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Facebook Data Breach: A Systematic Review of Its Consequences on Consumers’ Behaviour Towards Advertising
Abstract
Advancement of Internet and digitalisation of information has led to increase of data breach incidences in social networking sites (SNS) particularly Facebook, thus affecting its market value and reputation. The intriguing question is whether and how does data breach affects consumers’ behaviour towards Facebook advertising? The privacy literature provides inadequate account on this question. In order to fill the gap, the current paper analyses privacy in Facebook and investigates the consequences of perceived data breach (PDB) on consumers’ behaviour towards Facebook advertising. A systematic review of privacy literature was undertaken to answer the research question. This paper reveals that protection of consumers’ privacy in Facebook is in deficit, and it further hypothesises that PDB influences consumers’ behaviour negatively by discouraging both acceptance and engagement with ads. Moreover, PDB influences ad avoidance positively. Likewise, it influences consumers’ psychology by increasing privacy concerns and emotional violation and reducing trust concurrently. The findings of this study are not confirmatory; thus, a scope for further empirical research to test the developed model and inclusion of other mediating and moderating constructs is provided. Practically, this paper recommends tough personal data protection regulations and privacy policy that prohibit Facebook and other SNS from online tracking of consumers. Also, Facebook should build trust and revise privacy settings to enable consumers to opt in or out of receiving ads. Finally, this paper’s theoretical contribution is the model which proposes that perceived data breach affects consumers’ behaviour towards Facebook advertising both directly and indirectly through psychological mediating variables.
... Additionally, due to the lack of in-depth analysis of user behavior data, Lasso fails to implement effective advertising deployments in brand management, thereby unable to enhance brand exposure and recognition among users. Precisely because of the absence of accurate targeting and personalized ad delivery, Lasso gradually lost its competitiveness in the short-video platform market and ultimately exited the market [10]. ...
In the era of big data, data-driven strategies and brand management have a profound impact on social media platforms and brand operations. This study uses case analysis and comparative methods to conduct an in-depth exploration of the performance of TikTok, Instagram, and Lasso in terms of advertising, brand management, and global market expansion. The research aims to reveal the significant influence of data analysis capabilities and precision advertising on platform performance. The results show that TikTok and Instagram have significantly enhanced user engagement and advertising effectiveness through data analysis and personalized advertising strategies, while Lasso has failed to succeed in the competition due to a lack of advanced data analysis and precision marketing strategies. This article provides a reference for enterprises to utilize big data and precision marketing to optimize market performance and points out that the future research direction for improvement is mainly to explore in-depth data learning and optimize data processing.
... Through a data analytics company named Cambridge Analytica, Facebook users' personal data was improperly exploited for political propaganda and election activities. This breach sparked a global outcry and brought privacy protection issues to the forefront, dealing a severe blow to Facebook [3]. ...
With the rapid development of new media, user privacy issues have become increasingly important. New media platforms, such as TikTok, Twitter, and WhatsApp, process vast amounts of user data daily, including personal information, behavioral data, and social relationships. The extensive collection and use of this data present numerous privacy protection challenges. Many users are not fully aware of how their data is collected and used when using new media platforms, lacking informed consent regarding data collection. Consequently, relying on users to take proactive privacy measures to prevent the disclosure of critical information is difficult to achieve. To address this issue, this paper proposes a privacy protection mechanism that combines differential privacy and data anonymization. The mechanism protects query results through differential privacy techniques and hides user identity information using data anonymization techniques, thereby ensuring user privacy during data analysis and processing. This paper conducts necessary experimental analysis on the proposed method, and the results demonstrate its usability and effectiveness.
... Studying the customer's reaction after having their data leaked through a company is also relevant. Lulandala [23] studied the change of behavior of Facebook users approaching advertisements after a data leak. The authors have remarked that these security incidents reduce customers' trust and lower ad engagement. ...
A data breach is the unauthorized disclosure of sensitive personal data, and it impacts millions of individuals annually in the United States, as reported by Privacy Rights Clearinghouse. These breaches jeopardize the physical safety of the individuals whose data are exposed and result in substantial economic losses for the affected companies. To diminish the frequency and severity of data breaches in the future, it is imperative to research their causes and explore preventive measures. In pursuit of this goal, this study considers a dataset of data breach incidents affecting companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ. This dataset has been augmented with additional information regarding the targeted company. This paper employs statistical visualizations of the data to clarify these incidents and assess their consequences on the affected companies and individuals whose data were compromised. We then propose mitigation controls based on established frameworks such as the NIST Cybersecurity Framework. Additionally, this paper reviews the compliance scenario by examining the relevant laws and regulations applicable to each case, including SOX, HIPAA, GLBA, and PCI-DSS, and evaluates the impacts of data breaches on stock market prices. We also review guidelines for appropriately responding to data leaks in the U.S., for compliance achievement and cost reduction. By conducting this analysis, this work aims to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of data breaches and empower organizations to safeguard against them proactively, improving the technical quality of their basic services. To our knowledge, this is the first paper to address compliance with data protection regulations, security controls as countermeasures, financial impacts on stock prices, and incident response strategies. Although the discussion is focused on publicly traded companies in the United States, it may also apply to public and private companies worldwide.
... For instance, 40% of customers stated that they don't trust businesses with how their personal information is handled (KPMG, 2021). Although cultural factors may influence an individual's concerns and perspective about data privacy (Hong et al., 2021;Paupini et al., 2022), the literature indicates that these concerns primarily centre around the improper data collection, unauthorised use of private data inside the company, data breaching and data management errors (Lulandala, 2020;Roberts et al., 2022). ...
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the impact of the ethical management of data privacy on the overall reputation of businesses.
Design/methodology/approach
A conceptual model was proposed and tested. Data were collected from 208 small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the textile industry in Valencia, Spain using a survey instrument. Partial least squares (PLS) allowed for the analysis of the data collected.
Findings
The theoretical model explains 46.1% of the variation in the organisational reputation variable. The findings indicate that ethical data privacy has a beneficial effect on an organisation's reputation and eco-innovation. The findings also demonstrate how eco-innovation drives the development of new knowledge and green skills that, in turn, communicate to stakeholders a company's ethical commitment. These results should encourage SMEs to invest in data privacy in order to meet the needs of the SMEs' increasingly technology- and environment-sensitive stakeholders and to improve their reputation.
