Eco-regional-basedRiceFarming forEnhancingProductivity, ProfitabilityandSustainability ICAR-NationalRiceResearchInstitute IndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch Cuttack,Odisha753006

Abstract

Sustainable rice production is the key to achieving Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), particularly for country like India.
Growing rice in non-conventional and unsuitable ecoregions,
however, has generated several environmental problems such as
depletion of ground water, pollution of air, degradation of soil and
aggravation of climate change. All these degenerative factors are
taking toll on the productivity, profitability and sustainability of
rice farming. To achieve sustainable and environment-friendly
rice farming, the crop should be cultivated in the region where its
environmental footprint is the minimum. This can be
accomplished with ecoregional approach of rice farming.
Ecoregions are geographical regions with similar ecological, soil
and climatic conditions. Rainfall, temperature and soil are the
three most important biophysical factors determining
ecoregions for growing rice. Rice is a water-loving crop.
Therefore, its cultivation should be done in the areas where
average annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm. Temperature is
another key factor influencing growth, development and yield of
rice. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical plant, requires a fairly
high temperature, ranging from 20° to 30°C. Clayey loam soil (27-
40% clay content) in monsoon land is considered to be the best
for rice cultivation as water retention capacity of this soil is high.
The paper presents an analysis of delineating suitable ecoregions
for rice in India considering rainfall, temperature and soil texture
as the major contributing factors. The suitable ecoregions of rice
farming have been delineated and site-specific improved
technologies have been identified for enhancing productivity,
profitability, climate resilience and sustainability of rice farming
in the country.

Full text

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
#1
HPathak,RTripathi,NNJambhulkar,JPBisenandBBPanda
Eco-regional-basedRiceFarming
forEnhancingProductivity,
ProfitabilityandSustainability
February,2020
ICAR-NationalRiceResearchInstitute
IndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch
Cuttack,Odisha753006
NRRIResearchBulletinNo.22

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
23
Cuttack 753006, Odisha, India
ICAR-National Rice Research Institute
CorrectCitation
H Pathak, R Tripathi, NN Jambhulkar, JP Bisen and BB Panda (2020). Eco-regional Rice
Farming for Enhancing Productivity, Profitability and Sustainability. NRRI Research
Bulletin No. 22, ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Odisha, India. pp
28.
Publishedby
Director
Disclaimer : ICAR-National Rice Research Institute is not liable for any loss arising due to
improper interpretation of the scientific information provided in the book.
Laser typeset at the Fingerprint, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India and printed in India by the
Print-Tech Offset Pvt. Ltd., Bhubaneswar 751024, Odisha, Published by the Director for
ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Odisha.
February 2020
SUMMARY
Sustainable rice production is the key to achieving Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), particularly for country like India.
Growing rice in non-conventional and unsuitable ecoregions,
however, has generated several environmental problems such as
depletion of ground water, pollution of air, degradation of soil and
aggravation of climate change. All these degenerative factors are
taking toll on the productivity, profitability and sustainability of
rice farming. To achieve sustainable and environment-friendly
rice farming, the crop should be cultivated in the region where its
environmental footprint is the m inimum. T h i s ca n be
accomplished with ecoregional approach of rice farming.
Ecoregions are geographical regions with similar ecological, soil
and climatic conditions. Rainfall, temperature and soil are the
th ree most i mportant biophy sical factors dete r mining
ecoregions for growing rice. Rice is a water-loving crop.
Therefore, its cultivation should be done in the areas where
average annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm. Temperature is
another key factor influencing growth, development and yield of
rice. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical plant, requires a fairly
high temperature, ranging from 20° to 30°C. Clayey loam soil (27-
40% clay content) in monsoon land is considered to be the best
for rice cultivation as water retention capacity of this soil is high.
The paper presents an analysis of delineating suitable ecoregions
for rice in India considering rainfall, temperature and soil texture
as the major contributing factors. The suitable ecoregions of rice
farming have been delineated and site-specific improved
technologies have been identified for enhancing productivity,
profitability, climate resilience and sustainability of rice farming
in the country.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
23
Cuttack 753006, Odisha, India
ICAR-National Rice Research Institute
CorrectCitation
H Pathak, R Tripathi, NN Jambhulkar, JP Bisen and BB Panda (2020). Eco-regional Rice
Farming for Enhancing Productivity, Profitability and Sustainability. NRRI Research
Bulletin No. 22, ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Odisha, India. pp
28.
Publishedby
Director
Disclaimer : ICAR-National Rice Research Institute is not liable for any loss arising due to
improper interpretation of the scientific information provided in the book.
Laser typeset at the Fingerprint, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India and printed in India by the
Print-Tech Offset Pvt. Ltd., Bhubaneswar 751024, Odisha, Published by the Director for
ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Odisha.
February 2020
SUMMARY
Sustainable rice production is the key to achieving Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), particularly for country like India.
Growing rice in non-conventional and unsuitable ecoregions,
however, has generated several environmental problems such as
depletion of ground water, pollution of air, degradation of soil and
aggravation of climate change. All these degenerative factors are
taking toll on the productivity, profitability and sustainability of
rice farming. To achieve sustainable and environment-friendly
rice farming, the crop should be cultivated in the region where its
environmental footprint is the m inimum. T h i s ca n be
accomplished with ecoregional approach of rice farming.
Ecoregions are geographical regions with similar ecological, soil
and climatic conditions. Rainfall, temperature and soil are the
th ree most i mportant biophy sical factors dete r mining
ecoregions for growing rice. Rice is a water-loving crop.
Therefore, its cultivation should be done in the areas where
average annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm. Temperature is
another key factor influencing growth, development and yield of
rice. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical plant, requires a fairly
high temperature, ranging from 20° to 30°C. Clayey loam soil (27-
40% clay content) in monsoon land is considered to be the best
for rice cultivation as water retention capacity of this soil is high.
The paper presents an analysis of delineating suitable ecoregions
for rice in India considering rainfall, temperature and soil texture
as the major contributing factors. The suitable ecoregions of rice
farming have been delineated and site-specific improved
technologies have been identified for enhancing productivity,
profitability, climate resilience and sustainability of rice farming
in the country.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
45
PREFACE
In India, the current land use pattern for agriculture in many states is
not based on principles of comparative advantage. Crop pattern in
variou s region are inefficient in term s of resource use and
unsustainable from natural resource use point of view. This is resulting
into serious misallocation of resources, efficiency loss, indiscriminate
use of land and water resources, and adversely affecting long-term
production prospects. Due to lack of proper crop planning, problems of
soil and water degradation are aggravating. Proper crop planning that it
is consistent with natural endowment and resources use efficiency is
urgently required to stop the further degradation.
We wish the research bulletin would be an important document for
influencing the future policy on resource allocation for sustainable rice
cultivation in the country and thereby contributing to attainment of
SDGs.
This publication presents the suitable eco-regions for sustainable rice
cultivation in India. The eco-regions for rice are developed based not
only on the biophysical parameters for rice cultivation, but also on the
futuristic demand for rice in the country. The study delineated the area
under rice cultivation in India into four broad categories from
unsuitable to very suitable; emphasised on optimizing the productivity
from the suitable zones and discussed the strategies for enhancing
productivity and profitability of rice cultivation.
Rice, the world's most important food crop, is the staple food for about
four billion people i.e., half of the humankind on the planet. It is
o
cultivated in a wide range of climatic conditions spanning from 44 N in
o
North Korea to 35 S in Australia and from six feet below sea level (such
as in Kerala, India) to 2700 feet above sea level in the Himalayas. The
crop occupies a significant position in the culture and heritage of many
Asian countries. In India, it is the staple food for more than 65% of
population, thereby, is pivotal to food and livelihood security of people
and directly contributing to attainment of Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG). Thus, it is imperative to enhance not only the productivity
of rice, but also profitability, input use efficiency and climate resilience
in rice systems in order to contribute to other SDGs.
Authors
CONTENT
Sl.
No.
Particular
Page
No.
1.
Introduction
6
2.
Trends in area, production and productivity of rice
at national and state levels
7
3.
Projection of rice demand in 2030, 2040 and 2050
8
4.
Rice ecosystems in India
9
5.
Constraints in rice production in different
ecosystems
10
6.
Suitable soil and climatic conditions for rice
production
12
7.
Characterizing rice producing areas at district level
13
8.
Delineating the suitable zones for rice production
14
9.
Optimizing productivity in the suitable zones to
meet future rice demand
15
10.
Strategies for enhancing productivity and
proitability of rice production
16
11.
Conclusions
19
12.
References
19
13.
Annexure
22

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
45
PREFACE
In India, the current land use pattern for agriculture in many states is
not based on principles of comparative advantage. Crop pattern in
variou s region are inefficient in term s of resource use and
unsustainable from natural resource use point of view. This is resulting
into serious misallocation of resources, efficiency loss, indiscriminate
use of land and water resources, and adversely affecting long-term
production prospects. Due to lack of proper crop planning, problems of
soil and water degradation are aggravating. Proper crop planning that it
is consistent with natural endowment and resources use efficiency is
urgently required to stop the further degradation.
We wish the research bulletin would be an important document for
influencing the future policy on resource allocation for sustainable rice
cultivation in the country and thereby contributing to attainment of
SDGs.
This publication presents the suitable eco-regions for sustainable rice
cultivation in India. The eco-regions for rice are developed based not
only on the biophysical parameters for rice cultivation, but also on the
futuristic demand for rice in the country. The study delineated the area
under rice cultivation in India into four broad categories from
unsuitable to very suitable; emphasised on optimizing the productivity
from the suitable zones and discussed the strategies for enhancing
productivity and profitability of rice cultivation.
Rice, the world's most important food crop, is the staple food for about
four billion people i.e., half of the humankind on the planet. It is
o
cultivated in a wide range of climatic conditions spanning from 44 N in
o
North Korea to 35 S in Australia and from six feet below sea level (such
as in Kerala, India) to 2700 feet above sea level in the Himalayas. The
crop occupies a significant position in the culture and heritage of many
Asian countries. In India, it is the staple food for more than 65% of
population, thereby, is pivotal to food and livelihood security of people
and directly contributing to attainment of Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG). Thus, it is imperative to enhance not only the productivity
of rice, but also profitability, input use efficiency and climate resilience
in rice systems in order to contribute to other SDGs.
Authors
CONTENT
Sl.
No.
Particular
Page
No.
1.
Introduction
6
2.
Trends in area, production and productivity of rice
at national and state levels
7
3.
Projection of rice demand in 2030, 2040 and 2050
8
4.
Rice ecosystems in India
9
5.
Constraints in rice production in different
ecosystems
10
6.
Suitable soil and climatic conditions for rice
production
12
7.
Characterizing rice producing areas at district level
13
8.
Delineating the suitable zones for rice production
14
9.
Optimizing productivity in the suitable zones to
meet future rice demand
15
10.
Strategies for enhancing productivity and
proitability of rice production
16
11.
Conclusions
19
12.
References
19
13.
Annexure
22

