were randomly assigned into one of three groups: 1) LRM (n = 17): volunteers performed three sets of 4-6-repetition maximum (RM); 2) HRM (n = 16): volunteers performed three sets of 12–15 RM; and 3) control (CON, n = 12). Training was performed two times a week for 9 weeks. After training, there were significant increases in 1 RM chest press (LRM = 14.8% and HRM = 14.2%, p<0.05) and squat (LRM = 26.4% and HRM = 25.7%, p<0.05), with no differences between the LRM and HRM groups (p>0.05). Additionally, muscular endurance increased significantly for the chest press (LRM = 14.5% and HRM = 21.8%, p<0.05) and squat test (LRM = 31.4% and HRM = 32.4%, p<0.05) following resistance training, with no difference between the LRM and HRM groups (p>0.05). These results suggest that both high-load, low-repetition and moderate-load, high-repetition resistance training can be prescribed to improve muscular fitness in untrained adolescents.
When performing a set of successive repetitions, fatigue ensues and the quality of performance during subsequent repetitions contained in the set decreases. Oftentimes, this response may be beneficial, as fatigue may stimulate the neuromuscular system to adapt, resulting in a super-compensatory response. However, there are instances in which accumulated fatigue may be detrimental to training or performance adaptations (i.e. power development). In these instances, the ability to recover and maintain repetition performance would be considered essential. By providing intermittent rest between individual repetitions or groups of repetitions within a set, an athlete is able to acutely alleviate fatigue, allowing performance to remain relatively constant throughout an exercise session. Within the scientific literature, a set that includes intermittent rest between individual repetitions or groups of repetitions within a set is defined as a cluster set. Recently, cluster sets have received more attention as researchers have begun to examine the acute and chronic responses to this relatively novel set structure. However, much of the rest-period terminology within the literature lacks uniformity and many authors attempt to compare largely different protocols with the same terminology. Additionally, the present body of scientific literature has mainly focused on the effects of cluster sets on power output, leaving the effects of cluster sets on strength and hypertrophy relatively unexplored. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to further delineate cluster set terminology, describe the acute and chronic responses of cluster sets, and explain the need for further investigation of the effects of cluster sets.
Regular physical activity helps to improve physical and mental functions as well as reverse some effects of chronic disease to keep older people mobile and independent. Despite the highly publicised benefits of physical activity, the overwhelming majority of older people in the United Kingdom do not meet the minimum physical activity levels needed to maintain health. The sedentary lifestyles that predominate in older age results in premature onset of ill health, disease and frailty. Local authorities have a responsibility to promote physical activity amongst older people, but knowing how to stimulate regular activity at the population-level is challenging. The physiological rationale for physical activity, risks of adverse events, societal and psychological factors are discussed with a view to inform public health initiatives for the relatively healthy older person as well as those with physical frailty. The evidence shows that regular physical activity is safe for healthy and for frail older people and the risks of developing major cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, obesity, falls, cognitive impairments, osteoporosis and muscular weakness are decreased by regularly completing activities ranging from low intensity walking through to more vigorous sports and resistance exercises. Yet, participation in physical activities remains low amongst older adults, particularly those living in less affluent areas. Older people may be encouraged to increase their activities if influenced by clinicians, family or friends, keeping costs low and enjoyment high, facilitating group-based activities and raising self-efficacy for exercise.
Background
The physiological impairments most strongly associated with functional performance in older people are logically the most efficient therapeutic targets for exercise training interventions aimed at improving function and maintaining independence in later life.
Objectives
The objectives of this review were to (1) systematically review the relationship between muscle power and functional performance in older people; (2) systematically review the effect of power training (PT) interventions on functional performance in older people; and (3) identify components of successful PT interventions relevant to pragmatic trials by scoping the literature.
Methods
Our approach involved three stages. First, we systematically reviewed evidence on the relationship between muscle power, muscle strength and functional performance and, second, we systematically reviewed PT intervention studies that included both muscle power and at least one index of functional performance as outcome measures. Finally, taking a strong pragmatic perspective, we conducted a scoping review of the PT evidence to identify the successful components of training interventions needed to provide a minimally effective training dose to improve physical function.
Results
Evidence from 44 studies revealed a positive association between muscle power and indices of physical function, and that muscle power is a marginally superior predictor of functional performance than muscle strength. Nine studies revealed maximal angular velocity of movement, an important component of muscle power, to be positively associated with functional performance and a better predictor of functional performance than muscle strength. We identified 31 PT studies, characterised by small sample sizes and incomplete reporting of interventions, resulting in less than one-in-five studies judged as having a low risk of bias. Thirteen studies compared traditional resistance training with PT, with ten studies reporting the superiority of PT for either muscle power or functional performance. Further studies demonstrated the efficacy of various methods of resistance and functional task PT on muscle power and functional performance, including low-load PT and low-volume interventions.