Originality/value
This study provides the first empirical evidence that ethical data privacy management has a positive impact on the reputation of firms. Furthermore, the originality of the research derives from the analysis of the results from an environmental perspective. Indeed, this study shows that effective data privacy management can indirectly support organisational reputation through eco-innovation and green skills.
... Cases like the Cambridge Analytica controversy highlight that it is the breaking of perceived social norms, such as surreptitious data mining and egregious uses of this data, that move users to express outrage (Fiesler et al., 2020) and change their behavior on platforms. A systematic review of online consumer privacy literature found that perceived data breaches on Facebook increased privacy concerns and reduced trust (Lulandala, 2020). Between 2017 and 2018, more than half of adult Facebook users adjusted their privacy settings to make their accounts more private . ...
Objective:
Since 2016, around seven in 10 adults in the United States (U.S.) actively use Facebook. While much Facebook data is publicly available for research, many users may not understand how their data are being used. We sought to examine to what extent research ethical practices were employed and the research methods being used with Facebook data in public health research.
Methods:
We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO registration CRD42020148170) of social media-based public health research focused on Facebook published in peer-reviewed journals in English between January 1, 2006 and October 31, 2019. We extracted data on ethical practices, methodology, and data analytic approaches. For studies that included verbatim user content, we attempted to locate users/posts within a timed 10-min period.
Results:
Sixty-one studies met eligibility criteria. Just under half (48%, n = 29) sought IRB approval and six (10%) sought and obtained informed consent from Facebook users. Users' written content appeared in 39 (64%) papers, of which 36 presented verbatim quotes. We were able to locate users/posts within 10 min for half (50%, n = 18) of the 36 studies containing verbatim content. Identifiable posts included content about sensitive health topics. We identified six categories of analytic approaches to using these data: network analysis, utility (i.e., usefulness of Facebook as a tool for surveillance, public health dissemination, or attitudes), associational studies of users' behavior and health outcomes, predictive model development, and two types of content analysis (thematic analysis and sentiment analysis). Associational studies were the most likely to seek IRB review (5/6, 83%), while those of utility (0/4, 0%) and prediction (1/4, 25%) were the least likely to do so.
Conclusions:
Stronger guidance on research ethics for using Facebook data, especially the use of personal identifiers, is needed.
... In the current centralised Internet infrastructure, individuals have little or no control over the storage and usage of their data [5]. Furthermore, with this centralised structure, personal data are vulnerable to data security and privacy issues (e.g., data breaches by Facebook) and unlawful usage of the data [6]. Besides, individuals will not be able to use their data as a valuable asset to create profit. ...
Internet services have collected our personal data since their inception. In the beginning, the personal data collection was uncoordinated and was limited to a few selected data types such as names, ages, birthdays, etc. Due to the widespread use of social media, more and more personal data has been collected by different online services. We increasingly see that Internet of Things (IoT) devices are also being adopted by consumers, making it possible for companies to capture personal data (including very sensitive data) with much less effort and autonomously at a very low cost. Current systems architectures aim to collect, store, and process our personal data in the cloud with very limited control when it comes to giving back to citizens. However, Personal Data Stores (PDS) have been proposed as an alternative architecture where personal data will be stored within households, giving us complete control (self-sovereignty) over our data. This paper surveys the current literature on Personal Data Stores (PDS) that enable individuals to collect, control, store, and manage their data. In particular, we provide a comprehensive review of related concepts and the expected benefits of PDS platforms. Further, we compare and analyse existing PDS platforms in terms of their capabilities and core components. Subsequently, we summarise the major challenges and issues facing PDS platforms’ development and widespread adoption.
... After this event, many research directions and industrial interests gradually entered people's vision and became hot topics, such as online fake news detection, user credibility analyses, and false information transmission. (2020), Rosati et al. (2018), Rahman and Adnan (2017), Trautman and Ormerod (2016) and Lulandala (2020) Industrial corporations and enterprises In this categories of research interest, the researchers or industrial participants specifically focus on the understanding and post-analyses on the real-world data breach incidents in industrial corporations and enterprises. ...
The increasing use or abuse of online personal data leads to a big data breach challenge for individuals, businesses, and even the government. Due to the scale of online data and the uncertainty of human factors, it is not feasible to build a practical prevention approach for data breach incidents in a real-time manner. In addition, despite the existing research on protecting users' data, a little systematic survey has been published to guide researchers and industrial participants to address the data breach issues. In this paper, we perform a comprehensive review and analysis of typical data breach incidents. We investigate threat actors, security flaws, and vulnerabilities that often lead to data breaches. The paper also includes the consequences of the information disclosures and lessons learned from each incident. Finally, we discuss countermeasures and challenges in preventing potential data breaches.
... For instance, 40% of customers stated that they don't trust businesses with how their personal information is handled (KPMG, 2021). Although cultural factors may influence an individual's concerns and perspective about data privacy (Hong et al., 2021;Paupini et al., 2022), the literature indicates that these concerns primarily centre around the improper data collection, unauthorised use of private data inside the company, data breaching and data management errors (Lulandala, 2020;Roberts et al., 2022). ...
Information privacy has been called one of the most important ethical issues of the information age. In this context, companies need to be able to address the concerns of their stakeholders about how they collect, handle, and process this data.
The literature leads to hypothesize that when organisations take explicit actions to address the privacy concerns of their customers, they are successful in improving the perception of the company’s integrity and thus, in contributing to a company’s good reputation. Furthermore, the availability of consumers' personal data provide companies with a better understanding of consumers’ needs and preferences for environmental products/services, allowing for eco-innovation. The literature also shows that eco-innovation can facilitate the development of green skills of employees that contribute to meeting customer and market expectations.
Thus, the purpose of this article is to examine the direct effect of data privacy management on organisational reputation but also its indirect effect through eco-innovation and green skills.
A conceptual model was proposed and tested by utilising data collected through a survey instrument. The data were provided by 208 SMEs based in the textile sector of Valencia that has been considered one of the most relevant in the Spanish economy. Partial Least Squares (PLS) using the SmartPLS software allowed for the analysis of the data collected from practitioners. The theoretical model explains 46.1 per cent of the variance in the organisational reputation variable.
This study fills the gap in empirical evidence that ethical data privacy management by an SME has a positive impact on its overall reputation. In addition, data privacy management supports organisational reputation indirectly through eco-innovation and green skills. These results should encourage SMEs to invest in data privacy management to satisfy increasingly digitally literate and environmentally conscious customers and thereby improve their reputation.