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
67
Rice, the world's most important food crop, is the staple food for about four billion people i.e.,
half of the humankind on the planet (Table 1). Rice fields cover around 160 million hectares
o o
(Mha) in a wide range of climatic conditions spanning from 44 N in North Korea to 35 S in
Australia. It is cultivated from six feet below sea level (such as in Kerala, India) to 2700 feet
above sea level in the Himalayas. The crop occupies a significant position in the culture and
heritage of many Asian countries. Most of the rice in tropical countries is produced in
irrigated and rainfed lowland areas. Irrigated rice systems account for 78% of all rice
production and 55% of total harvested rice area, mostly concentrated in alluvial floodplains,
terraces, inland valleys, and deltas in the humid and sub-humid subtropics and humid tropics
of Asia. The crop occupies largest area in India followed by China and Indonesia, whereas
China has the highest production but Australia has the highest productivity.
Rice production in India has made tremendous progress over the years. However, it is facing
unprecedented challenges of environmental degradation and climate change in recent years
(Wassmann et al. 2009a, 2009b; Pathak 2015). Low and uncertain income, degraded natural
resource base, growing labour and energy shortages and threats of climate change are
making Indian agriculture highly vulnerable and unsustainable (Pathak et al. 2018b;
2019a,b,c). Environmentally safe and economically viable disposal of rice straw is another
1. Introduction
Rice is staple food for about 800 million people of India (Table 1). It plays a major role in diet,
economy, employment, culture and history. It is the staple food for more than 65% of Indian
population contributing approximately 40% to the total food grain production, thereby,
occupying a pivotal role in the food and livelihood security of people. India grows rice in 43
Mha with production of 112 million tons (Mt) of milled rice and average productivity of 2.6 t
-1
ha . The crop is grown in highly diverse conditions ranging from hills to coasts. Primarily a
kharifcrop, it is cultivated round the year in one or the other parts of the country. District wise
rice area in proportion to agricultural area in presented in Fig. 1. Over the years, area under
rice has increased about 1.5 times, however production has increased more than five times
(Fig. 2). With this, India has not only achieved self-sufficiency in rice but also produces
surplus to export. The leading rice producing states are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Chhattisgarh (Table 2).
Area, production and productivity of rice in different agro-climatic zones are presented in
Table 3 whereas area and productivity of rice in different seasons and ecosystems of India are
presented in Table 4. About 40% of the rice area in India is rainfed and more than 70% of
which is in eastern India. Out of the total rainfed area, 23% are rainfed upland and 77% are
rainfed lowland. The entire rainfed upland and 52% rainfed lowlands are drought prone.
About 17% of rainfed lowlands are flood prone.
Sustainable rice production is the key to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
particularly for country like India (Fig. 3). We need to enhance productivity, profitability,
input use efficiency and climate resilience in rice systems to achieve the SDGs. Current land
use pattern for agriculture in many states are not based on principles of comparative
advantage. Crop pattern in various region are inefficient in terms of resource use and
unsustainable from natural resource use point of view. This is resulting into serious
misallocation of resources, efficiency loss, indiscriminate use of land and water resources,
and adversely affecting long-term production prospects. Due to lack of proper crop
planning, problems of soil and water degradation are aggravating. Proper crop planning
that it is consistent with natural endowment and resources use efficiency is urgently
required to stop the further degradation. The paper presents an analysis of delineating
suitable ecoregions for rice in India considering rainfall, temperature and soil texture as
the major contributing factors. It also identifies technologies for enhancing productivity,
profitability, climate resilience and sustainability of rice farming in the country in the
suitable ecoregions.
challenge of rice farming in many, particularly the north-western part of the country (Pathak
et al. 2012). Indian rice farming thus seems to be in a cross-road once again. Producing
enough rice for the increasing population against the backdrop of reducing natural resource
base is, therefore, the primary task of Indian rice sector.
Increasing demand for food and various government policies have a significant implication
on resource allocation for rice crop and its acreage. Hence, the shift in area, production and
productivity of rice was computed with the help of following model.
2. Trends in area, production and productivity
of rice at national and state levels
t
Y = ab
Log Y = log a + t log b
where, 'Y' is the time series data of state wise area, production and productivity of rice, 't' is
the trend term and 'a' is the constant coefficient. The slope coefficient 'b' measures the
relative change in 'Y' for a given absolute change in the value of explanatory variable 't'. If the
relative change in Y is multiplied by 100, one can get the percentage change or growth rate in
Y for an absolute change in the variable 't'. The slope coefficient 'b' measures the
instantaneous rate of growth. The compound growth rate 'r' can be calculated as follows:
CGR(r) = [Antilog (log b) -1] × 100
The above equation was solved using Ordinarily Least Square (OLS) method.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
67
Rice, the world's most important food crop, is the staple food for about four billion people i.e.,
half of the humankind on the planet (Table 1). Rice fields cover around 160 million hectares
o o
(Mha) in a wide range of climatic conditions spanning from 44 N in North Korea to 35 S in
Australia. It is cultivated from six feet below sea level (such as in Kerala, India) to 2700 feet
above sea level in the Himalayas. The crop occupies a significant position in the culture and
heritage of many Asian countries. Most of the rice in tropical countries is produced in
irrigated and rainfed lowland areas. Irrigated rice systems account for 78% of all rice
production and 55% of total harvested rice area, mostly concentrated in alluvial floodplains,
terraces, inland valleys, and deltas in the humid and sub-humid subtropics and humid tropics
of Asia. The crop occupies largest area in India followed by China and Indonesia, whereas
China has the highest production but Australia has the highest productivity.
Rice production in India has made tremendous progress over the years. However, it is facing
unprecedented challenges of environmental degradation and climate change in recent years
(Wassmann et al. 2009a, 2009b; Pathak 2015). Low and uncertain income, degraded natural
resource base, growing labour and energy shortages and threats of climate change are
making Indian agriculture highly vulnerable and unsustainable (Pathak et al. 2018b;
2019a,b,c). Environmentally safe and economically viable disposal of rice straw is another
1. Introduction
Rice is staple food for about 800 million people of India (Table 1). It plays a major role in diet,
economy, employment, culture and history. It is the staple food for more than 65% of Indian
population contributing approximately 40% to the total food grain production, thereby,
occupying a pivotal role in the food and livelihood security of people. India grows rice in 43
Mha with production of 112 million tons (Mt) of milled rice and average productivity of 2.6 t
-1
ha . The crop is grown in highly diverse conditions ranging from hills to coasts. Primarily a
kharifcrop, it is cultivated round the year in one or the other parts of the country. District wise
rice area in proportion to agricultural area in presented in Fig. 1. Over the years, area under
rice has increased about 1.5 times, however production has increased more than five times
(Fig. 2). With this, India has not only achieved self-sufficiency in rice but also produces
surplus to export. The leading rice producing states are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Chhattisgarh (Table 2).
Area, production and productivity of rice in different agro-climatic zones are presented in
Table 3 whereas area and productivity of rice in different seasons and ecosystems of India are
presented in Table 4. About 40% of the rice area in India is rainfed and more than 70% of
which is in eastern India. Out of the total rainfed area, 23% are rainfed upland and 77% are
rainfed lowland. The entire rainfed upland and 52% rainfed lowlands are drought prone.
About 17% of rainfed lowlands are flood prone.
Sustainable rice production is the key to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
particularly for country like India (Fig. 3). We need to enhance productivity, profitability,
input use efficiency and climate resilience in rice systems to achieve the SDGs. Current land
use pattern for agriculture in many states are not based on principles of comparative
advantage. Crop pattern in various region are inefficient in terms of resource use and
unsustainable from natural resource use point of view. This is resulting into serious
misallocation of resources, efficiency loss, indiscriminate use of land and water resources,
and adversely affecting long-term production prospects. Due to lack of proper crop
planning, problems of soil and water degradation are aggravating. Proper crop planning
that it is consistent with natural endowment and resources use efficiency is urgently
required to stop the further degradation. The paper presents an analysis of delineating
suitable ecoregions for rice in India considering rainfall, temperature and soil texture as
the major contributing factors. It also identifies technologies for enhancing productivity,
profitability, climate resilience and sustainability of rice farming in the country in the
suitable ecoregions.
challenge of rice farming in many, particularly the north-western part of the country (Pathak
et al. 2012). Indian rice farming thus seems to be in a cross-road once again. Producing
enough rice for the increasing population against the backdrop of reducing natural resource
base is, therefore, the primary task of Indian rice sector.
Increasing demand for food and various government policies have a significant implication
on resource allocation for rice crop and its acreage. Hence, the shift in area, production and
productivity of rice was computed with the help of following model.
2. Trends in area, production and productivity
of rice at national and state levels
t
Y = ab
Log Y = log a + t log b
where, 'Y' is the time series data of state wise area, production and productivity of rice, 't' is
the trend term and 'a' is the constant coefficient. The slope coefficient 'b' measures the
relative change in 'Y' for a given absolute change in the value of explanatory variable 't'. If the
relative change in Y is multiplied by 100, one can get the percentage change or growth rate in
Y for an absolute change in the variable 't'. The slope coefficient 'b' measures the
instantaneous rate of growth. The compound growth rate 'r' can be calculated as follows:
CGR(r) = [Antilog (log b) -1] × 100
The above equation was solved using Ordinarily Least Square (OLS) method.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
89
3. Projection of rice demand in 2030, 2040 and
2050
Rice farming, particularly in the rainfed regions, faces multiple risks from uncertain climate,
degraded soil, water deficit and underdeveloped markets. It has come under increasing
pressure from intense competition for land and water, a more difficult growing environment
because of climate change, higher price for energy and fertilizers, labour shortage, increasing
cost of cultivation, declining profit margin and greater demand for reduced environmental
footprint (Samal 2009; 2013). The socio-economic dynamics and food habits are also
changing adding another dimension to already complex challenges of rice cultivation.
Therefore, the goal of rice research and development should be at improving nutritional and
income security of rice farmers while addressing environmental sustainability and coping
with climate change.
th
We used household data from 68 round of consumption survey conducted by National
Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) for deriving per capita consumption demand of rice per
year. The data on annual population for the country for the year 1951 to 2018 was taken from
the United Nations (UN), which was further extrapolated to project the population for year
2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050. Income/expenditure elasticity of rice based on Food
Characteristics Demand System (FCDS) model for all India has been taken from Kumar et al.
(2011). Income growth is another important factor in demand projections. Growth rates in
per capita income for 2018-19 (5.9%) is taken from the first advance estimates of national
income, 2018-19 (GoI, 2019) from the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation,
Government of India. The projected direct food demand was thus given by the following
equation:
During 1950-51 to 2017-18, rice area in India has witnessed an expansion at the rate of 0.20
-1 -1
Mha yr , whereas production and productivity have increased at the rate of 2.05 Mt yr and
-1 -1
0.04 t ha yr respectively (Fig. 2) during the same period. These changes are reflecting the
cumulative effect of green revolution technologies and various government policies.
However, in last three decades, crop specific policies (Procurement Policy, National Food
Security Mission and others) have indirectly played a crucial role in resource allocation for
few crops which would have certainly affected their production and yield. Between 1990-91
and 2017-18, the area, production and productivity of rice in India have increased at the rate
of 0.09, 1.45 and 1.36, respectively (Table 5). However, state level analysis of area, production
and productivity for the same period indicates a negative growth in area under rice for 45% of
the states. Trend in production was positive in all states except six states viz. Kerala, Mizoram,
Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim and Goa, where it was negative. Productivity trend has been
positive in all the states except Manipur and Mizoram, where it was negative (Table 5).
t
D = d × N (1+y × e)
t 0 t growth
D = Aggregate demand at time 't’
t
N = Projected population at time 't’
t
d = Base year per capita consumption demand
0
Where,
t= time period in decades
4. Rice ecosystems in India
·Irrigatedriceeco-system: Total area under irrigated rice in the country is about 26.0
Mha accounting for about 60% of the total area under the crop. It includes the areas in
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat.
In India, rice is grown under highly diverse conditions with area stretching from 79° to 90°E
longitude and 16° to 28° N latitude under varying agro-ecological zones. It is cultivated
mostly in wet season with unpredictable rainfall distribution. It is also grown in areas, where
water depth reaches 2-3 m or more. Rice culture in Kuttanad district of Kerala is grown below
the sea level, while in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, it is grown upto an altitude of 2000 m
above sea level; with temperature range of 15-40°C and average annual rainfall range from 30
mm in Rajasthan to more than 2800 mm in Assam. A wide range of rainfall distribution
pattern (drought, submergence, deep water) and distinct differences in soils (coastal and
inland salinity, alkalinity, acidity), agro-climatic situations (high humidity) and seasons has
resulted in the cultivation of thousands of varieties and therefore, one can see a standing rice
crop at some parts of the country or the other in any time of the year. Rice is primarily grown
under four major ecosystems broadly classified as (i) irrigated, (ii) rainfed lowland, (iii)
rainfed upland and (iv) flood prone.
e= Income elasticity of demand
Besides direct demand, there is also an important component, which includes seed, feed,
industrial uses and wastage, and has been termed as 'indirect demand'. Conventionally, the
indirect demand is assumed to be 12.5% of the total food grain production. Kumar et al.
(2007) computed the shares of seed, feed, wastage and other food uses as 9.5% of the total
production of rice. Database from Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy was used to
predict the future production assuming cetrisperibus. The rice production data from 1951 to
2018 was extrapolated to project the production of rice up to 2050. Following Kumar et al.
(2007) the indirect demand for rice was computed for the same period. It was assumed that
per capita consumption of rice is 64.1 kg/person/year (NSSO 2011-12); growth in per capita
income was taken as 5.9% (GoI 2019) and expenditure elasticity was taken as 0.026 (Joshi
and Kumar 2011). Calculated future demand for rice for the year 2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050
is given in Table 6.
y = Per capita Income growth
growth