Conclusions
Maximal intended movement velocity, low training load, simple training methods, low-volume training and low-frequency training were revealed as components offering potential for the development of a pragmatic intervention. Additionally, the research area is dominated by short-term interventions producing short-term gains with little consideration of the long-term maintenance of functional performance. We believe the area would benefit from larger and higher-quality studies and consideration of optimal long-term strategies to develop and maintain muscle power and physical function over years rather than weeks.
Purpose:
The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects of a traditional set structure and two cluster set structures on force, velocity, and power during back squats in strength-trained men.
Methods:
Twelve men (25.8 ± 5.1 y; 1.74 ± 0.07 m; 79.3 ± 8.2 kg) performed three sets of twelve repetitions at 60% of one repetition maximum using three different set structures: traditional sets (TS), cluster sets of four (CS4), and cluster sets of two (CS2).
Results:
When averaged across all repetitions, peak velocity (PV), mean velocity (MV), peak power (PP), and mean power (MP) were greater in CS2 and CS4 compared to TS (p < 0.01), with CS2 also resulting in greater values than CS4 (p < 0.02). When examining individual sets within each set structure, PV, MV, PP, and MP decreased during the course of TS (effect sizes range from 0.28 - 0.99), while no decreases were noted during CS2 (effect sizes range from 0.00 - 0.13) or CS4 (effect sizes range from 0.00 - 0.29).
Conclusions:
These results demonstrate that CS structures maintain velocity and power whereas TS structures do not. Furthermore, increasing the frequency of intra-set rest intervals in CS structures maximises this effect and should be used if maximal velocity is to be maintained during training.
Planning training programs for strength–power track and field athletes require an understanding of both training principles and training theory. The training principles are overload, variation, and specificity. Each of these principles must be incorporated into an appropriate system of training. Conceptually, periodization embraces training principles and offers advantages in planning, allowing for logical integration and manipulation of training variables such as exercise selection, intensification, and volume factors. The adaptation and progress of the athlete is to a large extent directly related to the ability of the coach/athlete to create and carry an efficient and efficacious training process. This ability includes: an understanding of how exercises affect physiological and performance adaptation (i.e., maximum force, rate of force development, power, etc.), how to optimize transfer of training effect ensuring that training exercises have maximum potential for carryover to performance, and how to implement programs with variations at appropriate levels (macro, meso, and micro) such that fatigue management is enhanced and performance progress is optimized.
Muscular strength, an important component of physical fitness, has an independent role in the prevention of chronic diseases whereas muscular weakness is strongly related to functional limitations and physical disability. Our purpose was to investigate the role of muscular strength as a predictor of mortality in health and disease. We conducted a systematic search in EMBASE and MEDLINE (1980-2014) looking for the association between muscular strength and mortality risk (all-cause and cause-specific mortality). Selected publications included 23 papers (15 epidemiological and 8 clinical studies). Muscular strength was inversely and independently associated with all-cause mortality even after adjusting for several confounders including the levels of physical activity or even cardiorespiratory fitness. The same pattern was observed for cardiovascular mortality; however more research is needed due to the few available data. The existed studies failed to show that low muscular strength is predictive of cancer mortality. Furthermore, a strong and inverse association of muscular strength with all-cause mortality has also been confirmed in several clinical populations such as cardiovascular disease, peripheral artery disease, cancer, renal failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, rheumatoid arthritis and patients with critical illness. However, future studies are needed to further establish the current evidence and to explore the exact independent mechanisms of muscular strength in relation to mortality. Muscular strength as a modifiable risk factor would be of great interest from a public health perspective.
Copyright © 2015 European Federation of Internal Medicine. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Background and objectives:
Reduced muscle mass and strength are prevalent conditions in dialysis patients. However, muscle strength and muscle mass are not congruent; muscle strength can diminish even though muscle mass is maintained or increased. This study addresses phenotype and mortality associations of these muscle dysfunction entities alone or in combination (i.e., concurrent loss of muscle mass and strength/mobility, here defined as sarcopenia).
Design, setting, participants, & measurements:
This study included 330 incident dialysis patients (203 men, mean age 53±13 years, and mean GFR 7±2 ml/min per 1.73 m(2)) recruited between 1994 and 2010 and followed prospectively for up to 5 years. Low muscle mass (by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry appendicular mass index) and low muscle strength (by handgrip) were defined against young reference populations according to the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People.