... These are just some of the most awful consequences of engaging in any of these behaviors. The study sample has been collected from social media pages of well-known e-commerce platforms, which frequently use heavily customized paid ads, also known as retargeting ads, whose negative effects on consumption and on the mental wellbeing of social media users have been reported in previous literature (Lulandala, 2020). Thailand is among the most social media engaged population in the world having 51 million users on Facebook and 16 million users on Instagram, however, very little focus has been placed on investigating the characteristics of compulsive, impulsive and conspicuous consumption as effects of social media usage (Gupta and Vohra, 2019). ...
This study contributes to the emerging literature on the negative effects over consumption that social media users may develop as a consequence of being engaged on social media platforms. The authors tested materialism’s direct and indirect impacts on compulsive, conspicuous, and impulsive buying, adding two novel mediators: attitudes toward social media content (SCM) and social media intensity (SMI). The study uses a convenience sample of 400 Thai social media users analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results confirmed the well-established positive relationships between materialism and each of the three-negative consumption behaviors also in the social media domain. A novel finding showed the important role played by SMI which was found to be a strong predictor of each of the three negative consumption behaviors and it was also found to significantly mediate the relationship between materialism and the three-negative consumption behaviors. An additional contribution of the study was found on the role of attitudes which, contrary to what is commonly believed, were often not significant in predicting any negative behavior.
... These are just some of the most awful consequences of engaging in any of these behaviors. The study sample has been collected from social media pages of well-known e-commerce platforms, which frequently use heavily customized paid ads, also known as retargeting ads, whose negative effects on consumption and on the mental wellbeing of social media users have been reported in previous literature (Lulandala, 2020). Thailand is among the most social media engaged population in the world having 51 million users on Facebook and 16 million users on Instagram, however, very little focus has been placed on investigating the characteristics of compulsive, impulsive and conspicuous consumption as effects of social media usage (Gupta and Vohra, 2019). ...
This study contributes to the emerging literature on the negative effects over consumption that social media users may develop as a consequence of being engaged on social media platforms. The authors tested materialism's direct and indirect impacts on compulsive, conspicuous, and impulsive buying, adding two novel mediators: attitudes towards social media content and social media intensity. The study uses a convenience sample of 400 Thai social media users analysed using structural equation modelling. The results confirmed the well-established positive relationships between materialism and each of the three-negative consumption behaviours also in the social media domain. A novel finding showed the important role played by social media intensity which was found to be a strong predictor of each of the three negative consumption behaviours and it was also found to significantly mediate the relationship between materialism and the three-negative consumption behaviors. An additional contribution of the study was found on the role of attitudes which, contrary to what is commonly believed, were often not significant in predicting any negative behavior.
The increasing use or abuse of online personal data leads to a big data breach challenge for individuals, businesses, and even the government. Due to the scale of online data and the uncertainty of human factors, it is not feasible to build a practical prevention approach for data breach incidents in a real-time manner. In addition, despite the existing research on protecting users’ data, a little systematic survey has been published to guide researchers and industrial participants to address the data breach issues. In this paper, we perform a comprehensive review and analysis of typical data breach incidents. We investigate threat actors, security flaws, and vulnerabilities that often lead to data breaches. The paper also includes the consequences of the information disclosures and lessons learned from each incident. Finally, we discuss countermeasures and challenges in preventing potential data breaches.
Social media enjoy a phenomenal success in terms of adoption and usage levels. They cause paradigm shifts on how people connect and communicate with each other, on how they express and share ideas, and even on how they engage with products, brands, and organizations. Moreover, social media became significant networks of consumer knowledge. In travel and tourism, the impacts of social media have already been described as tremendous, primarily due to the experiential nature of tourism products, and especially of holiday trips: purchases are considered risky and therefore decision making processes are information intensive.
An adequate number of studies attempt to reveal the role and impact of social media on aspects of consumer behaviour during the travel process that is before, during, and after the trip. However, almost all employ a micro approach, focusing either on a specific type of social medium (e.g. consumer review and rating websites), or on a specific application (e.g.TripAdvisor), or on a specific stage of the decision making process (e.g. information search), or on a specific stage of the travel process (e.g. before travel). Despite the advantages of such micro approaches, still the overall picture on how consumers use social media and their impact as a whole, during all phases of the travel process and throughout all stages of the decision making process remains unclear.
To address this gap, this study aims to explore use and impacts of social media on consumer behaviour with particular focus on holiday travel. To meet this aim, a qualitative methodology was designed to provide an insider’s perspective on how consumers use social media throughout the holiday travel process and the impacts of such use on consumer behaviour. Seven focus groups were carried out with fifty-one active social media users who have been on a holiday trip during the last twelve months. It was revealed that social media are used during all stages of the travel process, and also during all stages of holiday related decision making processes. Through thematic analysis six themes have been constructed that provide a range of insights on how
social media are used and their impacts.
This study makes four contributions to knowledge. First, to consumer behaviour theory by
proposing information exchange as an enlarged consumer behaviour construct consisting of nine components. Second, to the theory of technology fluidity. Fluidity, from being a characteristic of a specific technology, is now proposed as a characteristic of the sets of behaviours and cognitive functions associated with the use of the specific technology or medium. Third, to social media related research in the context of holiday travel by identifying six functional spaces that enclose active users’ specific behaviours and cognitive functions: inspiration, collaboration, decision making, self-expression, communication, and entertainment. Fourth, by proposing the social media enabled travel process model as a framework for understanding use and impact of social media throughout the holiday travel process. A number of implications for practice, as
well as emerging areas for future research are drawn.
Users’ privacy on social media platforms continues to be important as users face numerous threats to their personal data. Social media sites such as Facebook store large amounts of users’ personal data which make such sites prime targets for hackers. Research has shown that users have been subjected to privacy attacks in which hacked personal data are sold to online marketers. These incidents have prompted the need to protect users’ privacy against data theft by third parties. We investigated the privacy risks that social media users on Facebook face when online. The privacy awareness of regular users of Facebook was evaluated through the observation of their online activities. Facebook was selected as a case study because it is the largest and most popular social media platform in South Africa. A sample group of Facebook users was selected for this study based on their activeness (or frequency of posting, uploaded or liking) on the site. Findings indicate that users’ personal data can be obtained as they are publicly available on Facebook. The implication of this finding is that users lack adequate awareness on protection tools designed to protect their personal data, and as a result, they risk losing their data and privacy.