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
89
3. Projection of rice demand in 2030, 2040 and
2050
Rice farming, particularly in the rainfed regions, faces multiple risks from uncertain climate,
degraded soil, water deficit and underdeveloped markets. It has come under increasing
pressure from intense competition for land and water, a more difficult growing environment
because of climate change, higher price for energy and fertilizers, labour shortage, increasing
cost of cultivation, declining profit margin and greater demand for reduced environmental
footprint (Samal 2009; 2013). The socio-economic dynamics and food habits are also
changing adding another dimension to already complex challenges of rice cultivation.
Therefore, the goal of rice research and development should be at improving nutritional and
income security of rice farmers while addressing environmental sustainability and coping
with climate change.
th
We used household data from 68 round of consumption survey conducted by National
Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) for deriving per capita consumption demand of rice per
year. The data on annual population for the country for the year 1951 to 2018 was taken from
the United Nations (UN), which was further extrapolated to project the population for year
2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050. Income/expenditure elasticity of rice based on Food
Characteristics Demand System (FCDS) model for all India has been taken from Kumar et al.
(2011). Income growth is another important factor in demand projections. Growth rates in
per capita income for 2018-19 (5.9%) is taken from the first advance estimates of national
income, 2018-19 (GoI, 2019) from the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation,
Government of India. The projected direct food demand was thus given by the following
equation:
During 1950-51 to 2017-18, rice area in India has witnessed an expansion at the rate of 0.20
-1 -1
Mha yr , whereas production and productivity have increased at the rate of 2.05 Mt yr and
-1 -1
0.04 t ha yr respectively (Fig. 2) during the same period. These changes are reflecting the
cumulative effect of green revolution technologies and various government policies.
However, in last three decades, crop specific policies (Procurement Policy, National Food
Security Mission and others) have indirectly played a crucial role in resource allocation for
few crops which would have certainly affected their production and yield. Between 1990-91
and 2017-18, the area, production and productivity of rice in India have increased at the rate
of 0.09, 1.45 and 1.36, respectively (Table 5). However, state level analysis of area, production
and productivity for the same period indicates a negative growth in area under rice for 45% of
the states. Trend in production was positive in all states except six states viz. Kerala, Mizoram,
Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim and Goa, where it was negative. Productivity trend has been
positive in all the states except Manipur and Mizoram, where it was negative (Table 5).
t
D = d × N (1+y × e)
t 0 t growth
D = Aggregate demand at time 't’
t
N = Projected population at time 't’
t
d = Base year per capita consumption demand
0
Where,
t= time period in decades
4. Rice ecosystems in India
·Irrigatedriceeco-system: Total area under irrigated rice in the country is about 26.0
Mha accounting for about 60% of the total area under the crop. It includes the areas in
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat.
In India, rice is grown under highly diverse conditions with area stretching from 79° to 90°E
longitude and 16° to 28° N latitude under varying agro-ecological zones. It is cultivated
mostly in wet season with unpredictable rainfall distribution. It is also grown in areas, where
water depth reaches 2-3 m or more. Rice culture in Kuttanad district of Kerala is grown below
the sea level, while in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, it is grown upto an altitude of 2000 m
above sea level; with temperature range of 15-40°C and average annual rainfall range from 30
mm in Rajasthan to more than 2800 mm in Assam. A wide range of rainfall distribution
pattern (drought, submergence, deep water) and distinct differences in soils (coastal and
inland salinity, alkalinity, acidity), agro-climatic situations (high humidity) and seasons has
resulted in the cultivation of thousands of varieties and therefore, one can see a standing rice
crop at some parts of the country or the other in any time of the year. Rice is primarily grown
under four major ecosystems broadly classified as (i) irrigated, (ii) rainfed lowland, (iii)
rainfed upland and (iv) flood prone.
e= Income elasticity of demand
Besides direct demand, there is also an important component, which includes seed, feed,
industrial uses and wastage, and has been termed as 'indirect demand'. Conventionally, the
indirect demand is assumed to be 12.5% of the total food grain production. Kumar et al.
(2007) computed the shares of seed, feed, wastage and other food uses as 9.5% of the total
production of rice. Database from Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy was used to
predict the future production assuming cetrisperibus. The rice production data from 1951 to
2018 was extrapolated to project the production of rice up to 2050. Following Kumar et al.
(2007) the indirect demand for rice was computed for the same period. It was assumed that
per capita consumption of rice is 64.1 kg/person/year (NSSO 2011-12); growth in per capita
income was taken as 5.9% (GoI 2019) and expenditure elasticity was taken as 0.026 (Joshi
and Kumar 2011). Calculated future demand for rice for the year 2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050
is given in Table 6.
y = Per capita Income growth
growth

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
10 11
Among the above ecosystems, further sub-systems are usually identified for location-specific
variations such as 'favourable' or 'unfavourable' moisture, soil type, temperature regime,
proneness to drought, submergence, both drought and submergence, growth duration (early,
medium, late maturity groups) and low light intensity conditions.
·Flood-pronericeecosystem: It occupies about 1.3 Mha in eastern states i.e., 3% of the
country. The crop is grown in shallow (up to 30 cm), semi-deep (30-100 cm) and deep-
water (>100 cm) ecosystems in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and
Odisha.
·Rainfeduplandriceecosystem: Total area under rainfed upland rice in the country is
about 4.8 Mha, which accounts for 11% of total area, located mainly in Eastern Zone i.e.,
Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha, West Bengal, and North East Hill Region. The rainfed upland ecosystem is
drought prone.
·Soil moisture stress and drought due to erratic and inadequate rainfall pattern. Poor
grain setting on account of heavy rainfall at flowering and germination of matured
grains on the panicles (Adhya et al. 2008).
Table 3 shows the area, production and productivity of rice in different agro climatic zones
(ACZs). Ranking of different ACZs based on area under rice showed that Eastern Plateau zone
occupies first position followed by Middle Gangetic Plains, East Coast Plains and Hill Zone.
Based on production, however, the Trans-Gangetic Plains zone ranks first followed by East
Coast Plains and Lower Gangetic Plains. On productivity basis, the Islands Zone comes first,
followed by Trans-Gangetic Plains and Southern Plateau. Ranking of zones based on the
average ranking of area, production and productivity showed that the Trans-Gangetic Plains
comes first followed by East Coast Plains and Lower Gangetic Plains. East Coast Plains zone
rd nd rd
stands 3 in area, 2 in production and 3 in overall ranking.
·Rainfedlowlandriceecosystem: In India, lowland rice covers an area of about 12.0 Mha,
which accounts for about 27% of the total area, located mainly in eastern India. The
area is characterized by poor soil quality and frequent occurrence of drought/flood due
to erratic rains.
5. Constraints in rice production in different
ecosystems
The constraints of rice production vary from ecosystem to ecosystem. Some of these
constraints are related to soil, some are technological and cultural, others are of extension
and development; and a few are of institutional and/or infrastructural in nature. Major
constraints of rice production in various ecosystems are listed below.
5.1. Uplandecosystem
·Salinity and deficiency of P, Ca, S, Zn, lack of ideal varieties, low fertilizer use, and
submergence/moisture stress at times seriously affect productivity in the eastern and
western zones.
·Over-mining of nutrients and/or faulty irrigation caused salinity/alkalinity, delayed
planting due to uncertainty of canal water release in command areas, imbalanced
fertilizer nutrient use, sub-optimal plant population, widespread micronutrient (Zn)
deficiency and high incidence of pests and diseases constitute the major constraints in
southern zone (Siddiq 2000).
·Imbalanced use of fertilizer, acid soils of poor fertility, saline soils deficient in N, P and
Zn, low to very low fertilizer use, submergence in flood prone areas, early/intermittent
dry spells, poor plant stand, disease/pest incidence and ineffective transfer of
technology were the major constraints in achieving the potential yield (Siddiq 2000).
·Al and Mn toxicity, low availability of P and high P fixation capacity and N, Zn and Fe
deficiency, low nutrient and water retention capacity, low organic carbon, crust
formation and poor crop stand (Mahajan and Gupta 2009).
5.3. DeepwaterEcosystem
·Waterlogging /stagnant flooding reduces the tillering and growth of the normal rice
crop. Flash floods leading to crop failure due to slow rates of gas exchange, severe
shading by turbid water, mechanical damage from strong flow rates at panicle initiation
(Kar et al. 2010).
·Occurrence of multiple waves of floods causes heavy siltation of the fields, resulting in
permanent loss of productive agricultural land.
·Damage to the seeds and young plants by drought conditions due to direct seeding,
competition from weeds, seedling death due to sudden flooding.
·Delayed onset of monsoon, early drought, early cessation of monsoon often results
delayed transplanting and sub-optimum plant population.
·Suffers adversity from acid sulphate soils and aluminum toxicity (Puckridge et al.
2000).
·Distinctive pest complex i.e., yellow stem borer and brown spot. Farmers commonly
employ cultural control methods, and insecticides are used in some areas but diseases
are not treated.
5.4. IrrigatedEcosystem
·Severe weed problem and phasic emergence of weeds.
5.2. LowlandEcosystem
·Severe weed problem in dry broadcasted rice. In absence of use of herbicides, farmers
practice beushening and unable to maintain optimal plant population.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
10 11
Among the above ecosystems, further sub-systems are usually identified for location-specific
variations such as 'favourable' or 'unfavourable' moisture, soil type, temperature regime,
proneness to drought, submergence, both drought and submergence, growth duration (early,
medium, late maturity groups) and low light intensity conditions.
·Flood-pronericeecosystem: It occupies about 1.3 Mha in eastern states i.e., 3% of the
country. The crop is grown in shallow (up to 30 cm), semi-deep (30-100 cm) and deep-
water (>100 cm) ecosystems in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and
Odisha.
·Rainfeduplandriceecosystem: Total area under rainfed upland rice in the country is
about 4.8 Mha, which accounts for 11% of total area, located mainly in Eastern Zone i.e.,
Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha, West Bengal, and North East Hill Region. The rainfed upland ecosystem is
drought prone.
·Soil moisture stress and drought due to erratic and inadequate rainfall pattern. Poor
grain setting on account of heavy rainfall at flowering and germination of matured
grains on the panicles (Adhya et al. 2008).
Table 3 shows the area, production and productivity of rice in different agro climatic zones
(ACZs). Ranking of different ACZs based on area under rice showed that Eastern Plateau zone
occupies first position followed by Middle Gangetic Plains, East Coast Plains and Hill Zone.
Based on production, however, the Trans-Gangetic Plains zone ranks first followed by East
Coast Plains and Lower Gangetic Plains. On productivity basis, the Islands Zone comes first,
followed by Trans-Gangetic Plains and Southern Plateau. Ranking of zones based on the
average ranking of area, production and productivity showed that the Trans-Gangetic Plains
comes first followed by East Coast Plains and Lower Gangetic Plains. East Coast Plains zone
rd nd rd
stands 3 in area, 2 in production and 3 in overall ranking.
·Rainfedlowlandriceecosystem: In India, lowland rice covers an area of about 12.0 Mha,
which accounts for about 27% of the total area, located mainly in eastern India. The
area is characterized by poor soil quality and frequent occurrence of drought/flood due
to erratic rains.
5. Constraints in rice production in different
ecosystems
The constraints of rice production vary from ecosystem to ecosystem. Some of these
constraints are related to soil, some are technological and cultural, others are of extension
and development; and a few are of institutional and/or infrastructural in nature. Major
constraints of rice production in various ecosystems are listed below.
5.1. Uplandecosystem
·Salinity and deficiency of P, Ca, S, Zn, lack of ideal varieties, low fertilizer use, and
submergence/moisture stress at times seriously affect productivity in the eastern and
western zones.
·Over-mining of nutrients and/or faulty irrigation caused salinity/alkalinity, delayed
planting due to uncertainty of canal water release in command areas, imbalanced
fertilizer nutrient use, sub-optimal plant population, widespread micronutrient (Zn)
deficiency and high incidence of pests and diseases constitute the major constraints in
southern zone (Siddiq 2000).
·Imbalanced use of fertilizer, acid soils of poor fertility, saline soils deficient in N, P and
Zn, low to very low fertilizer use, submergence in flood prone areas, early/intermittent
dry spells, poor plant stand, disease/pest incidence and ineffective transfer of
technology were the major constraints in achieving the potential yield (Siddiq 2000).
·Al and Mn toxicity, low availability of P and high P fixation capacity and N, Zn and Fe
deficiency, low nutrient and water retention capacity, low organic carbon, crust
formation and poor crop stand (Mahajan and Gupta 2009).
5.3. DeepwaterEcosystem
·Waterlogging /stagnant flooding reduces the tillering and growth of the normal rice
crop. Flash floods leading to crop failure due to slow rates of gas exchange, severe
shading by turbid water, mechanical damage from strong flow rates at panicle initiation
(Kar et al. 2010).
·Occurrence of multiple waves of floods causes heavy siltation of the fields, resulting in
permanent loss of productive agricultural land.
·Damage to the seeds and young plants by drought conditions due to direct seeding,
competition from weeds, seedling death due to sudden flooding.
·Delayed onset of monsoon, early drought, early cessation of monsoon often results
delayed transplanting and sub-optimum plant population.
·Suffers adversity from acid sulphate soils and aluminum toxicity (Puckridge et al.
2000).
·Distinctive pest complex i.e., yellow stem borer and brown spot. Farmers commonly
employ cultural control methods, and insecticides are used in some areas but diseases
are not treated.
5.4. IrrigatedEcosystem
·Severe weed problem and phasic emergence of weeds.
5.2. LowlandEcosystem
·Severe weed problem in dry broadcasted rice. In absence of use of herbicides, farmers
practice beushening and unable to maintain optimal plant population.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
12 13
·Drop in groundwater, high diesel price; and occasional unavailability of diesel in
northern zone. Soil related constraints such as zinc and nitrogen deficiency, infestation
of stem borer and false smut andwater-logging were top ranked technological
constraints (Makalet al. 2017).
6. Suitable soil and climatic conditions for rice
production
Rice is a crop of tropical climate. It grows well in humid to sub-humid regions. In India, rice is
grown under different climatic conditions including temperate, tropical and sub-tropical and
almost in all types of soil with varying productivity. Rice varieties grown in different agro-
climatic regions perform differently based on degree of occurrence of climatic parameters.
Climatic variables like maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity in morning
and afternoon hours, rainfall, intensity and duration of bright sunshine hours are important
factors that affect phenological phases of crop, plant growth and development. The growth
and ultimate yield of rice plants is extremely sensitive to these climatic conditions.
The optimum temperature for rice plant growth is 25°C to 35°C. The areas with mean annual
temperature of more than 24°C are best suited for rice production (FAO 1993). The minimum
temperature should not be less than 15°C at the time of germination as it is affected below
that temperature. In the temperate regions, irrigated rice cultivation starts when spring
temperatures are between 13°C and 20°C; the crop is harvested before temperatures drop
below 13°C in the autumn wherein the tropics temperature is favourable for rice growth
throughout the year and cultivation starts with the rainy season (Yoshida 1981). The
optimum aerial temperatures are 22-31°C at germination, 25-30°C during day and 20-25°C
during night at flower initiation, 30°C at anthesis and 23°C at ripening (Venkataraman 1987).
The optimum daytime temperature is 29°C where as night temperature is 19°C during a
fortnight after heading but during subsequent days it is 26°C in the daytime and l6°C at night
for effective ripening (Matsushima 1967).
Moist humid weather vegetative growth and dry sunny weather during ripening is most
desirable. The optimum relative humidity during rice growth period is 60-80%. A rainfall of
1000 mm to 2000 mm is ideal for rice growing. The maximum rice yield was observed in
rainfall range of 1000 and 1150 mm. Variations in sunshine hours caused by varying overcast
conditions greatly influence rice production in the country. The yield of rice is influenced by
the solar radiation particularly during the last 35 to 45 days of its ripening period. The effect
of solar radiation is more profound where water, temperature and nitrogenous nutrients are
not limiting factors (Mitin 2009). Abundant sunshine is essential during its growth period,
mostly a total of more than 400 h particularly during the last two months of crop growth
(Sato 1956). Photo periodically, rice is a short-day plant. Photo insensitive high yielding
variety performed well even at low light intensity such as 250-350 hours of bright sunshine
Rice can be grown under upland conditions, under moderately submerged conditions, and in
1.5-5.0 m water (Yoshida 1981). However, flat surface are more suitable for rice cultivation.
Land areas with 0-2% slope are best suitable topography for rice cultivation (Praveen et al.
2017). Clayey soils or soil having higher proportion of clay content with good water holding
capacity are suitable for growing rice. Paddy soils are usually medium to fine-textured; clay-
clay loams, silt loams, and silty clay loams that permit percolation of 10-20 mm water/day for
high yields. Poorly drained soils are most preferred ones. Paddy crop grows best at neutral
pH, but it can be grown in a pH range of 5-8 without significant reduction in yield (Sahrawat
2005). However, under high temperature, high humidity with sufficient rainfall and irrigation
facilities, rice can be grown in any type of soil.
(Samui 1999). High yielding photo insensitive varieties now grown widely in India also
respond differently to climatic conditions than that of traditional varieties.
Rabi rice in India is cultivated in eastern, north eastern and southern states (Fig. 5a). District
wise rabi rice area is higher in Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. In Odisha almost all the
districts have some rabirice area. Rabirice productivity in some districts of Andhra Pradesh
-1 -1
was >5 t ha and it is 3-5 t ha in West Bengal and some districts of Odisha and north-eastern
-1
states (Fig. 5b). In most of the rabi rice growing districts, average productivity is <3 t ha .
Summer rice area for different districts of India is presented in Fig. 6a. Except few districts the
summer rice area in all the districts is less than 25000 ha. Productivity of summer rice in
districts of southern states is comparatively higher than eastern states (Fig. 6b). The lowest
productivity among the summer rice growing states is found in Odisha.
Rainfall distribution pattern in India is depicted in Fig. 7. In all the North Eastern states
annual rainfall is >1500 mm and Eastern states such as Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and
Chhattisgarh receive 1000-1500 mm rainfall, which is favorable for rice cultivation. The mean
air temperature variation is shown in Fig. 8. In most of the eastern, central and northern part,
o
the air temperature is in the range of 27.5-30 C, which is most favorable for rice cultivation.
7.2. ClimaticandsoilcharacteristicsofricegrowingareasinIndia
7. Characterizing rice producing areas at
district level
7.1. Ricearea,productionandproductivityinIndia
Rice is cultivated throughout the country (Fig. 4a). Largest kharifrice area is in eastern
India such as Odisha, West Bengal, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. In
North-west India, Punjab has the largest rice area. Rice productivity in eastern and north-
-1
western India is lower (<3 t ha ) as compared to southern and north-western Indian states
-1
(>3 t ha ) (Fig. 4b).