Results:
Whereas 20% of patients had sarcopenia, low muscle mass and low muscle strength alone were observed in a further 24% and 15% of patients, respectively. Old age, comorbidities, protein-energy wasting, physical inactivity, low albumin, and inflammation associated with low muscle strength, but not with low muscle mass (multivariate ANOVA interactions). During follow-up, 95 patients (29%) died and both conditions associated with mortality as separate entities. When combined, individuals with low muscle mass alone were not at increased risk of mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [HR], 1.23; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.56 to 2.67). Individuals with low muscle strength were at increased risk, irrespective of their muscle stores being appropriate (HR, 1.98; 95% CI, 1.01 to 3.87) or low (HR, 1.93; 95% CI, 1.01 to 3.71).
Conclusions:
Low muscle strength was more strongly associated with aging, protein-energy wasting, physical inactivity, inflammation, and mortality than low muscle mass. Assessment of muscle functionality may provide additional diagnostic and prognostic information to muscle-mass evaluation.
Effect sizes are the most important outcome of empirical studies. Most articles on effect sizes highlight their importance to communicate the practical significance of results. For scientists themselves, effect sizes are most useful because they facilitate cumulative science. Effect sizes can be used to determine the sample size for follow-up studies, or examining effects across studies. This article aims to provide a practical primer on how to calculate and report effect sizes for t-tests and ANOVA's such that effect sizes can be used in a-priori power analyses and meta-analyses. Whereas many articles about effect sizes focus on between-subjects designs and address within-subjects designs only briefly, I provide a detailed overview of the similarities and differences between within- and between-subjects designs. I suggest that some research questions in experimental psychology examine inherently intra-individual effects, which makes effect sizes that incorporate the correlation between measures the best summary of the results. Finally, a supplementary spreadsheet is provided to make it as easy as possible for researchers to incorporate effect size calculations into their workflow.
Acute cardiovascular responses to different high-velocity resistance exercise protocols were compared in untrained older women. Twelve apparently healthy volunteers (62.6 ± 2.9 y) performed three different protocols in the bench press (BP). All protocols involved three sets of 10 repetitions performed with a 10RM load and 2 minutes of rest between sets. The continuous protocol (CP) involved ten repetitions with no pause between repetitions. The discontinuous protocols were performed with a pause of five (DP5) or 15 (DP15) seconds between the fifth and sixth repetitions. Heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), rate pressure product (RPP), Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE), and blood lactate (BLa) were assessed at baseline and at the end of all exercise sets. Factorial ANOVA was used to compare the cardiovascular response among different protocols. Compared to baseline, HR and RPP were significantly (p < 0.05) higher after the third set in all protocols. HR and RPP were significantly (p < 0.05) lower in DP5 and DP15 compared with CP for the BP exercise. Compared to baseline, RPE increased significantly (p < 0.05) with each subsequent set in all protocols. Blood lactate concentration during DP5 and DP15 was significantly lower than CP. It appears that discontinuous high-velocity resistance exercise has a lower cardiovascular demand than continuous resistance exercise in older women. Key pointsThe assessment of cardiovascular responses to high-velocity resistance exercise in older individuals is very important for exercise prescription and rehabilitation in elderly population.Discontinuous protocol decrease myocardial oxygen consumption (HR x SBP) during the performance of dynamic high-velocity resistance exercise in older women.The decrease in RPP (~ 8.5%) during the discontinuous protocol has clinical implications when developing high-velocity resistance exercise strategies for elderly individuals.
Training attendance is an important variable for attaining optimal results after a resistance training (RT) program, however, the association of attendance with the gains of muscle strength is not well defined. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to verify if attendance would affect muscle strength gains in healthy young males.
Ninety two young males with no previous RT experience volunteered to participate in the study. RT was performed 2 days a week for 11 weeks. One repetition maximum (1RM) in the bench press and knee extensors peak torque (PT) were measured before and after the training period. After the training period, a two step cluster analysis was used to classify the participants in accordance to training attendance, resulting in three groups, defined as high (92 to 100%), intermediate (80 to 91%) and low (60 to 79%) training attendance.
According to the results, there were no significant correlations between strength gains and training attendance, however, when attendance groups were compared, the low training attendance group showed lower increases in 1RM bench press (8.8%) than the other two groups (17.6% and 18.0% for high and intermediate attendance, respectively).
Although there is not a direct correlation between training attendance and muscle strength gains, it is suggested that a minimum attendance of 80% is necessary to ensure optimal gains in upper body strength.