Significance:
• This study serves as an assessment tool for the privacy and security features of the social media site Facebook. This assessment tool can help users of social media sites to evaluate their own behaviour and usage patterns on Facebook. It can also assist social media site designers in considering the effectiveness of current measures, which are designed to ensure that the privacy and safety of users are protected.
Although marketers increasingly rely on customer data, firms have little insight into the ramifications of such data use and do not know how to prevent negative effects. Data management efforts may heighten customers' vulnerability worries or create real vulnerability. Using a conceptual framework grounded in gossip theory, the authors link customer vulnerability to negative performance effects. Three studies show that transparency and control in firms' data management practices can suppress the negative effects of customer data vulnerability. Experimental manipulations reveal that mere access to personal data inflates feelings of violation and reduces trust. An event study of data security breaches affecting 414 public companies also confirms negative effects, as well as spillover vulnerabilities from rival firms' breaches, on firm performance. Severity of the breach hurts the focal firm but helps the rival firm, which provides some insight into mixed findings in prior research. Finally, a field study with actual customers of 15 companies across three industries demonstrates consistent effects across four types of customer data vulnerability and confirms that violation and trust mediate the effects of data vulnerabilities on outcomes.
Online behavioral targeting (OBT), the tracking of a consumer's online activities in order to develop a behavioral profile of the consumer, is a rapidly growing technique that enables advertisers to deliver relevant messages. While OBT provides many advantages to shoppers and advertisers alike, the practice has the technological potential to violate consumers’ privacy rights to a dangerous and unprecedented degree. Still, OBT is poorly understood by most consumers, is often nontransparent and deceptive, and in many cases does not even provide a reasonable chance to opt out. Due to OBT's relative newness, few laws, regulations, and policies, as well as in-depth ethical analyses of the practice, exist. Actions by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), however, provide a notable exception. In a series of reports, in particular since 2009, the agency has engaged in dialogs with various stakeholders about OBT and the dangers it poses to consumers. Its efforts have also included legal enforcement activities. Within the context of these developments our article presents the evolution of the broader legal environment, including an ethical analysis of the FTC's efforts. Our objective is to shed light on the issue from a normative perspective and to assist online advertisers as well as regulators searching for guidelines and policies on how to use OBT in a responsible manner.
Firms are collecting more information about their customers than ever before in an attempt to understand and better serve customer needs. At the same time, firms are becoming more vulnerable to the compromise of customer information through security breaches. This study attempts to associate breach reports with the decline in market value of firms using an event study. The results show that firms suffer significant market value depreciation over a short as well as a long time window. Further, the greatest devaluation occurs when larger amounts of customer information are compromised at large companies. Due to the greater potential of customer backlash, negative publicity and liability risk, managers must view customer information breaches as service failures rather than as information system failures. Employing established service failure recovery strategies may allow firms to quickly and proactively address customer privacy concerns and thereby mitigate negative market reaction to information breaches.
Consumer vulnerability is a sometimes misunderstood or misused concept that is equated erroneously with demographic characteristics, stigmatization, consumer protection, unmet needs, discrimination, or disadvantage. This article seeks to clarify the boundaries for what is and what is not consumer vulnerability. By explicating the key themes of consumer vulnerability from previous studies in the consumer research and marketing literatures, the authors build a definition and model to explain that consumer vulnerability is multidimensional, context specific, and does not have to be enduring. The authors clarify that multiple and simultaneous internal and external factors contribute to consumer experiences of vulnerability. They conclude by proposing some ways the consumer-driven definition of consumer vulnerability can be implemented into research and policy decisions. Most important, their implementation focuses on treating consumers as they wish to be treated, not as well-meaning others think they should be treated, and on directing policy toward facilitating individual empowerment.
In 3 studies with student samples, we advance a social-motivational approach to gossip. We developed the Motives to Gossip Questionnaire to distinguish negative influence, information gathering and validation, social enjoyment, and group protection as motives underlying gossip. Study 1 demonstrated that these motives can be distinguished empirically, and that the informational motive was the most prevalent reason to instigate gossip. Study 2 showed that group protection was especially important when the opportunity to gossip with a group member about another member's norm-violating behavior was salient. Study 3 showed that when participants imagined someone gossiped to them about another group member's norm violation, and ascribed this to group protection, they rated the gossip as social and did not disapprove of it.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to study factors affecting the acceptance of social networking sites (SNS), analyze users' practices and behavior in these environments and assess the degree of acceptance of SNS in The Netherlands.
Design/methodology/approach
An extended technology acceptance model (TAM) was used to analyze the factors influencing the level of acceptance and use of SNS applying a structural equation modeling technique. Data were collected by means of an online national survey among Dutch SNS users.
Findings
Results support all hypotheses with positive relationships and influence between analyzed constructs; the only exception was the hypothesis on the relation between perceived risk and perceived usefulness.
Research limitations/implications
The survey was conducted in The Netherlands. This research can be considered as the basis for a more extensive research, covering other geographical areas, that will produce results allowing more specific and accurate predictions regarding the acceptance of SNS as marketing management tools.
Practical implications
The findings reveal a number of issues that are important for companies eager to explore the potential of the SNS as a strategic tool and as a means of improvement of their managerial processes in the area of marketing strategy.
Social implications
SNS are considered of great importance, both for individuals and businesses, since they support and expand existing social or business networks and allow the creation of new ones. The study underlines the importance of these networks as a communications and customer engagement channels.
Originality/value
The traditional TAM has been widely studied to analyze the adoption of new technologies. However, the adoption of SNS has been so far very little studied. The study provides new insights in this adoption process. Alongside this, the study added two personal variables of SNS users (i.e. trust and perceived risk), improving the traditional TAM approach.
Developing and maintaining trust in work relationships The past decade has seen dramatic changes in the modern organization. New organizational linkages, strategic alliances, partnerships, and joint ventures are being formed to achieve and maintain competitive advantage in the marketplace. New linkages require organizations to move away from the more traditional hierarchical forms and toward networks and alliances. These new forms are designed to be more responsive to rapid change, enable entrepreneurial activity to flourish within the organization and across its boundaries, and increase the effectiveness of communication and problem solving across departments, locations, functional responsibilities, and organizational boundaries. In their recent work, Managing the New Organization , Limerick and Cunnington (1993) emphasize nine crucial competencies for managing networks, within and across organizational boundaries. Interpersonal dynamics between key actors within a network or alliance are critical elements in this list of competencies, and trust is central to this list: The key ...