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
12 13
·Drop in groundwater, high diesel price; and occasional unavailability of diesel in
northern zone. Soil related constraints such as zinc and nitrogen deficiency, infestation
of stem borer and false smut andwater-logging were top ranked technological
constraints (Makalet al. 2017).
6. Suitable soil and climatic conditions for rice
production
Rice is a crop of tropical climate. It grows well in humid to sub-humid regions. In India, rice is
grown under different climatic conditions including temperate, tropical and sub-tropical and
almost in all types of soil with varying productivity. Rice varieties grown in different agro-
climatic regions perform differently based on degree of occurrence of climatic parameters.
Climatic variables like maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity in morning
and afternoon hours, rainfall, intensity and duration of bright sunshine hours are important
factors that affect phenological phases of crop, plant growth and development. The growth
and ultimate yield of rice plants is extremely sensitive to these climatic conditions.
The optimum temperature for rice plant growth is 25°C to 35°C. The areas with mean annual
temperature of more than 24°C are best suited for rice production (FAO 1993). The minimum
temperature should not be less than 15°C at the time of germination as it is affected below
that temperature. In the temperate regions, irrigated rice cultivation starts when spring
temperatures are between 13°C and 20°C; the crop is harvested before temperatures drop
below 13°C in the autumn wherein the tropics temperature is favourable for rice growth
throughout the year and cultivation starts with the rainy season (Yoshida 1981). The
optimum aerial temperatures are 22-31°C at germination, 25-30°C during day and 20-25°C
during night at flower initiation, 30°C at anthesis and 23°C at ripening (Venkataraman 1987).
The optimum daytime temperature is 29°C where as night temperature is 19°C during a
fortnight after heading but during subsequent days it is 26°C in the daytime and l6°C at night
for effective ripening (Matsushima 1967).
Moist humid weather vegetative growth and dry sunny weather during ripening is most
desirable. The optimum relative humidity during rice growth period is 60-80%. A rainfall of
1000 mm to 2000 mm is ideal for rice growing. The maximum rice yield was observed in
rainfall range of 1000 and 1150 mm. Variations in sunshine hours caused by varying overcast
conditions greatly influence rice production in the country. The yield of rice is influenced by
the solar radiation particularly during the last 35 to 45 days of its ripening period. The effect
of solar radiation is more profound where water, temperature and nitrogenous nutrients are
not limiting factors (Mitin 2009). Abundant sunshine is essential during its growth period,
mostly a total of more than 400 h particularly during the last two months of crop growth
(Sato 1956). Photo periodically, rice is a short-day plant. Photo insensitive high yielding
variety performed well even at low light intensity such as 250-350 hours of bright sunshine
Rice can be grown under upland conditions, under moderately submerged conditions, and in
1.5-5.0 m water (Yoshida 1981). However, flat surface are more suitable for rice cultivation.
Land areas with 0-2% slope are best suitable topography for rice cultivation (Praveen et al.
2017). Clayey soils or soil having higher proportion of clay content with good water holding
capacity are suitable for growing rice. Paddy soils are usually medium to fine-textured; clay-
clay loams, silt loams, and silty clay loams that permit percolation of 10-20 mm water/day for
high yields. Poorly drained soils are most preferred ones. Paddy crop grows best at neutral
pH, but it can be grown in a pH range of 5-8 without significant reduction in yield (Sahrawat
2005). However, under high temperature, high humidity with sufficient rainfall and irrigation
facilities, rice can be grown in any type of soil.
(Samui 1999). High yielding photo insensitive varieties now grown widely in India also
respond differently to climatic conditions than that of traditional varieties.
Rabi rice in India is cultivated in eastern, north eastern and southern states (Fig. 5a). District
wise rabi rice area is higher in Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. In Odisha almost all the
districts have some rabirice area. Rabirice productivity in some districts of Andhra Pradesh
-1 -1
was >5 t ha and it is 3-5 t ha in West Bengal and some districts of Odisha and north-eastern
-1
states (Fig. 5b). In most of the rabi rice growing districts, average productivity is <3 t ha .
Summer rice area for different districts of India is presented in Fig. 6a. Except few districts the
summer rice area in all the districts is less than 25000 ha. Productivity of summer rice in
districts of southern states is comparatively higher than eastern states (Fig. 6b). The lowest
productivity among the summer rice growing states is found in Odisha.
Rainfall distribution pattern in India is depicted in Fig. 7. In all the North Eastern states
annual rainfall is >1500 mm and Eastern states such as Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and
Chhattisgarh receive 1000-1500 mm rainfall, which is favorable for rice cultivation. The mean
air temperature variation is shown in Fig. 8. In most of the eastern, central and northern part,
o
the air temperature is in the range of 27.5-30 C, which is most favorable for rice cultivation.
7.2. ClimaticandsoilcharacteristicsofricegrowingareasinIndia
7. Characterizing rice producing areas at
district level
7.1. Ricearea,productionandproductivityinIndia
Rice is cultivated throughout the country (Fig. 4a). Largest kharifrice area is in eastern
India such as Odisha, West Bengal, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. In
North-west India, Punjab has the largest rice area. Rice productivity in eastern and north-
-1
western India is lower (<3 t ha ) as compared to southern and north-western Indian states
-1
(>3 t ha ) (Fig. 4b).