Purpose:
To develop and validate criterion-referenced fitness standards for older adults that predict the level of capacity needed for maintaining physical independence into later life. The proposed standards were developed for use with a previously validated test battery for older adults-the Senior Fitness Test (Rikli, R. E., & Jones, C. J. (2001). Development and validation of a functional fitness test for community--residing older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 6, 127-159; Rikli, R. E., & Jones, C. J. (1999a). Senior fitness test manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.).
Methods:
A criterion measure to assess physical independence was identified. Next, scores from a subset of 2,140 "moderate-functioning" older adults from a larger cross-sectional database, together with findings from longitudinal research on physical capacity and aging, were used as the basis for proposing fitness standards (performance cut points) associated with having the ability to function independently. Validity and reliability analyses were conducted to test the standards for their accuracy and consistency as predictors of physical independence.
Results:
Performance standards are presented for men and women ages 60-94 indicating the level of fitness associated with remaining physically independent until late in life. Reliability and validity indicators for the standards ranged between .79 and .97.
Implications:
The proposed standards provide easy-to-use, previously unavailable methods for evaluating physical capacity in older adults relative to that associated with physical independence. Most importantly, the standards can be used in planning interventions that target specific areas of weakness, thus reducing risk for premature loss of mobility and independence.
The present study aimed at comparing the effects of traditional resistance training (TRT) and power training (PT) in inducing muscle hypertrophy in older men. Twenty older men (aged between 69 and 76 years) were divided in two groups: TRT training (n=9) and PT training (n=11). The volunteers trained twice a week, during 10 weeks. Both groups performed an equal work output and the same exercises with loads between 40% and 60% of 1 RM. Three sets of eight repetitions of each exercise were performed with rest intervals of 90 s between sets. Muscle thickness was measured by ultrasound at the biceps brachii (BIC) and rectus femoris (RF), using a 12 MHz high resolution scanning probe. An ANCOVA was used to compare post training muscle thickness values between TRT and PT, using baseline values as covariates. According to the results, RF muscle thickness increased only in PT, while BIC muscle thickness increased in both groups, but with larger increases in PT. In conclusion, ten weeks of PT induced muscle hypertrophy of the upper and lower limb muscles in older men. PT training may yield better results in muscle hypertrophy when compared with TRT.
The aim of the present study was to ascertain if in six young (23-35 years) and in six older (70-72 years) healthy men matched for comparable absolute and specific maximal force of the dominant elbow flexors, differences in isometric endurance, myoelectrical fatigability, and shortening velocity are still recognizable. To assess the specific force, the muscle cross sectional area (CSA) was determined from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The performance of the elbow flexors was studied by assessing the isometric endurance times (ET) at different percentages of maximal isometric contraction (MVC), the average muscle fibre conduction velocity of action potentials (CV), and the median frequency (MDF) of the surface electromyogram (sEMG) of the biceps brachii. Finally, the torque-velocity curve was assessed by means of maximal isokinetic contractions at six fixed angular velocities. All data were expressed as the mean (SD). The results showed that: (1) the ET was longer in the older subjects at the highest levels of isometric contraction, independently from the absolute force; (2) the modifications of muscle fibre CV during isometric effort progressed less rapidly in the older than the younger groups, as did those of MDF; and (3) at the same angular velocity, the older subjects exerted less absolute force than the younger subjects. These results suggest an impairment of the neuromuscular system of older men, which is less powerful and less fatigable than that of young men.
The purpose of this study was (a) to obtain information about the perceptions held by seniors and health care providers concerning what constitutes a fall and potential reasons for falling, and (b) to compare these perceptions to the research literature.
As part of a larger telephone survey, interviewers asked 477 community-dwelling seniors to define a fall and to provide reasons for falling. In addition, we interviewed 31 health care providers from the community on the same topics. In order to capture patterns in conceptualized thinking, we used content analysis to develop codes and categories for a fall definition and reasons for falling. We reviewed selected articles in order to obtain a comprehensive overview of fall definitions currently used in the research and prevention literature.
A fall had different meanings for different groups. Seniors and health care providers focused mainly on antecedents and consequences of falling, whereas researchers described the fall event itself. There were substantial differences between the reasons for falling as reported by seniors and the risk factors as identified in the research literature.
If not provided with an appropriate definition, seniors can interpret the meaning of a fall in many different ways. This has the potential to reduce the validity in studies comparing fallers to nonfallers. Research reports and prevention programs should always provide an operational definition of a fall. In communication between health care providers and seniors, an appropriate definition increases the possibility for early detection of seniors in greater need of care and services.