The authors develop a framework for understanding the behaviors and practices of service providers that build or deplete consumer trust and the mechanisms that convert consumer trust into value and loyalty in relational exchanges. The proposed framework (1) uses a multidimension al conceptualization for the trustworthiness con- struct; (2) incorporates two distinct facets of consumer trust, namely, frontline employees and management poli- cies and practices: and (3) specifies value as a key mediator of the trust-loyalty reiationship. The authors test the proposed modei using data from two sennce contexts—retail clothing (N = 264) and nonbusiness airline travel (N = 113). The results support a tripartite view of tmstworthiness evaluations along operational competence, operational benevolence, and problem-solving orientation dimensions. Moreover, the authors find evidence of contingent asymmetric reiationships between trustworthiness dimensions and consumer trust. For frontline employees, benev- olent behaviors demonstrate a dominant "negativity" effect (i.e., a unit negative perfomnance has a stronger effect than a unit positive performance), whereas problem-solving orientation has a dominant "positivity" effect (i.e., a unit positive perfonnance has a stronger effect than a unit negative perfonnance). Value compieteiy mediates the effect of frontline employee trust on loyalty in the retaiiing context and partially mediates the effect of management poji- cies and practices tmst on loyalty in the airlines context. The role of frontline employees is more critical in the retaii- ing context, whereas management practices and policies play the dominant roie in the airlines context. Overaii, the proposed framework successfully models trust and loyalty mechanisms across the two industries examined in the study, while remaining sensitive to essential contextuai differences.
To complement views of gossip as essentially a means of gaining information about individuals, cementing social bonds, and engaging in indirect aggression, the authors propose that gossip serves to help people learn about how to live in their cultural society. Gossip anecdotes communicate rules in narrative form, such as by describing how someone else came to grief by violating social norms. Gossip is thus an extension of observational learning, allowing one to learn from the triumphs and misadventures of people beyond one's immediate perceptual sphere. This perspective helps to explain some empirical findings about gossip, such as that gossip is not always derogatory and that people sometimes gossip about strangers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conversation is a uniquely human phenomenon. Analyses of freely forming conversations indicate that approximately two thirds of conversation time is devoted to social topics, most of which can be given the generic label gossip. This article first explores the origins of gossip as a mechanism for bonding social groups, tracing these origins back to social grooming among primates. It then asks why social gossip in this sense should form so important a component of human interaction and presents evidence to suggest that, aside from servicing social networks, a key function may be related explicitly to controlling free riders. Finally, the author reviews briefly the role of social cognition in facilitating conversations of this kind. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Government and industry organizations have declared information privacy and security to be major obstacles in the development of consumer-related e-commerce. Risk perceptions regarding Internet privacy and security have been identified as issues for both new and experienced users of Internet technology. This paper explores risk perceptions among consumers of varying levels of Internet experience and how these perceptions relate to online shopping activity. Findings provide evidence of hypothesized relationships among consumers’ levels of Internet experience, the use of alternate remote purchasing methods (such as telephone and mail-order shopping), the perceived risks of online shopping, and online purchasing activity. Implications for online commerce and consumer welfare are discussed.
We use the Power-Responsibility Equilibrium (PRE) framework and advance that consumers balance perceived deficits in privacy protection by power holders (businesses and regulators) with defensive actions. In our model, consumer privacy concern is the endogenous mediating entity linking business policy and regulatory perceptions to negative online user responses. The model was empirically tested and confirmed in an experimental setting. In a second study, we added the nature of consumer information involved into a sub-model. Here, we investigated the moderating role of information sensitivity and congruency on the business policy-concern relationship across three industry contexts. Both hypothesized two-way interactions were confirmed, suggesting that a strong business policy is effective in reducing concern when low sensitivity data are gathered, but insufficient in reducing concern for highly sensitive data. Furthermore, concern increased dramatically when sensitive data were collected that were incongruent with the business context.
After a service failure and a poor recovery, what leads loyal customers to try to punish a firm even if there is no material
gain for doing so? We propose and test a justice-based model that incorporates perceived betrayal as the means to understand
customer retaliation and the “love becomes hate” effect. The results suggest that betrayal is a key motivational force that
leads customers to restore fairness by all means possible, including retaliation. In contrast to the majority of findings
in the service literature, we propose and find that relationship quality has unfavorable effects on a customer’s response
to a service recovery. As a relationship gains in strength, a violation of the fairness norm was found to have a stronger
effect on the sense of betrayal experienced by customers. The model was tested on a national sample of airline passengers
who complained to a consumer agency after an unsuccessful recovery.
Personalization refers to the tailoring of products and purchase experience to the tastes of individual consumers based upon their personal and preference information. Recent advances in information acquisition and processing technologies have allowed online vendors to offer varieties of web-based personalization that not only increases switching costs, but also serves as important means of acquiring valuable customer information. However, investments in online personalization may be severely undermined if consumers do not use these services due to privacy concerns. In the absence of any empirical evidence that seeks to understand this consumer dilemma, our research develops a parsimonious model to predict consumers usage of online personalization as a result of the tradeoff between their value for personalization and concern for privacy. In addition to this tradeoff, we find that a consumers intent to use personalization services is positively influenced by her trust in the vendor. Our findings suggest that: 1. online vendors can improve their abilities to acquire and use customer information through trust building activities; 2. it is of critical importance that vendors understand and evaluate the different values consumers may place in enjoying various types of personalization.
This article chronicles more than 30 years of public opinion, politics, and law and policy on privacy and confidentiality that have had far-reaching consequences for access by the social research community to administrative and statistical records produced by government. A hostile political environment, public controversy over the decennial census long form, media coverage, and public fears about the vast accumulations of personal information by the private sector were catalysts for a recent proposal by the U.S. Bureau of the Census that would have significantly altered the contents of the 2000 census Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS). These events show clearly that science does not operate independently from the political sphere but may be transformed by a political world where powerful interests lead government agencies to assume responsibility for privacy protection that can result in reducing access to statistical data.