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
14 15
Ricesuitabilityindex=0.6*Annualrainfall(mm)+0.4*Claycontentofsoil(%)-0.1*Mean
seasonalairtemperature(°C)
Using the suitability index, various suitability classes for growing rice were delineated using
the classification given in Table 7. All the districts of the country were grouped into different
zones for suitability classes for growing rice using the values mentioned in Table 7. Data was
then imported into ArcGIS 10 and rice suitability zone map was prepared (Fig. 10). TheNorth-
Eastern states fall under very suitable zones for rice cultivation. Whereas the Eastern states
such as Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh are under suitable or very suitable category. Most
of the central India fall under moderately suitable zone and North Western states are in
unsuitable rice cultivation zones (Fig. 10).
In the present analysis, rainfall, air temperature and soil texture were considered as the major
contributing factors for deciding the area for rice cultivation. District-wise data regarding
annual mean rainfall, soil texture and mean air temperature was collected from various
sources (IMD; NBSSLUP). Rice suitability index was developed using the following equation.
The number of districts under very suitable, suitable, moderately suitable and unsuitable
zones are 145, 196, 115 and 207 representing 21.9%, 29.6%, 17.3% and 31.2%, respectively
of all the districts of India. Out of 663, 145 districts covering 19% kharifrice area, are under
unsuitable category contributing around 23% of the rice production in the country. Whereas
31% rice area coming under very suitable category but contributing to only 29% of the rice
Rainfall, temperature and soil are the three most important biophysical factors for growing
rice. In the analysis of suitable areas for growing rice, these three biophysical factors were
considered. Rice is a water-loving crop as a result its cultivation should be done in the areas
where average annual rainfall is 1000 mm. Regions with average annual rainfall >1500 mm or
more are the most suitable. Temperature is a very important factor influencing growth,
development and yield of rice. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical plant requires a fairly
high temperature, ranging from 20° to 30°C. The optimum temperature of 30°C during day-
time and 20°C during night time seems to be more favourable for the development and
o
growth of rice crop. Temperature beyond 35 C affects grain filling. Clayey loam soil (27-40%
clay content) in monsoon land is considered to be the best for rice cultivation as water
retention capacity of this soil is very high.
8. Delineating the suitable zones for rice
production
Most of the eastern and north-eastern states of India have >30% clay in soil (Fig. 9). The
northern states have <30% clay in soil. For rice cultivation, high percentage of clay is
favorable because it helps in retention of water and minimizes the percolation of water from
the soil profile.
production of the country. These unsuitable districts are located in 15 states but only five
states (Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh) constitute 93% of these
unsuitable rice cultivated areas as well as production while 21% of rice production of the
country comes from these region.
Shifting the major chunk of rice production to India's central and eastern states like
Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, while diversifying the rice growing areas in the rice-growing
regions of Punjab and Haryana, could help India prevent an impending water crisis (Sharma
et al. 2018).
9. Optimizing productivity in the suitable
zones to meet future rice demand
As discussed above, total rice cultivated area of the country has been divided into four distinct
zones. Current rice production in khariffrom all the zones is 97.10 Mt. If assumed that the
cultivation of rice crop in all the unsuitable zones is abandoned at this point of time, the total
kharif production would slump down to 74.69 Mt only. Therefore, rice production from other
three zones must have to be increased to compensate for the production losses so that food
security of the country is not disturbed. Moreover, these so called suitable zones should also
produce more rice to meet the future demand (Table 8). We assessed the required increase in
During green revolution era, the north-west parts of the country shifted from their traditional
crops (maize, pearl millet, pulses and oilseeds) to the paddy-wheat cultivation cycle. During
those years, the major focus was to ensure the food security for the country but at present
groundwater levels have fallen in these parts especially in Punjab and parts of Haryana to
alarming levels.
3 -1
Average water footprint (m ha ) from the four states i.e., Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and
Rajasthan was around 18% higher than average rice water footprint (WF) for India. Since
productivity in these regions are high due to extensive use of fertiliser and chemicals, the
water footprint of rice per unit of produce is 4% lesser compared to all India average
(Unpublished). While north-west parts of India (Punjab and Haryana) have highest rice
-1
productivity (4t ha ), the Irrigation water productivity (IWP) for these states is relatively low
-3
(0.22 kg m ) reflecting the inefficient irrigation even though 100% irrigation coverage. In
-3 -3
contrast, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, recorded higher IWP at 0.68 kg m and 0.75 kg m ,
even though they had substantially lesser irrigation coverage at 32% and 3%, respectively.
But rice productivity in these states is low because of low irrigation and input use. Only four
states Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan (categorised as unsuitable) having 10% of
kharif rice area of the country, contribute to 19% whereas Punjab alone contributes to 12%
of the CF from rice fields (Unpublished). Highest carbon footprint (CF) from rice fields in
-1
India was estimated from Punjab (4919 CO eq. ha ), which is almost double than the average
2
-1
CF (2245 CO eq. ha ) for Indian rice field.
2

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
14 15
Ricesuitabilityindex=0.6*Annualrainfall(mm)+0.4*Claycontentofsoil(%)-0.1*Mean
seasonalairtemperature(°C)
Using the suitability index, various suitability classes for growing rice were delineated using
the classification given in Table 7. All the districts of the country were grouped into different
zones for suitability classes for growing rice using the values mentioned in Table 7. Data was
then imported into ArcGIS 10 and rice suitability zone map was prepared (Fig. 10). TheNorth-
Eastern states fall under very suitable zones for rice cultivation. Whereas the Eastern states
such as Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh are under suitable or very suitable category. Most
of the central India fall under moderately suitable zone and North Western states are in
unsuitable rice cultivation zones (Fig. 10).
In the present analysis, rainfall, air temperature and soil texture were considered as the major
contributing factors for deciding the area for rice cultivation. District-wise data regarding
annual mean rainfall, soil texture and mean air temperature was collected from various
sources (IMD; NBSSLUP). Rice suitability index was developed using the following equation.
The number of districts under very suitable, suitable, moderately suitable and unsuitable
zones are 145, 196, 115 and 207 representing 21.9%, 29.6%, 17.3% and 31.2%, respectively
of all the districts of India. Out of 663, 145 districts covering 19% kharifrice area, are under
unsuitable category contributing around 23% of the rice production in the country. Whereas
31% rice area coming under very suitable category but contributing to only 29% of the rice
Rainfall, temperature and soil are the three most important biophysical factors for growing
rice. In the analysis of suitable areas for growing rice, these three biophysical factors were
considered. Rice is a water-loving crop as a result its cultivation should be done in the areas
where average annual rainfall is 1000 mm. Regions with average annual rainfall >1500 mm or
more are the most suitable. Temperature is a very important factor influencing growth,
development and yield of rice. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical plant requires a fairly
high temperature, ranging from 20° to 30°C. The optimum temperature of 30°C during day-
time and 20°C during night time seems to be more favourable for the development and
o
growth of rice crop. Temperature beyond 35 C affects grain filling. Clayey loam soil (27-40%
clay content) in monsoon land is considered to be the best for rice cultivation as water
retention capacity of this soil is very high.
8. Delineating the suitable zones for rice
production
Most of the eastern and north-eastern states of India have >30% clay in soil (Fig. 9). The
northern states have <30% clay in soil. For rice cultivation, high percentage of clay is
favorable because it helps in retention of water and minimizes the percolation of water from
the soil profile.
production of the country. These unsuitable districts are located in 15 states but only five
states (Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh) constitute 93% of these
unsuitable rice cultivated areas as well as production while 21% of rice production of the
country comes from these region.
Shifting the major chunk of rice production to India's central and eastern states like
Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, while diversifying the rice growing areas in the rice-growing
regions of Punjab and Haryana, could help India prevent an impending water crisis (Sharma
et al. 2018).
9. Optimizing productivity in the suitable
zones to meet future rice demand
As discussed above, total rice cultivated area of the country has been divided into four distinct
zones. Current rice production in khariffrom all the zones is 97.10 Mt. If assumed that the
cultivation of rice crop in all the unsuitable zones is abandoned at this point of time, the total
kharif production would slump down to 74.69 Mt only. Therefore, rice production from other
three zones must have to be increased to compensate for the production losses so that food
security of the country is not disturbed. Moreover, these so called suitable zones should also
produce more rice to meet the future demand (Table 8). We assessed the required increase in
During green revolution era, the north-west parts of the country shifted from their traditional
crops (maize, pearl millet, pulses and oilseeds) to the paddy-wheat cultivation cycle. During
those years, the major focus was to ensure the food security for the country but at present
groundwater levels have fallen in these parts especially in Punjab and parts of Haryana to
alarming levels.
3 -1
Average water footprint (m ha ) from the four states i.e., Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and
Rajasthan was around 18% higher than average rice water footprint (WF) for India. Since
productivity in these regions are high due to extensive use of fertiliser and chemicals, the
water footprint of rice per unit of produce is 4% lesser compared to all India average
(Unpublished). While north-west parts of India (Punjab and Haryana) have highest rice
-1
productivity (4t ha ), the Irrigation water productivity (IWP) for these states is relatively low
-3
(0.22 kg m ) reflecting the inefficient irrigation even though 100% irrigation coverage. In
-3 -3
contrast, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, recorded higher IWP at 0.68 kg m and 0.75 kg m ,
even though they had substantially lesser irrigation coverage at 32% and 3%, respectively.
But rice productivity in these states is low because of low irrigation and input use. Only four
states Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan (categorised as unsuitable) having 10% of
kharif rice area of the country, contribute to 19% whereas Punjab alone contributes to 12%
of the CF from rice fields (Unpublished). Highest carbon footprint (CF) from rice fields in
-1
India was estimated from Punjab (4919 CO eq. ha ), which is almost double than the average
2
-1
CF (2245 CO eq. ha ) for Indian rice field.
2