This study investigated the effect of a 10-week power training (PT) program versus traditional resistance training (TRT) on functional performance, and muscular power and strength in older men. Twenty inactive volunteers (60-76 years old) were randomly assigned to a PT group (three 8-10 repetition sets performed as fast a possible at 60% of 1-RM) or a TRT group (three 8-10 repetition sets with 2-3 s contractions at 60% of 1-RM). Both groups exercised 2 days/week with the same work output. Outcomes were measured with the Rikli and Jones functional fitness test and a bench and leg press test of maximal power and strength (1-RM). Significant differences between and within groups were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). At 10 weeks there was a significantly (P < 0.05) greater improvement in measures of functional performance in the PT group. Arm curling improved by 50 versus 3% and a 30 s chair-stand improved by 43 versus 6% in the PT and TRT groups, respectively. There was also a significantly greater improvement in muscular power (P < 0.05) in the PT group. The bench press improved by 37 versus 13%, and the leg press by 31 and 8% in the PT and TRT groups, respectively. There was no significant difference between groups in improved muscular strength. It appears that in older men there may be a significantly greater improvement in functional performance and muscular power with PT versus low velocity resistance training.
Fragala, MS, Cadore, EL, Dorgo, S, Izquierdo, M, Kraemer, WJ, Peterson, MD, and Ryan, ED. Resistance training for older adults: position statement from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Aging, even in the absence of chronic disease, is associated with a variety of biological changes that can contribute to decreases in skeletal muscle mass, strength, and function. Such losses decrease physiologic resilience and increase vulnerability to catastrophic events. As such, strategies for both prevention and treatment are necessary for the health and well-being of older adults. The purpose of this Position Statement is to provide an overview of the current and relevant literature and provide evidence-based recommendations for resistance training for older adults. As presented in this Position Statement, current research has demonstrated that countering muscle disuse through resistance training is a powerful intervention to combat the loss of muscle strength and muscle mass, physiological vulnerability, and their debilitating consequences on physical functioning, mobility, independence, chronic disease management, psychological well-being, quality of life, and healthy life expectancy. This Position Statement provides evidence to support recommendations for successful resistance training in older adults related to 4 parts: (a) program design variables, (b) physiological adaptations, (c) functional benefits, and (d) considerations for frailty, sarcopenia, and other chronic conditions. The goal of this Position Statement is to a) help foster a more unified and holistic approach to resistance training for older adults, b) promote the health and functional benefits of resistance training for older adults, and c) prevent or minimize fears and other barriers to implementation of resistance training programs for older adults.
The manipulation of resistance training (RT) variables is used among athletes, recreational exercisers and compromised populations (e.g., elderly) attempting to potentiate muscle hypertrophy. However, it is unknown whether an individual's inherent predisposition dictates the RT-induced muscle hypertrophic response. Twenty resistance-trained young (26(3)y) men performed 8wk unilateral RT (2∙wk ⁻¹ ) with one leg randomly assigned to a standard progressive RT (CON), and the contralateral leg to a variable RT (VAR, modulating exercise load, volume, contraction type and interset rest interval). The VAR leg completed all 4 RT variations every 2wk. Bilateral vastus lateralis cross-sectional area (CSA) was measured pre- and post-RT, and acute integrated myofibrillar protein synthesis (MyoPS) rates were assessed at rest and over 48h following the final RT session. Muscle CSA increase was similar between CON and VAR (P>0.05), despite higher total training volume (TTV) in VAR (P<0.05). The 0-48h integrated MyoPS increase post-exercise was slightly greater for VAR than CON (P<0.05). All participants were considered 'responders' to RT, although none benefited to a greater extent from a specific protocol. Between-subjects variability (MyoPS, 3.30%; CSA, 37.8%) was 40-fold greater than the intra-subject (between legs) variability (MyoPS, 0.08%; CSA, 0.9%). The higher TTV and greater MyoPS response in VAR did not translate to a greater muscle hypertrophic response. Manipulating common RT variables elicited similar muscle hypertrophy than a standard progressive-RT program in trained young men. Intrinsic individual factors are key determinants of the MyoPS and change in muscle CSA compared with extrinsic manipulation of common RT variables.
Sarcopenia is a progressive and generalised skeletal muscle disorder involving the accelerated loss of muscle mass and function that is associated with increased adverse outcomes including falls, functional decline, frailty, and mortality. It occurs commonly as an age-related process in older people, influenced not only by contemporaneous risk factors, but also by genetic and lifestyle factors operating across the life course. It can also occur in mid-life in association with a range of conditions. Sarcopenia has become the focus of intense research aiming to translate current knowledge about its pathophysiology into improved diagnosis and treatment, with particular interest in the development of biomarkers, nutritional interventions, and drugs to augment the beneficial effects of resistance exercise. Designing effective preventive strategies that people can apply during their lifetime is of primary concern. Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of sarcopenia is likely to become part of routine clinical practice.