Reputation systems promote cooperation and deter antisocial behavior in groups. Little is known, however, about how and why people share reputational information. Here, we seek to establish the existence and dynamics of prosocial gossip, the sharing of negative evaluative information about a target in a way that protects others from antisocial or exploitative behavior. We present a model of prosocial gossip and the results of 4 studies testing the model's claims. Results of Studies 1 through 3 demonstrate that (a) individuals who observe an antisocial act experience negative affect and are compelled to share information about the antisocial actor with a potentially vulnerable person, (b) sharing such information reduces negative affect created by observing the antisocial behavior, and (c) individuals possessing more prosocial orientations are the most motivated to engage in such gossip, even at a personal cost, and exhibit the greatest reduction in negative affect as a result. Study 4 demonstrates that prosocial gossip can effectively deter selfishness and promote cooperation. Taken together these results highlight the roles of prosocial motivations and negative affective reactions to injustice in maintaining reputational information sharing in groups. We conclude by discussing implications for reputational theories of the maintenance of cooperation in human groups.
Although online retailers detail their privacy practices in online privacy policies, this information often remains invisible to consumers, who seldom make the effort to read and understand those policies. This paper reports on research undertaken to determine whether a more prominent display of privacy information will cause consumers to incorporate privacy considerations into their online purchasing decisions. We designed an experiment in which a shopping search engine interface clearly and compactly displays privacy policy information. When such information is made available, consumers tend to purchase from online retailers who better protect their privacy. In fact, our study indicates that when privacy information is made more salient and accessible, some consumers are willing to pay a premium to purchase from privacy protective websites. This result suggests that businesses may be able to leverage privacy protection as a selling point.
With the advent of the online digital mode of communication the traditional communication tools are losing their grounds. The increasing popularity of the Social Networking websites has paved new ways of online communication. But the social networking sites have also eroded some privacy related ethical questions in the mind of the researchers. This paper aims to identify the privacy related issues related to the social networking websites. As a representative of the social networking websites Facebook has been studied along with its usage standards and policies. To fulfill the aim of the study some relevant literatures are studied and an online survey has been conducted. The study reveals, though most of the people are concerned about the privacy issues while using the social networking sites, they hardly practice the safety norms in the actuality.
Todays, in order to break out of cluttered ad environment, advertisers provide customized ad messages for an individual consumer based on personal information. The targeting technique is a successful way for advertisers to increase advertising effectiveness, but it also causes privacy concern. Using an online survey, the current study examines the influence of perceived ad relevance and privacy concern on social media ads. The results confirmed that perceived ad relevance influences advertising effectiveness such as increased attention to ads and decreased ad avoidance. However, perceived relevance also increases privacy concern which ultimately raises ad avoidance in social media. Theoretical and practical implications of findings are discussed.
Adolescents are regularly exposed to commercial messages on social networking sites. There is scant knowledge of how they interact with marketing communications on these social platforms. This study examines how advertising on Facebook is associated with adolescents' ad skepticism, and how this influences their purchase intentions. Also, the moderating role of privacy concern and a textual debriefing about the nature of the advertising technique are investigated. In total, 363 adolescents aged 16–18 years participated in an experimental study. The results show that, in general, retargeted Facebook ads (compared to non-retargeting) lead to higher purchase intentions. However, when textual debriefing is provided or for adolescents with a high privacy concern, skeptical attitude toward retargeting increases, which in turn decreases purchase intentions. These research findings hold some important implications for actors from different fields of expertise, such as policy makers, practitioners and educators.
Privacy is a growing concern in the United States and around the world. The spread of the Internet and the seemingly boundaryless options for collecting, saving, sharing, and comparing information trigger consumer worries. Online practices of business and government agencies may present new ways to compromise privacy, and e-commerce and technologies that make a wide range of personal information available to anyone with a Web browser only begin to hint at the possibilities for inappropriate or unwarranted intrusion into our personal lives. Engaging Privacy and Information Technology in a Digital Age presents a comprehensive and multidisciplinary examination of privacy in the information age. It explores such important concepts as how the threats to privacy evolving, how can privacy be protected and how society can balance the interests of individuals, businesses and government in ways that promote privacy reasonably and effectively? This book seeks to raise awareness of the web of connectedness among the actions one takes and the privacy policies that are enacted, and provides a variety of tools and concepts with which debates over privacy can be more fruitfully engaged. Engaging Privacy and Information Technology in a Digital Age focuses on three major components affecting notions, perceptions, and expectations of privacy: technological change, societal shifts, and circumstantial discontinuities. This book will be of special interest to anyone interested in understanding why privacy issues are often so intractable. © 2007 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
This study aims to understand how consumers respond to social media advertising (SMA) by focusing on promoted tweets sent by brands and political parties, and examines persuasion knowledge as underlying mechanism of these responses. Two online experiments with between-subjects designs, comparing the effects of SMA (promoted vs. non-promoted tweet) and the source of the tweet (political party vs. brand), were conducted. Study 1 showed that consumers rarely notice it when a tweet is promoted. Study 2 demonstrated that when a promoted tweet was sent by a political party, the recipient's recognition that the tweet was a form of advertisement (i.e., activated persuasion knowledge) reduced online behavioral intention, increased skepticism, and negatively affected source trustworthiness and attitudes. This effect was not present for brands. Although research has shown that social media can be an important platform to engage audiences, this study is the first to study the mechanisms underlying the effects of SMA, and whether there are any boundary conditions to these effects. These findings suggest that political parties should be cautious in their use of social media advertising as it can evoke negative responses.
The privacy calculus established that online self-disclosures are based on a cost-benefit tradeoff. For the context of SNSs, however, the privacy calculus still needs further support as most studies consist of small student samples and analyze self-disclosure only, excluding self-withdrawal (e.g., the deletion of posts), which is essential in SNS contexts. Thus, this study used a U.S. representative sample to test the privacy calculus' generalizability and extend its theoretical framework by including both self-withdrawal behaviors and privacy self-efficacy. Results confirmed the extended privacy calculus model. Moreover, both privacy concerns and privacy self-efficacy positively predicted use of self-withdrawal. With regard to predicting self-disclosure in SNSs, benefits outweighed privacy concerns; regarding self-withdrawal, privacy concerns outweighed both privacy self-efficacy and benefits.
Marketers’ use of the new information technologies has provided the opportunity for improved market segmentation and target marketing. However, the profession faces ethical conflicts because application of these technologies commonly invades consumer privacy. The authors examine the ethical dimensions of marketing practice in relation to consumer privacy. The meaning of privacy in a marketing context is explored and specific marketing threats to consumer privacy are described. After examining current and potential mechanisms to safeguard consumer privacy, the authors conclude that marketers must make an active commitment to ethical behavior in this area if restrictive legislation is to be avoided.