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
16 17
rice production from these areas to meet these requirements. The assessment showed that
30% increase in production will be required to meet the demand of rice by 2030 (Table 8).
10. Strategies for enhancing productivity and
profitability of rice production
The following strategies should be adopted for increasing productivity and profitability of
rice farming in the suitable zones.
10.2. Providing quality seed and enhancing seed replacement
ratio:Seed is the critical determinant of agricultural production on which the performance
and efficacy of other inputs depends. Quality seeds appropriate to different agro-climatic
conditions and in sufficient quantity at affordable prices are required to raise productivity.
Availability and use of quality seeds is not a onetime affair. Sustained increase in agriculture
production and productivity necessarily requires continuous development of new and
improved varieties of crops and efficient system of production and supply of seeds to farmers.
Despite a huge institutional framework for seed production both in the public and private
sector, availability of good quality seeds continues to be a problem for the farmers. As a result,
they prefer to rely on farm saved seeds; seed replacement rate continues to remain low for
most crops. As is well known, seed replacement rate has a strong positive correlation with the
productivity and production of crops.
10.1. Promoting high-yielding varieties and hybrids:Due to
unavailability of the quality seeds of high yielding varieties and high seed cost of the hybrids,
farmers are unable to get those seeds and they prefer to grow their local seed materials. The
yield potential of local seeds is low and they are susceptible to many pests and diseases.
Although many government programmes are in operation for making HYV and hybrids seeds
available to the farmers, thus there is ample scope of promoting high-yielding varieties and
hybrid. Further, improved market support will encourage the farmers for adopting high
yielding varieties and hybrids.
10.3. Promoting water harvesting and micro-irrigation: In many
farming areas, readily available water is in short supply. Although the total annual rainfall in
an area may be enough to sustain farm needs, it is often distributed very unevenly so that long
dry periods are interspersed with periods of intense rainfall. In many cases, a crop is unable
to use a high proportion of this water, as much of it is lost through run off or leaching. This may
also cause soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients. Hence, there is need to promoting water
harvesting and micro-irrigation to achieve per drop more crop. Further adoption of water
saving technologies such as direct seeding of rice and system of rice intensification can save
water. For surface-irrigated areas, a properly levelled surface with the required inclination
according to the irrigation method is absolutely essential. Traditional farmers' methods for
10.5. Promotingfarmmechanizationandsolarenergy: Intensification
of mechanization is one of the most important factor for increasing agricultural activities and
production as well. Productivity of farms depends greatly on the availability and judicious use
of farm power. Agricultural implements and machines enable farmers to employ the power
judiciously for production purposes. Agricultural machines increase productivity of land and
labour by meeting timeliness in farm operations. Mechanization has the advantages of proper
utilization of resources, reducing drudgery in farm operations, timely execution of various
agricultural operations and best use of the available soil moisture, switching over from
animal power to mechanical and electrical power for enhanced power availability for various
farm operations, reduce cost of operation, and crop diversification. Promoting use of
renewable energy in farm equipment segment such as solar-powered pumps may have the
immense potential in farm operations and can create alternate source of revenue for the
farmer by selling the additional power.
levelling by eyesight, particularly on larger plots, are not accurate enough and lead to
extended irrigation times, unnecessary water consumption, and inefficient water use. With
laser levelling, the unevenness of the field is reduced resulting in better water application and
distribution efficiency, and improved water productivity.
10.6. Adoptingplantprotectionmeasures: Plant protection continues to
play a significant role in achieving targets of crop production. The major thrust areas of plant
protection are promotion of integrated pest management (IPM), ensuring availability of safe
and quality pesticides for sustaining crop production from the ravages of pests and diseases,
streamlining the quarantine measures for accelerating the introduction of new high yielding
crop varieties, besides eliminating the chances of entry of exotic pests. Crop losses due to
pests and diseases occur despite increased pesticide use, which highlight the need to develop
sustainable approaches for pest control with less reliance on chemical inputs. To address
concerns regarding human health, environmental safety and pesticide resistance, plant
defensive traits could be exploited more widely in crop protection strategies. Further, it is
essential to have a pest monitoring system, which will check the spread of disease pest and
the crop loss.
10.4. Usingsoilhealthcardandsite-specificnutrientmanagement:
The soil health card carries crop wise recommendations of nutrients/fertilizers required for
farms, making it possible for farmers to improve productivity by using appropriate inputs.
Under current management practices, nutrient use efficiency are low and farmers often fail to
apply nitrogen, phosphorous and potash in the optimal ratio to meet the need of crops. Site-
specific nutrient management (SSNM) provides an approach for feeding crops with nutrients
as and when needed. The SSNM eliminates wastage of fertilizer by preventing excessive rates
of fertilizer and by avoiding fertilizer application when the crop does not require nutrient
inputs.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
16 17
rice production from these areas to meet these requirements. The assessment showed that
30% increase in production will be required to meet the demand of rice by 2030 (Table 8).
10. Strategies for enhancing productivity and
profitability of rice production
The following strategies should be adopted for increasing productivity and profitability of
rice farming in the suitable zones.
10.2. Providing quality seed and enhancing seed replacement
ratio:Seed is the critical determinant of agricultural production on which the performance
and efficacy of other inputs depends. Quality seeds appropriate to different agro-climatic
conditions and in sufficient quantity at affordable prices are required to raise productivity.
Availability and use of quality seeds is not a onetime affair. Sustained increase in agriculture
production and productivity necessarily requires continuous development of new and
improved varieties of crops and efficient system of production and supply of seeds to farmers.
Despite a huge institutional framework for seed production both in the public and private
sector, availability of good quality seeds continues to be a problem for the farmers. As a result,
they prefer to rely on farm saved seeds; seed replacement rate continues to remain low for
most crops. As is well known, seed replacement rate has a strong positive correlation with the
productivity and production of crops.
10.1. Promoting high-yielding varieties and hybrids:Due to
unavailability of the quality seeds of high yielding varieties and high seed cost of the hybrids,
farmers are unable to get those seeds and they prefer to grow their local seed materials. The
yield potential of local seeds is low and they are susceptible to many pests and diseases.
Although many government programmes are in operation for making HYV and hybrids seeds
available to the farmers, thus there is ample scope of promoting high-yielding varieties and
hybrid. Further, improved market support will encourage the farmers for adopting high
yielding varieties and hybrids.
10.3. Promoting water harvesting and micro-irrigation: In many
farming areas, readily available water is in short supply. Although the total annual rainfall in
an area may be enough to sustain farm needs, it is often distributed very unevenly so that long
dry periods are interspersed with periods of intense rainfall. In many cases, a crop is unable
to use a high proportion of this water, as much of it is lost through run off or leaching. This may
also cause soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients. Hence, there is need to promoting water
harvesting and micro-irrigation to achieve per drop more crop. Further adoption of water
saving technologies such as direct seeding of rice and system of rice intensification can save
water. For surface-irrigated areas, a properly levelled surface with the required inclination
according to the irrigation method is absolutely essential. Traditional farmers' methods for
10.5. Promotingfarmmechanizationandsolarenergy: Intensification
of mechanization is one of the most important factor for increasing agricultural activities and
production as well. Productivity of farms depends greatly on the availability and judicious use
of farm power. Agricultural implements and machines enable farmers to employ the power
judiciously for production purposes. Agricultural machines increase productivity of land and
labour by meeting timeliness in farm operations. Mechanization has the advantages of proper
utilization of resources, reducing drudgery in farm operations, timely execution of various
agricultural operations and best use of the available soil moisture, switching over from
animal power to mechanical and electrical power for enhanced power availability for various
farm operations, reduce cost of operation, and crop diversification. Promoting use of
renewable energy in farm equipment segment such as solar-powered pumps may have the
immense potential in farm operations and can create alternate source of revenue for the
farmer by selling the additional power.
levelling by eyesight, particularly on larger plots, are not accurate enough and lead to
extended irrigation times, unnecessary water consumption, and inefficient water use. With
laser levelling, the unevenness of the field is reduced resulting in better water application and
distribution efficiency, and improved water productivity.
10.6. Adoptingplantprotectionmeasures: Plant protection continues to
play a significant role in achieving targets of crop production. The major thrust areas of plant
protection are promotion of integrated pest management (IPM), ensuring availability of safe
and quality pesticides for sustaining crop production from the ravages of pests and diseases,
streamlining the quarantine measures for accelerating the introduction of new high yielding
crop varieties, besides eliminating the chances of entry of exotic pests. Crop losses due to
pests and diseases occur despite increased pesticide use, which highlight the need to develop
sustainable approaches for pest control with less reliance on chemical inputs. To address
concerns regarding human health, environmental safety and pesticide resistance, plant
defensive traits could be exploited more widely in crop protection strategies. Further, it is
essential to have a pest monitoring system, which will check the spread of disease pest and
the crop loss.
10.4. Usingsoilhealthcardandsite-specificnutrientmanagement:
The soil health card carries crop wise recommendations of nutrients/fertilizers required for
farms, making it possible for farmers to improve productivity by using appropriate inputs.
Under current management practices, nutrient use efficiency are low and farmers often fail to
apply nitrogen, phosphorous and potash in the optimal ratio to meet the need of crops. Site-
specific nutrient management (SSNM) provides an approach for feeding crops with nutrients
as and when needed. The SSNM eliminates wastage of fertilizer by preventing excessive rates
of fertilizer and by avoiding fertilizer application when the crop does not require nutrient
inputs.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
18 19
The intensity of rice cultivation has direct linkage with the development of market in the
region and operation of procurement operation as in case of Western states like Punjab and
Haryana which provide major chunk to the central pool of food grains owing to their well
developed market infrastructure and procurement policies although these states are
unsuitable for rice cultivation. Therefore, the thrust should be given on market
development in the suitable zones for reaping the future benefits from these zones. Bisen
and Kumar (2018) classified the challenges of market development in terms of
implementation of e-NAM as 3I's (Infrastructure, Institution and Information). These 3I's
can be a game changer for Indian farmers and key pull factors for attaining the ecoregion
concept of rice cultivation.
Unless the government policies should target on ecoregion cultivation of rice, this herculean
task can never be achievable. Like the subsidies on promotion of new varieties for seed, the
government policies should also target on incentivizing the cultivation of rice in zones, which
are suitable for cultivation or in the zones where the social cost of rice cultivation is lesser
than that of private cost.
Moreover, the operation of MSP and procurement operation in Eastern states are not so
impressive as in Western states. The NITI Ayog (2016) reported that in a few selected States
in Eastern India (for instance, Assam and West Bengal), the poor impact of the MSP scheme
may be judged by the fact that none of the selected farmers were even aware. Thus, these
regions attract very high priority in terms of awareness creation about such schemes of the
government and investments necessary for infrastructure (Primary Procurement Centers,
Storage and warehousing and functional agricultural markets) development to enable the
ecoregion crop planning in future.
10.7. Policyandinfra-structureneeds
The Agri-Business Incubation (ABI) program aim to promote entrepreneurs in public-private
partnership mode that maximizes the success quotient of start-up entrepreneurs by offering
them best opportunities with minimum risk. Effective communication, coordination and
cooperation among the various nodal centres, umbrella consortium and the industry are
inevitable for the successful implementation of the schemes.
Institutional reforms are necessary to generate collective actions through co-operative
avenues to overcome the development deadlock created due to small and uneconomical
holding sizes. This is essential not only to enhance collective bargaining power of the farmers
but also to inculcate the spirit of submerging the personal interests in collective welfare.
Earlier system of co-operative farming, emerging group approaches such as the self-help
groups (SHGs) and prospects of creating farmers' corporations need to be explored
thoroughly.
11. Conclusions
In order to meet future rice demand, increasing production and productivity of rice is
essential. This has to be done in the face of growing shortage of land, labour and water for rice
farming. As the proit margin in rice cultivation has decreased, there is need to not only
increase in yield per se but also bring eficiency in input use in rice production. The goal of rice
research should be in developing proitable and resilient rainfed rice farming system with a
vision of enhancing productivity, proitability and resilience for ever-green rice farming with
high-quality research, partnership and leadership in rice science. The thrust areas research
should include (1) genetic enhancement for improving productivity, quality and climate
resilience of rice; (2) ecosystem management for higher input-eficiency and lower
environmental footprints; (3) value-addition with improved quality, co-farming, processing
and marketing and (4) accelerating technology delivery, capacity building and policy
formulation. The rice-research in the past has made immense contributions in developing
and demonstrating technologies for improved rice farming. It, however, needs to be
strengthened to address the emerging challenges of low productivity and low income of rice
farmers in the face of environmental changes. A multi-disciplinary and participatory
research should be adopted to address the emerging challenges and make rice farming more
productive, proitable and climate resilient.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (1993). Guidelines for land-
use planning. Rome, FAO Development Series 1 ISSN: 1020-0819.
Joshi PK and Kumar P (2011). Food Demand and Supply Projections for India: 2010-2030.
TAPSIM, pp 286.
Govt. of India (2019). First Advance Estimates of National Income, 2018-19. Press
Information Bureau, Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, New Delhi.
Kar G, Sahoo N, Das M, Roychoudhury S and Kumar A (2010). Deep Water Rice and Pond
Based Farming System for Enhancing Water Productivity of Seasonal Flood Prone
Areas. ResearchBulletinNo.48, DirectorateofWaterManagement (Indian Council of
Agricultural Research), Bhubaneswar, India. p. 1- 32.