Dankel, SJ and Loenneke, JP. Effect sizes for paired data should use the change score variability rather than the pre-test variability. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-Effect sizes provide a universal statistic detailing the magnitude of an effect while removing the influence of the sample size. Effect sizes and statistical tests are closely related with the exception that the effect size illustrates the magnitude of an effect in SD units, whereas the test statistic illustrates the magnitude of effect in SE units. Avoiding statistical jargon, we illustrate why calculations of effect sizes on paired data within the sports and exercise science literature are repeatedly performed incorrectly using the variability of the study sample as opposed to the variability of the actual intervention. Statistics and examples are provided to illustrate why effect sizes are being calculated incorrectly. The calculation of effect sizes when examining paired data supports the results of the test statistic, but only when the effect size calculation is made relative to the variability of the intervention (i.e., the change score SD) because this is what is used for the calculation of the test statistic. Effect size calculations that are made on paired data should be made relative to the SD of the change score because this provides the information of the statistical test while removing the influence of the sample size. After all, we are interested in how variable the intervention is rather than how variable the sample population is. Effect size calculations that are made on pre-test/post-test designs should be calculated as the change score divided by the SD of the change score.
Fett, J, Ulbricht, A, and Ferrauti, A. Impact of physical performance and anthropometric characteristics on serve velocity in elite junior tennis players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-This study aimed to investigate the impact of physical performance components and anthropometric characteristics on serve velocity (SV) in elite junior tennis players depending on the sex and age group. A sample of the best 1,019 (male = 625, female = 394) junior squad tennis players of the German Tennis Federation participated in the study involving complex anthropometric measurements (body height, body mass, sitting height, and arm span) and physical tests (e.g., SV, medicine ball throws [MBTs], hand grip strength, push-ups, back extension, countermovement jumps [CMJs], horizontal jumps, 20-m sprint, and tennis-specific endurance). Of all the anthropometric and physical characteristics analyzed, the MBTs (r = 0.49-0.60♂; r = 0.20-0.60♀), hand grip strength (r = 0.43-0.59♂; r = 0.27-0.37♀), arm span (r = 0.37-0.56♂; r = 0.24-0.36♀), body height (r = 0.31-0.52♂; r = 0.26-0.38♀), and body mass (r = 0.44-0.57♂; r = 0.35-0.39♀) were particularly closely correlated with SV. The results of the multiple regression analysis indicated that the combination of selected predictors (e.g., MBTs, grip strength, arm span, and body mass) explained 41-66% of the variance in SV of boys and 19-45%, respectively, for girls. The results reinforce that service speed is dependent on physical abilities and anthropometric characteristics but also strongly on additional factors (i.e., technical components). In particular, the upper-body power/strength highlight is important to the junior players' service, especially in athletes with a greater body height and arm span (i.e., biomechanical advantages), whereas purely lower-body power (e.g., CMJ) is less important. To this effect, talent identification and intervention programs focusing on the specific requirements are recommended.
Objective: to compare the effects of 12 weeks of high-speed resistance training on functional performance and quality of life in elderly women when using either a traditional-set (TS) or a cluster-set (CS) configuration for inter-set rest.
Methods: Three groups of subjects were formed by block-design randomization as follows: (i) control group (CG, n=17; age, 66.5±5.4 years); (ii) 12-week high-speed resistance training group under a CS configuration (CSG, n=15; age, 67.6±5.4 years); and (iii) 12-week high-speed resistance training group under a TS configuration (TSG, n=20; age, 68.0±5.3 years). Training was undertaken three times per week, including high-speed resistance training exercises. The main difference between the training groups was the recovery set structure. In the TSG, women rested for 150 s after each set of eight repetitions, whereas the CSG used an interest rest redistribution, such that after two consecutive repetitions, a 30-s rest was allowed.
Results: Group×test interactions were observed for a 10-m walking speed test, an 8-foot up-and-go test, a sit-to-stand test, and physical quality of life (p<0.05; d=0.12-0.81). The main results suggest that both training methods improve functional performance and quality of life, however, the CS configuration induced significantly greater improvements in functional performance and quality of life than the TS configuration.
Conclusion: these results should be considered when designing appropriate and better resistance training programs for older adults.