Abstract Questions regarding personal privacy are becoming increasingly relevant, and the discussion continuously arises regarding what digital tracks we leave. Intrusive use and manipulation of personal information not only affect people's behaviour, but also they could have important implications for political and civic society. Previous research has relied on convenience samples and has often focused on one or only a few areas of use. The presented study, based on a probability sample, gives an overall picture of how privacy concerns are perceived in different online contexts and how socio-demography, internet experience, trust, and political orientation contribute to the understanding of privacy concerns in different settings. The results clearly point to privacy concerns as being very diverse and dependent on the applications in question. All dimensions that are used to explain privacy concerns are partly supported in the study. But their explanatory powers differ and not all areas of concern are affected by the same explanatory factors. Trust in other people is the single most important factor explaining privacy concerns when using digital media and applications. The more people trust others, the less concern they have for misuse of personal information.
Data breach incidents are on the rise, and have resulted in severe financial and legal implications for the affected organizations. We apply the opportunity theory of crime, the institutional anomie theory, and institutional theory to identify factors that could increase or decrease the contextual risk of data breach. We investigate the risk of data breach in the context of an organizations physical location, its primary industry, and the type of data breach that it may have suffered in the past. Given the location of an organization, the study finds support for application of the opportunity theory of crime and the institutional anomie theory in estimating the risk of data breach incidents within a state. In the context of the primary industry in which an organization operates, we find support for the institutional theory and the opportunity theory of crime in estimating risk of data breach incidents within an industry. Interestingly though, support for the opportunity theory of crime is partial. We find that investment in information technology (IT) security corresponds to a higher risk of data breach incidents within both a state and an industry, a result contrary to the one predicted by the opportunity theory of crime. A possible explanation for the contradiction is that investments in IT security are not being spent on the right kind of data security controls, a fact supported by evidence from the industry. The work has theoretical and practical implications. Theories from criminology are used to identify the risk factors of data breach incidents and the magnitude of their impact on the risk of data breach. Insights from the study can help IT security practitioners to assess the risk environment of their firm (in terms of data breaches) based on the firm's location, its industry sector, and the kind of breaches that the firm may typically be prone to.
Privacy is of prime importance to many individuals when they attempt to develop online social relationships. Nonetheless, it has been observed that individuals' behavior is at times inconsistent with their privacy concerns, e.g., they disclose substantial private information in synchronous online social interactions, even though they are aware of the risks involved. Drawing on the hyperpersonal framework and the privacy calculus perspective, this paper elucidates the interesting roles of privacy concerns and social rewards in synchronous online social Interactions by examining the causes and the behavioral strategies that individuals utilize to protect their privacy. An empirical study involving 251 respondents was conducted in online chat rooms. Our results indicate that individuals utilize both self-disclosure and misrepresentation to protect their privacy and that social rewards help explain why individuals may not behave in accordance with their privacy concerns. In addition, we find that perceived anonymity of others and perceived intrusiveness affect both privacy concerns and social rewards. Our findings also suggest that higher perceived anonymity of self decreases individuals' privacy concerns, and higher perceived media richness increases social rewards. Generally, this study contributes to the information systems literature by integrating the hyperpersonal framework and the privacy calculus perspective to identify antecedents of privacy trade-off and predict individuals' behavior in synchronous online social interactions.
In recent years, social networking sites have spread rapidly, raising new issues in terms of privacy and self-disclosure online. For a better understanding of how privacy issues determine self-disclosure, a model which includes privacy awareness, privacy social norms, privacy policy, privacy control, privacy value, privacy concerns and self-disclosure was built. A total of 661 respondents participated in an online survey and a structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the model. The findings indicated a significant relationship between privacy value/privacy concerns and self-disclosure, privacy awareness and privacy concerns/self-disclosure, privacy social norms and privacy value/self-disclosure, privacy policy and privacy value/privacy concerns/self-disclosure, privacy control and privacy value/privacy concerns. The model from the study should contribute new knowledge concerning privacy issues and their shaping of self-disclosure on social networking sites. It could also help networking sites service providers understand how to encourage users to disclose more information.
Retailers gather data about customers’ online behavior to develop personalized service offers. Greater personalization typically increases service relevance and customer adoption, but paradoxically, it also may increase customers’ sense of vulnerability and lower adoption rates. To demonstrate this contradiction, an exploratory field study on Facebook and secondary data about a personalized advertising campaign indicate sharp drops in click-through rates when customers realize their personal information has been collected without their consent. To investigate the personalization paradox, this study uses three experiments that confirm a firm's strategy for collecting information from social media websites is a crucial determinant of how customers react to online personalized advertising. When firms engage in overt information collection, participants exhibit greater click-through intentions in response to more personalized advertisements, in contrast with their reactions when firms collect information covertly. This effect reflects the feelings of vulnerability that consumers experience when firms undertake covert information collection strategies. Trust-building marketing strategies that transfer trust from another website or signal trust with informational cues can offset this negative effect. These studies help unravel the personalization paradox by explicating the role of information collection and its impact on vulnerability and click-through rates.
The development of computing technologies and the Internet has made it possible to capture, save and analyze increasing amounts of personal information, leading to increased public concern over privacy. The present article analyzes individuals' Internet privacy concerns with respect to social networking sites. We study data on a set of 22,253 individuals in 26 EU countries, collected in December 2009 by Eurobarometer. We use an ordered logit model to examine the variables associated with the probability of increased concerns over privacy, in order to draw policy implications. The results show that national efforts to safeguard personal data positively affect perceived privacy. We observe also that both cultural and socio-demographic variables affect the level of privacy concerns.
This study attempts to identify the potential determinants of advertising avoidance in the context of personalized advertising media, including unsolicited commercial e-mail, postal direct mail, telemarketing, and text messaging. Using a self-administered survey (n = 442), the proposed model is tested with structural equation modeling analysis. The findings indicate that while ad skepticism partially mediates the relationship between ad avoidance and its three determinants (perceived personalization, privacy concerns, and ad irritation), both privacy concerns and ad irritation have a direct positive effect on ad avoidance. However, increased perceived personalization leads directly to decreased ad avoidance.