References
Adhya TK, Singh, ON, Swain P and Ghosh A (2008). Rice in Eastern India: Causes for low
productivity and available options. JournalofRiceResearch, 2(1):1-5.
DAC (2019). Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
Bisen J and Kumar R (2018). Agricultural marketing reforms and e-national agricultural
market (e-NAM) in India: a review. AgriculturalEconomicsResearchReview, 31:167-
176.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
18 19
The intensity of rice cultivation has direct linkage with the development of market in the
region and operation of procurement operation as in case of Western states like Punjab and
Haryana which provide major chunk to the central pool of food grains owing to their well
developed market infrastructure and procurement policies although these states are
unsuitable for rice cultivation. Therefore, the thrust should be given on market
development in the suitable zones for reaping the future benefits from these zones. Bisen
and Kumar (2018) classified the challenges of market development in terms of
implementation of e-NAM as 3I's (Infrastructure, Institution and Information). These 3I's
can be a game changer for Indian farmers and key pull factors for attaining the ecoregion
concept of rice cultivation.
Unless the government policies should target on ecoregion cultivation of rice, this herculean
task can never be achievable. Like the subsidies on promotion of new varieties for seed, the
government policies should also target on incentivizing the cultivation of rice in zones, which
are suitable for cultivation or in the zones where the social cost of rice cultivation is lesser
than that of private cost.
Moreover, the operation of MSP and procurement operation in Eastern states are not so
impressive as in Western states. The NITI Ayog (2016) reported that in a few selected States
in Eastern India (for instance, Assam and West Bengal), the poor impact of the MSP scheme
may be judged by the fact that none of the selected farmers were even aware. Thus, these
regions attract very high priority in terms of awareness creation about such schemes of the
government and investments necessary for infrastructure (Primary Procurement Centers,
Storage and warehousing and functional agricultural markets) development to enable the
ecoregion crop planning in future.
10.7. Policyandinfra-structureneeds
The Agri-Business Incubation (ABI) program aim to promote entrepreneurs in public-private
partnership mode that maximizes the success quotient of start-up entrepreneurs by offering
them best opportunities with minimum risk. Effective communication, coordination and
cooperation among the various nodal centres, umbrella consortium and the industry are
inevitable for the successful implementation of the schemes.
Institutional reforms are necessary to generate collective actions through co-operative
avenues to overcome the development deadlock created due to small and uneconomical
holding sizes. This is essential not only to enhance collective bargaining power of the farmers
but also to inculcate the spirit of submerging the personal interests in collective welfare.
Earlier system of co-operative farming, emerging group approaches such as the self-help
groups (SHGs) and prospects of creating farmers' corporations need to be explored
thoroughly.
11. Conclusions
In order to meet future rice demand, increasing production and productivity of rice is
essential. This has to be done in the face of growing shortage of land, labour and water for rice
farming. As the proit margin in rice cultivation has decreased, there is need to not only
increase in yield per se but also bring eficiency in input use in rice production. The goal of rice
research should be in developing proitable and resilient rainfed rice farming system with a
vision of enhancing productivity, proitability and resilience for ever-green rice farming with
high-quality research, partnership and leadership in rice science. The thrust areas research
should include (1) genetic enhancement for improving productivity, quality and climate
resilience of rice; (2) ecosystem management for higher input-eficiency and lower
environmental footprints; (3) value-addition with improved quality, co-farming, processing
and marketing and (4) accelerating technology delivery, capacity building and policy
formulation. The rice-research in the past has made immense contributions in developing
and demonstrating technologies for improved rice farming. It, however, needs to be
strengthened to address the emerging challenges of low productivity and low income of rice
farmers in the face of environmental changes. A multi-disciplinary and participatory
research should be adopted to address the emerging challenges and make rice farming more
productive, proitable and climate resilient.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (1993). Guidelines for land-
use planning. Rome, FAO Development Series 1 ISSN: 1020-0819.
Joshi PK and Kumar P (2011). Food Demand and Supply Projections for India: 2010-2030.
TAPSIM, pp 286.
Govt. of India (2019). First Advance Estimates of National Income, 2018-19. Press
Information Bureau, Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, New Delhi.
Kar G, Sahoo N, Das M, Roychoudhury S and Kumar A (2010). Deep Water Rice and Pond
Based Farming System for Enhancing Water Productivity of Seasonal Flood Prone
Areas. ResearchBulletinNo.48, DirectorateofWaterManagement (Indian Council of
Agricultural Research), Bhubaneswar, India. p. 1- 32.
References
Adhya TK, Singh, ON, Swain P and Ghosh A (2008). Rice in Eastern India: Causes for low
productivity and available options. JournalofRiceResearch, 2(1):1-5.
DAC (2019). Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
Bisen J and Kumar R (2018). Agricultural marketing reforms and e-national agricultural
market (e-NAM) in India: a review. AgriculturalEconomicsResearchReview, 31:167-
176.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
20 21
Kumar P, Kumar A, Shinoj P and Raju SS (2011). Estimation of demand elasticity for food
commodities in India. AgriculturalEconomicsResearchReview 24, p. 1-14.
Kumar P, Mruthyunjaya and Dey MM (2007). Long-term changes in food basket and nutrition
in India.EconomicPoliticalWeekly (September 1): 3567-3572.
Mahajan A and Gupta RD (2009). Integrated nutrient management in a sustainable rice-
wheat cropping system, Springer science + Business media BV 2009 p. 1-261
Makal A, Banerjee A, Roy A, Hazra H and Polley K (2017). Issues and Problems in Agricultural
Development: A Study on the Farmers of West Bengal,
Pathak H, Nayak AK, Maiti D, Kumar GAK, Reddy JN, Rath PC, Swain P and Bhagawati R (Eds.)
(2019a.) National Rice Research Institute: Activities, Achievements and Aspirations.
ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, p264 + viii, ISBN: 81-88409-
08-1.
NITI Aayog (2016).Evaluation Study on Eficacy of Minimum Support Prices (MSP) on
Farmers. DMEO Report No.231, Development Monitoring and Evaluation Ofice, NITI
Aayog, Government of India, New Delhi.
Pathak H (2018a). Rice and Sustainable Development Goals. ICAR-NRRI Newsletter 39(4):
22-23.
Mitin A (2009). Documentation of selected adaptation strategies to climate change in rice
cultivation. EastAsiaRiceWorkingGroup, p. 11.
Pathak H (2015). Greenhouse gas emission from Indian agriculture: Trends, drivers and
mitigation strategies. Proc.IndianNatn.Sci.Acad. 81(5):1133-1149.
Pathak H, Voleti SR, Meera Shaik N, Tripathi R, Sailaja B, Nayak AK, Subba Rao LV, Mondal B,
Reddy JN and Mohapatra T (2019c). Reorientation of All India Coordinated Crop
Improvement Projects: The Case of Rice.NRRI Research Bulletin No. 18, ICAR-National
Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Odisha, India.pp 20+viii.
Pathak H, Pradhan SK, Mondal B, Jambhulkar NN, Parameswaran C, Tripathi R, Chakraborti M,
Kumar GAK, Samal P and Sahu RK (2019b). Assessing area, production and return with
rice varieties of NRRI, Cuttack. Oryza 56: 169-173.
NSSO (National Sample Survey Organization) (2011). Consumer Expenditure Survey.
Government of India, New Delhi.
Pathak H, Samal P and Shahid M (2018b). Revitalizing rice-systems for enhancing
productivity, proitability and climate resilience. In Pathak H et al. (Eds.) Rice Research
for Enhancing Productivity, Proitability and Climate Resilience, ICAR-National Rice
Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, pp 1-17.
Pathak H, Bhatia A and Jain N (2012). Crop residues management with conservation
agriculture. Potential, constraints and policy needs. Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, vii + 32 p.
Matsushima S (1967).Crop Science in Rice, Tokyo, Fuji Publishing Corporation Ltd. Japan.
Pradhan SK, Pandit E, Bose LK, Reddy JN, Pattanaik SSC, Meher J and Behera L (2019). CR
Dhan 801 and CR Dhan 802: Climate-Smart Rice Varieties of NRRI. ICAR-National Rice
Research Institute, p. 1-4.
Praveen A, Singh R, Niwas R, Kumar A, Khichar ML and Kumar M (2017). Climatic Suitability of
the Distribution of the Rice Cultivation Zone in Haryana, India. Environment & Ecology
35(4B), p.3040-3045.
Samui RP (1999). A note on the weather and rice yield relationship at some stations in India.
Proceedingsof theIndianAcademyofSciences-EarthandPlanetary Sciences, 108(4),
p.309-316.
Sato S (1956). The optimum conditions of climate for rice culture in the warm districts of
Japan. J.AgricMeteorol.Japan 12:24-26.
Wassmann R, Jagadish SVK, Heuer S, Ismail A, Redona E, Serraj R, Singh RK, Howell G, Pathak
H, Sumleth K (2009a). Climate Change Affecting Rice Production: The Physiological
and Agronomic Basis for Possible Adaptation Strategies. Adv. Agron 101:59-122.
Sharma B,Gulati A, Mohan G, Manchanda S, Ray I andAmarasinghe U (2018).Water
Productivity Mapping of Major Indian Crops. NABARD and ICRIER.
Samal P (2009). Future technological needs for rice crop in India: Socio-economic concerns In
'Forecasting future technological needs for rice in India', Indian Agricultural Statistics
Research Institute, New Delhi. pp. 14-24.
Sahrawat KL (2005). Fertility and organic matter in submerged rice soils. CurrentScience
88(5) pp.735-739.
Puckridge, DW, Kupkanchanul, T, Palaklang W and Kupkanchanakul K (2000). Production of
Rice and associated crops in deeply looded areas of Chao Phraya delta. In proceedings
of the International conference: the Chao Phraya delta: Historical development,
dynamics and challenges of Thailand's rice bowl. pp 1-35.
Venkataraman S (1987). Agro-meteorological aspects of growth, yield and water relations
with special reference to rice. Weather and Rice: Proceedings of the international
workshop on the Impact of Weather Parameters on Growth and Yield of Rice IRRI
(International Rice Research Institute) Los Banos, Laguana, Philippines, pp 49.
Samal P (2013). Growth in Production, Productivity, Costs and Proitability of Rice in India
during 1980-2010, In Shetty P, Hedge MR and Mahadevappa M (Eds.) Innovations in
Rice production, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore 12, pp. 35-51.
Siddiq EA (2000). Bridging the rice yield gap in India. In Papademetriou et al. (Eds) Bridging
the rice yield gap in the Asia paciic region,
Wassmann R, Jagadish SVK, Sumleth K, Pathak H, Howell G, Ismail A, Serraj R, Redona E, Singh
RK, Heuer S (2009b). Regional vulnerability of climate change impacts on Asian rice
production and scope for adaptation. Adv.Agron. 102: 91-133.
Yoshida S (1981). Fundamentals of rice crop science. Int.RiceRes.Inst., p. 68.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
20 21
Kumar P, Kumar A, Shinoj P and Raju SS (2011). Estimation of demand elasticity for food
commodities in India. AgriculturalEconomicsResearchReview 24, p. 1-14.
Kumar P, Mruthyunjaya and Dey MM (2007). Long-term changes in food basket and nutrition
in India.EconomicPoliticalWeekly (September 1): 3567-3572.
Mahajan A and Gupta RD (2009). Integrated nutrient management in a sustainable rice-
wheat cropping system, Springer science + Business media BV 2009 p. 1-261
Makal A, Banerjee A, Roy A, Hazra H and Polley K (2017). Issues and Problems in Agricultural
Development: A Study on the Farmers of West Bengal,
Pathak H, Nayak AK, Maiti D, Kumar GAK, Reddy JN, Rath PC, Swain P and Bhagawati R (Eds.)
(2019a.) National Rice Research Institute: Activities, Achievements and Aspirations.
ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, p264 + viii, ISBN: 81-88409-
08-1.
NITI Aayog (2016).Evaluation Study on Eficacy of Minimum Support Prices (MSP) on
Farmers. DMEO Report No.231, Development Monitoring and Evaluation Ofice, NITI
Aayog, Government of India, New Delhi.
Pathak H (2018a). Rice and Sustainable Development Goals. ICAR-NRRI Newsletter 39(4):
22-23.
Mitin A (2009). Documentation of selected adaptation strategies to climate change in rice
cultivation. EastAsiaRiceWorkingGroup, p. 11.
Pathak H (2015). Greenhouse gas emission from Indian agriculture: Trends, drivers and
mitigation strategies. Proc.IndianNatn.Sci.Acad. 81(5):1133-1149.
Pathak H, Voleti SR, Meera Shaik N, Tripathi R, Sailaja B, Nayak AK, Subba Rao LV, Mondal B,
Reddy JN and Mohapatra T (2019c). Reorientation of All India Coordinated Crop
Improvement Projects: The Case of Rice.NRRI Research Bulletin No. 18, ICAR-National
Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Odisha, India.pp 20+viii.
Pathak H, Pradhan SK, Mondal B, Jambhulkar NN, Parameswaran C, Tripathi R, Chakraborti M,
Kumar GAK, Samal P and Sahu RK (2019b). Assessing area, production and return with
rice varieties of NRRI, Cuttack. Oryza 56: 169-173.
NSSO (National Sample Survey Organization) (2011). Consumer Expenditure Survey.
Government of India, New Delhi.
Pathak H, Samal P and Shahid M (2018b). Revitalizing rice-systems for enhancing
productivity, proitability and climate resilience. In Pathak H et al. (Eds.) Rice Research
for Enhancing Productivity, Proitability and Climate Resilience, ICAR-National Rice
Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, pp 1-17.
Pathak H, Bhatia A and Jain N (2012). Crop residues management with conservation
agriculture. Potential, constraints and policy needs. Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, vii + 32 p.
Matsushima S (1967).Crop Science in Rice, Tokyo, Fuji Publishing Corporation Ltd. Japan.
Pradhan SK, Pandit E, Bose LK, Reddy JN, Pattanaik SSC, Meher J and Behera L (2019). CR
Dhan 801 and CR Dhan 802: Climate-Smart Rice Varieties of NRRI. ICAR-National Rice
Research Institute, p. 1-4.
Praveen A, Singh R, Niwas R, Kumar A, Khichar ML and Kumar M (2017). Climatic Suitability of
the Distribution of the Rice Cultivation Zone in Haryana, India. Environment & Ecology
35(4B), p.3040-3045.
Samui RP (1999). A note on the weather and rice yield relationship at some stations in India.
Proceedingsof theIndianAcademyofSciences-EarthandPlanetary Sciences, 108(4),
p.309-316.
Sato S (1956). The optimum conditions of climate for rice culture in the warm districts of
Japan. J.AgricMeteorol.Japan 12:24-26.
Wassmann R, Jagadish SVK, Heuer S, Ismail A, Redona E, Serraj R, Singh RK, Howell G, Pathak
H, Sumleth K (2009a). Climate Change Affecting Rice Production: The Physiological
and Agronomic Basis for Possible Adaptation Strategies. Adv. Agron 101:59-122.
Sharma B,Gulati A, Mohan G, Manchanda S, Ray I andAmarasinghe U (2018).Water
Productivity Mapping of Major Indian Crops. NABARD and ICRIER.
Samal P (2009). Future technological needs for rice crop in India: Socio-economic concerns In
'Forecasting future technological needs for rice in India', Indian Agricultural Statistics
Research Institute, New Delhi. pp. 14-24.
Sahrawat KL (2005). Fertility and organic matter in submerged rice soils. CurrentScience
88(5) pp.735-739.
Puckridge, DW, Kupkanchanul, T, Palaklang W and Kupkanchanakul K (2000). Production of
Rice and associated crops in deeply looded areas of Chao Phraya delta. In proceedings
of the International conference: the Chao Phraya delta: Historical development,
dynamics and challenges of Thailand's rice bowl. pp 1-35.
Venkataraman S (1987). Agro-meteorological aspects of growth, yield and water relations
with special reference to rice. Weather and Rice: Proceedings of the international
workshop on the Impact of Weather Parameters on Growth and Yield of Rice IRRI
(International Rice Research Institute) Los Banos, Laguana, Philippines, pp 49.
Samal P (2013). Growth in Production, Productivity, Costs and Proitability of Rice in India
during 1980-2010, In Shetty P, Hedge MR and Mahadevappa M (Eds.) Innovations in
Rice production, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore 12, pp. 35-51.
Siddiq EA (2000). Bridging the rice yield gap in India. In Papademetriou et al. (Eds) Bridging
the rice yield gap in the Asia paciic region,
Wassmann R, Jagadish SVK, Sumleth K, Pathak H, Howell G, Ismail A, Serraj R, Redona E, Singh
RK, Heuer S (2009b). Regional vulnerability of climate change impacts on Asian rice
production and scope for adaptation. Adv.Agron. 102: 91-133.
Yoshida S (1981). Fundamentals of rice crop science. Int.RiceRes.Inst., p. 68.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
22 23
Annexure
Fig. 1. District-wise rice area in proportion to total agricultural area in India.
Fig. 2. Area, production and productivity of rice in India over the years. Source:Pathaketal.(2019) Fig. 4. District wise (a) kharif rice area and (b) productivity in India.
Fig. 3. Rice and sustainable development goals. Source:Pathak(2018)