A plethora of research has supported the numerous health benefits of resistance training as we age, including positive relationships between muscular strength, muscle mass and reduced all-cause mortality. As such, resistance training has been referred to as medicine. However, participation and adherence remains low, with time constraints and perceived difficulty often cited as barriers to resistance training. With this in mind, we aimed to summarise the benefits which might be obtained as a product of a minimal dose approach. In this sense, participation in resistance training might serve as a prophylactic to delay or prevent the onset of biological aging. A short review of studies reporting considerable health benefits resulting from low volume resistance training participation is presented, specifically considering the training time, frequency, intensity of effort, and exercises performed. Research supports the considerable physiological and psychological health benefits from resistance training and suggests that these can be obtained using a minimal dose approach (e.g. ≤60min, 2d-wk(-1)), using uncomplicated equipment/methods (e.g. weight stack machines). Our hope is that discussion of these specific recommendations, and provision of an example minimal dose workout, will promote resistance training participation by persons who might otherwise have not engaged. We also encourage medical professionals to use this information to prescribe resistance exercise like a drug whilst having an awareness of the health benefits and uncomplicated methods.
Objectives:
To assess the prevalence of non-responders to different tests and to compare the effects of different resistance training (RT) volumes on muscle strength, anthropometric and functional performance of older women.
Methods:
Three hundred seventy six women performed 12weeks of RT with either low or high volume (LV, 71.29±5.77years and HV 69.73±5.88years, respectively). Both groups performed the same exercises, and all parameters were held constant except for the number of sets performed per week. LV performed 8-12 for upper and 4-6 for lower body, while HV performed 16-20 and 8-10, respectively. Before and after the training period, the participants were tested for bench press and leg press 1RM, 30-s chair stand, 30-s arm curl, six-minute walk test, sit and reach, body weight and waist circumference.
Results:
Both groups significantly improved in all strength and functional tests and reduced their body weight and waist circumference. ANOVA revealed higher gains in the leg press 1RM, 30-s arm curls and 6-min walk test for the HV group and higher increases in the results of the sit and reach test for the LV group. However, the differences were negligible and may be attributable to a type I error due to the large sample size. Non-responsiveness was not apparent in any subject, as a positive response on at least one outcome was present in every participant.
Conclusions:
Our results suggest that RT, even at low volume, improves waist circumference, muscle strength and physical function in the older population, with no evidence of non-responsiveness. Therefore, we should not be restrictive in prescribing this type of exercise to this population.
Background:
This study examined the effects of balance training routine, using both sides utilized balance trainer (BOSU) and aerobic step (STEP) on postural sway and functional ability in middle-aged women.
Methods:
Twenty-seven females participated in the study, age 40.6 ± 12.0 years, body mass 72.0 ± 14.0 kg, height 164.0 ± 7.7 cm, BMI 26.5 ± 4.5 kg/m2, and relative body fat 33.1 ± 7.4%. Participants were divided into two groups and performed progressive exercise routine on either STEP or BOSU for three weeks. Pre- and post- test consisted of postural sway test performed on the Biodex Balance System, functional ability test, sit and reach test and plank.
Results:
A significant time effect was observed for both groups for sway index (p = 0.029) and center of pressure antero-posterior (AP) displacement (p = 0.038) but not for sway area or medio- lateral (ML) displacement (p > 0.05). In addition, BOSU group had significantly lower sway index (p = 0.048) and ML range (p = 0.035) scores when vision and surface was altered compared to STEP group. A significant time effect was observed in walking-up the stairs (p = 0.020), sit and reach test (p = 0.035), and plank (p < 0.001), but not for walking down the stairs. However, no other significant interactions were observed.
Conclusions:
Programs that incorporate multisensory balance training have a potential to induce adaptive responses in neuromuscular system that enhances postural control, balance and functional ability of women. The training using BOSU may help improve static balance and functional ability in women.
Introduction:
Gait speed, maximum grip strength and thirty seconds chair stand test are quick, reliable measures of functional capacity in older adults. The objective of this study was to develop normative data of the said parameters, which is lacking in older Indians.
Methodology:
In a cross sectional study, 723 participants of ≥60 years without any morbidity, were recruited with written consent at Geriatric Medicine clinic of All India Institute of Medical sciences, New Delhi. Time taken to walk comfortably (4m) was taken as Gait speed. Maximum grip strength was assessed by using dynamometer by pressing it for 3 times in each hand, and the best of six values noted. Thirty second chair stand was assessed by the number of repetitions to stand and sit from a chair in thirty second.
Result:
The Cut-off (25th percentile) of gait speed for both male and female in all age group was 0.6m/s. The Cut-off for maximum grip strength in 60-65 years, 66-70 years and >70 years for male were 20, 15 and 15 and for females were 8, 6 and 6 in kg, respectively. The Cut-off for thirty second chair stand test in 60-65 years, 66-70 years and >70 years for male were 10, 9 and 8 and for females was 8, 8 and 7, respectively.