Drawing on the literature on online advertising, I argue that the fundamental economic difference between online and offline advertising is a substantial reduction in the cost of targeting. This cost reduction informs what I view as the main themes in the online advertising literature: understanding advertising effectiveness, auctions, privacy, and antitrust.
Privacy is one of the few concepts that has been studied across many disciplines, but is still difficult to grasp. The current understanding of privacy is largely fragmented and discipline-dependent. This study develops and tests a framework of information privacy and its correlates, the latter often being confused with or built into definitions of information privacy per se. Our framework development was based on the privacy theories of Westin and Altman, the economic view of the privacy calculus, and the identity management framework of Zwick and Dholakia. The dependent variable of the model is perceived information privacy. The particularly relevant correlates to information privacy are anonymity, secrecy, confidentiality, and control. We posit that the first three are tactics for information control; perceived information control and perceived risk are salient determinants of perceived information privacy; and perceived risk is a function of perceived benefits of information disclosure, information sensitivity, importance of information transparency, and regulatory expectations. The research model was empirically tested and validated in the Web 2.0 context, using a survey of Web 2.0 users. Our study enhances the theoretical understanding of information privacy and is useful for privacy advocates, and legal, management information systems, marketing, and social science scholars.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is one of many organizations studying influences on consumer privacy online. The authors investigate these influences, taking into consideration the current body of literature on privacy and the Internet and the FTC's core principles of fair information practice. The authors analyze these influences to assess the underlying factors of privacy concern online. The authors examine the current recommendations and actions of the FTC in light of the results of an e-mail survey of online consumers in the United States that assessed their attitudes toward privacy online. The authors find that the FTC's core principles address many of online consumers' privacy concerns. However, two factors not directly incorporated in the five principles, the relationships between entities and online users and the exchange of information for appropriate compensation, may influence consumers' privacy concerns.
Consumer privacy is a public policy issue that has received substantial attention over the last thirty years. The phenomenal growth of the Internet has spawned several new concerns about protecting the privacy of consumers. The authors examine both historical and conceptual analyses of privacy and discuss domestic and international regulatory and self-regulatory approaches to confronting privacy issues on the Internet. The authors also review ethical theories that apply to consumer privacy and offer specific suggestions for corporate ethical policy and public policy as well as a research agenda.
This study was designed ca provide insights into why people avoid advertising on the Internet. Recent negative trends in Internet advertising, such a.s "banner blindness" and extremely low click-through rates, make it imperative to study various factors affecting Internee ad avoidance. Accordingly, this study builds a comprehensive theoretical model explaining advertising avoidance on the Internet, We examined three latent variables of Internet ad avoidance: perceived goal impediment, perceived ad clutter, and prior negative experience. We found that these constructs successfully explain why people cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally avoid advertising messages on the Internet. Perceived goal impediment Is found to be the most significant antecedent explaining advertising avoidance on the Internet.
Purpose
This study seeks to explain a buyer's response to a seller's violation of trust. Four negative responses (decline in trust, negative emotions, negative word‐of‐mouth (WOM) and reduction in repurchase intentions) and four explanatory variables (magnitude of violation, integrity versus capability‐based cause of failure, perceived likelihood of repeated violations and stage of trust prior to the violation) were identified. The study develops and tests hypotheses regarding the possible influence of the explanatory variables on each of the four negative responses.
Design/methodology/approach
An experiment was conducted in which business professionals were given one of 16 scenarios, varied by levels of the four explanatory variables, describing a violation of trust in a business‐to‐business service situation. Respondents were asked questions regarding their probable response. Four‐way ANCOVA was used to analyze the results.
Findings
The study finds that stage of trust and perceived likelihood of repeated violation had significant main effects on decline in trust, negative WOM and repurchase intentions. Integrity‐based attribution influenced decline in trust, but magnitude of violation had no main effects. Three significant interactions were found.
Research limitations/implications
Findings show the importance of first impressions and reputation. Care should be taken to assure customers that violations will not be repeated. A major limitation was that scenarios cannot induce the same intensity of thought and emotion that real situations do.
Originality/value
Despite extensive literature in service failure and recovery, this is perhaps the first study to rigorously examine and seek to explain a buyer's response to a seller's violation of trust.
This paper investigates how internet users' perception of control over their personal information affects how likely they are to click on online advertising. The paper uses data from a randomized field experiment that examined the relative effectiveness of personalizing ad copy with posted personal information on a social networking website. The website gave users more control over their personally identifiable information in the middle of the field test. The website did not change how advertisers used data to target and personalize ads. After the introduction of improved privacy controls, users were twice as likely to click on personalized ads. There was no comparable change in the effectiveness of ads that did not make explicit that they used private information when targeting. The increase in effectiveness was larger for ads that used more unique private information to personalize their message.
Internet technology has made possible the widespread dissemination of individualized media messages, but we know very little about their psychological import. A between-subjects experiment (N =60) with three levels of customization (low, medium, high) was designed to examine whether greater levels of personalized content engender more positive attitudes. The results not only confirm this hypothesis but also reveal the mediating role played by users’ perceptions of relevance, involvement, interactivity, and novelty of portal content. In addition, customization has behavioral effects in that it affects users’ browsing activity.
This article examines online behaviors that increase or reduce risk of online identity theft. The authors report results from three consumer surveys that indicate the propensity to protect oneself from online identity theft varies by population. The authors then examine attitudinal, behavioral, and demographic antecedents that predict the tendency to protect one's privacy and identity online. Implications and suggestions for managers, public policy makers, and consumers related to protecting online privacy and identity theft are provided.
With Rogers' protection motivation theory as the theoretical framework, this study identified determinants of young adolescents' level of privacy concerns, which, in turn, affects their resultant coping behaviors to protect privacy. Survey data from 144 middle school students revealed that perceived risks of information disclosure increased privacy concerns, whereas perceived benefits offered by information exchange decreased privacy concerns. Subsequently, privacy concerns had an impact on risk-coping behaviors such as seeking out interpersonal advice or additional information (e.g., privacy statement) or refraining from using Web sites that ask for personal information. Counter to our expectation, privacy self-efficacy did not appear to be related to privacy concerns. Implications of privacy education to protect online privacy among young adolescents were discussed.
A survey of 1,000 Chicago-area consumers suggests that concern about privacy issues varies depending on the situation, the company conducting the marketing activities, and the consumer's own personal need for the products being sold. In addition, the survey found that certain kinds of consumers are more negative about potential threats to their privacy than are others.