Conclusion:
These normative data would be useful to the clinicians and researcher as Indian reference value, which is less as compared to western data. Community based multi-centre study is needed.
Older women participated in a 12-week high-speed resistance training program under two supervisor-to-subject ratio methods (i.e., high versus low supervision) in order to assess its effects on muscle strength, power, functional performance, and quality of life assessed before (T1) and after (T2) intervention. Women were divided into control group (CG, n = 15), high supervision group (HSG, n = 30), and low supervision group (LSG, n = 28). The training program included exercises requiring high-speed concentric muscle actions. No differences were observed among groups at T1. Between T1 and T2 the HSG showed a higher (p<0.05) improvement in muscle strength (ES = 0.36-1.26), power (ES = 0.5-0.88), functional performance (ES = 0.52-0.78), and quality of life (ES = 0.44-0.82) compared to LSG and CG. High-speed resistance training under closer supervision is more effective for improving muscle strength, power, functional performance, and quality of life in older women.
We reported, using a unilateral resistance training (RT) model, that training with high or low loads (mass per repetition) resulted in similar muscle hypertrophy and strength improvements in RT-naïve subjects. Here we aimed to determine whether the same was true in men with previous RT experience using a whole-body RT program and whether post-exercise systemic hormone concentrations were related to changes in hypertrophy and strength. Forty-nine resistance-trained men (mean ± SEM, 23 ± 1 y) performed 12 wk of whole-body RT. Subjects were randomly allocated into a higher-repetition (HR) group who lifted loads of ~30-50% of their maximal strength (1RM) for 20-25 repetitions/set (n=24) or a lower-repetition (LR) group (~75-90% 1RM, 8-12 repetitions/set, n=25), with all sets being performed to volitional failure. Skeletal muscle biopsies, strength testing, DXA scans, and acute changes in systemic hormone concentrations were examined pre- and post-training. In response to RT, 1RM strength increased for all exercises in both groups (p < 0.01), with only the change in bench press being significantly different between groups (HR: 9 ± 1 vs. LR: 14 ±1 kg, p = 0.012). Fat- and bone-free (lean) body mass, type I and type II muscle fibre cross sectional area increased following training (p < 0.01) with no significant differences between groups. No significant correlations between the acute post-exercise rise in any purported anabolic hormone and the change in strength or hypertrophy were found. In congruence with our previous work, acute post-exercise systemic hormonal rises are not related to or in any way indicative of RT-mediated gains in muscle mass or strength. Our data show that in resistance-trained individuals load, when exercises are performed to volitional failure, does not dictate hypertrophy or, for the most part, strength gains.
Current information and evidence indicate that for most activities free weight training can produce superior results compared to training with machines, particularly when the free weight training involves complex, multi‐joint exercises. A number of reasons can account for the superiority of free weights; the major factor deals with mechanical specificity. Mechanical specificity is concerned with appropriate movement patterns, force application and velocity of movement. Considering the available evidence that adherence to the concept of specificity of exercise and training can result in a greater transfer of training effect then free weights should produce a more effective training transfer. Therefore, the majority of resistance exercises making up a training programme should include of free weight exercises with emphasis on mechanical specificity (i.e. large muscle mass exercises, appropriate velocity, contraction type etc.). Generally, machines should be used as an adjunct to free weight training and, depending upon the sport, can be used to a greater or lesser extent during various phases of the training period (preparation, pre‐competition, competition).
Current information and evidence indicate that for most activities free weight training can produce superior results compared to training with machines, particularly when the free weight training involves complex, multi-joint exercises. A number of reasons can account for the superiority of free weights; the major factor deals with mechanical specificity. Mechanical specificity is concerned with appropriate movement patterns, force application and velocity of movement. Considering the available evidence that adherence to the concept of specificity of exercise and training can result in a greater transfer of training effect then free weights should produce a more effective training transfer. Therefore, the majority of resistance exercises making up a training programme should include of free weight exercises with emphasis on mechanical specificity (i.e. large muscle mass exercises, appropriate velocity, contraction type etc.). Generally, machines should be used as an adjunct to free weight training and, depending upon the sport, can be used to a greater or lesser extent during various phases of the training period (preparation, pre-competition, competition).
In order to improve the applicability of research to exercise professionals, it is suggested that researchers analyze and report data in intervention studies that can be interpreted in relation to other studies. The effect size and proposed scale for determining the magnitude of the treatment effect can assist strength and conditioning professionals in interpreting and applying the findings of the strength training studies.