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
22 23
Annexure
Fig. 1. District-wise rice area in proportion to total agricultural area in India.
Fig. 2. Area, production and productivity of rice in India over the years. Source:Pathaketal.(2019) Fig. 4. District wise (a) kharif rice area and (b) productivity in India.
Fig. 3. Rice and sustainable development goals. Source:Pathak(2018)

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
24 25
Fig. 5. District wise (a) rabi rice area and (b) productivity in India.
Fig. 6. District wise (a) summer rice area and (b) productivity in India.
Fig. 7. District-wise rainfall map of India. Fig. 8. District-wise temperature map of India.
Fig. 9. District-wise clay content of soils of India. Fig. 10. Suitability of rice areas in India.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
24 25
Fig. 5. District wise (a) rabi rice area and (b) productivity in India.
Fig. 6. District wise (a) summer rice area and (b) productivity in India.
Fig. 7. District-wise rainfall map of India. Fig. 8. District-wise temperature map of India.
Fig. 9. District-wise clay content of soils of India. Fig. 10. Suitability of rice areas in India.

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
26 27
Table1. GlobalandIndianscenariosofrice.
Table2. Area, production and productivity of paddy in different states of India
(2017-18).
Parameters
World
India
1.
Production (Mt)
500 (milled rice), 750
(paddy), 1875 (residues)
112 (milled rice), 170
(paddy), 425 (residues)
2.
Feeding people (billion)
4 (56% of population)
0.8 (65% of population)
3.
Area (Mha)
166 (10% crop land)
43 (22% crop land)
4.
Grown by families (million)
144 (25% of farmers)
67 (56% of farmers)
5.
Livelihood to rural poor (million)
400 (40% of poor)
150 (40% of poor)
6.
Annual value (US$ billion)
206 (13% of crop value)
53 (17% of crop value)
7.
3 -1
Irrigation wateruse (km yr )
880 (35% of total)
200 (29% of total)
8.
-1
Fertilizer use (Mt yr )
25 (15% of total)
6.5 (37% of total)
9.
-1
Methane emission (Mt yr )
25 (12% of agriculture)
3.5 (18% of agriculture)
Source: Pathak et al. (2019a)
State
Area(Mha)
Production(Mt)
-1
Productivity(tha )
Uttar Pradesh
5.81
19.91
3.42
West Bengal
5.12
22.45
4.39
Odisha
3.77
9.83
2.61
Chhattisgarh
3.76
7.40
1.97
Bihar
3.31
12.14
3.67
Punjab
3.07
20.07
6.55
Assam
2.43
7.93
3.26
Andhra Pradesh
2.16
12.25
5.68
Madhya Pradesh
2.04
6.19
3.04
Telangana
1.96
9.39
4.79
Tamil Nadu
1.83
9.96
5.45
Jharkhand
1.74
6.12
3.53
Maharashtra
1.45
4.10
2.82
Haryana
1.42
6.79
4.77
Karnataka
0.99
4.53
4.56
Gujarat
0.86
2.84
3.31
Others
2.07
7.27
3.51
India
43.77
169.14
3.86
Source: Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare,
Government of India (2019)
Table3. Area,productionandproductivityofriceindifferentagro-climaticzones.
Agro-climaticZones
Area(Mha)
Production(Mt)
-1
Productivity(tha )
Western Himalayan
0.69
1.68
2.43
Eastern Himalayan
3.98
13.16
3.31
Table4. Areaandproductivityofriceindifferentseasonsandecosystems.
Ecologies
Area(Mha)
-1
Productivity(tha )
Kharif Irrigated Area
21.1
5.0-6.0
Kharif Rainfed Upland
4.8
1.5-2.0
Kharif Rainfed Lowland
11.8
3.0-4.0
Kharif Deepwater
1.3
2.0-2.5
Rabi/Summer Irrigated
4.5
3.5-4.5
India
43.5
1.5-6.0
State
Area(%)
Production(%)
Productivity(%)
Andhra Pradesh
0.06
1.30
1.23
Arunachal Pradesh
0.33
2.89
2.55
Assam
-0.08
1.74
1.82
Bihar
-0.40
1.98
2.39
Goa
-1.01
-0.73
0.28
Gujarat
1.46
3.59
2.10
Haryana
2.65
3.38
0.71
Himachal Pradesh
-0.55
0.72
1.27
Jammu & Kashmir
0.02
0.58
0.56
Karnataka
0.03
0.90
0.87
Kerala
-4.43
-3.05
1.45
Madhya Pradesh
0.38
2.28
1.90
Maharashtra
-0.02
0.93
0.95
Table5. Changes in area, production and productivity of rice in different states
during1990-91to2017-18.
Lower Gangetic Plains
4.73
21.14
4.47
Middle Gangetic Plains
5.94
17.97
3.03
Upper Gangetic Plains
3.19
11.12
3.48
Trans-Gangetic Plains
4.27
23.81
5.57
Eastern Plateau & Hills
8.03
16.04
2.00
Central Plateau & Hills
1.70
4.34
2.55
Western Plateau & Hills
0.51
1.23
2.41
Southern Plateau & Hills
2.41
11.30
4.69
East Coat Plains & Hills
5.31
23.46
4.42
West Coast Plains & Ghats
0.98
3.86
3.93
Gujarat Plains & Hills
0.72
2.30
3.19
Western Dry
0.03
0.14
4.67
The Islands
0.01
0.03
3.00
India
42.5
151.6
3.86
Source: Updated from Pathak et al. (2019c)

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
26 27
Table1. GlobalandIndianscenariosofrice.
Table2. Area, production and productivity of paddy in different states of India
(2017-18).
Parameters
World
India
1.
Production (Mt)
500 (milled rice), 750
(paddy), 1875 (residues)
112 (milled rice), 170
(paddy), 425 (residues)
2.
Feeding people (billion)
4 (56% of population)
0.8 (65% of population)
3.
Area (Mha)
166 (10% crop land)
43 (22% crop land)
4.
Grown by families (million)
144 (25% of farmers)
67 (56% of farmers)
5.
Livelihood to rural poor (million)
400 (40% of poor)
150 (40% of poor)
6.
Annual value (US$ billion)
206 (13% of crop value)
53 (17% of crop value)
7.
3 -1
Irrigation wateruse (km yr )
880 (35% of total)
200 (29% of total)
8.
-1
Fertilizer use (Mt yr )
25 (15% of total)
6.5 (37% of total)
9.
-1
Methane emission (Mt yr )
25 (12% of agriculture)
3.5 (18% of agriculture)
Source: Pathak et al. (2019a)
State
Area(Mha)
Production(Mt)
-1
Productivity(tha )
Uttar Pradesh
5.81
19.91
3.42
West Bengal
5.12
22.45
4.39
Odisha
3.77
9.83
2.61
Chhattisgarh
3.76
7.40
1.97
Bihar
3.31
12.14
3.67
Punjab
3.07
20.07
6.55
Assam
2.43
7.93
3.26
Andhra Pradesh
2.16
12.25
5.68
Madhya Pradesh
2.04
6.19
3.04
Telangana
1.96
9.39
4.79
Tamil Nadu
1.83
9.96
5.45
Jharkhand
1.74
6.12
3.53
Maharashtra
1.45
4.10
2.82
Haryana
1.42
6.79
4.77
Karnataka
0.99
4.53
4.56
Gujarat
0.86
2.84
3.31
Others
2.07
7.27
3.51
India
43.77
169.14
3.86
Source: Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare,
Government of India (2019)
Table3. Area,productionandproductivityofriceindifferentagro-climaticzones.
Agro-climaticZones
Area(Mha)
Production(Mt)
-1
Productivity(tha )
Western Himalayan
0.69
1.68
2.43
Eastern Himalayan
3.98
13.16
3.31
Table4. Areaandproductivityofriceindifferentseasonsandecosystems.
Ecologies
Area(Mha)
-1
Productivity(tha )
Kharif Irrigated Area
21.1
5.0-6.0
Kharif Rainfed Upland
4.8
1.5-2.0
Kharif Rainfed Lowland
11.8
3.0-4.0
Kharif Deepwater
1.3
2.0-2.5
Rabi/Summer Irrigated
4.5
3.5-4.5
India
43.5
1.5-6.0
State
Area(%)
Production(%)
Productivity(%)
Andhra Pradesh
0.06
1.30
1.23
Arunachal Pradesh
0.33
2.89
2.55
Assam
-0.08
1.74
1.82
Bihar
-0.40
1.98
2.39
Goa
-1.01
-0.73
0.28
Gujarat
1.46
3.59
2.10
Haryana
2.65
3.38
0.71
Himachal Pradesh
-0.55
0.72
1.27
Jammu & Kashmir
0.02
0.58
0.56
Karnataka
0.03
0.90
0.87
Kerala
-4.43
-3.05
1.45
Madhya Pradesh
0.38
2.28
1.90
Maharashtra
-0.02
0.93
0.95
Table5. Changes in area, production and productivity of rice in different states
during1990-91to2017-18.
Lower Gangetic Plains
4.73
21.14
4.47
Middle Gangetic Plains
5.94
17.97
3.03
Upper Gangetic Plains
3.19
11.12
3.48
Trans-Gangetic Plains
4.27
23.81
5.57
Eastern Plateau & Hills
8.03
16.04
2.00
Central Plateau & Hills
1.70
4.34
2.55
Western Plateau & Hills
0.51
1.23
2.41
Southern Plateau & Hills
2.41
11.30
4.69
East Coat Plains & Hills
5.31
23.46
4.42
West Coast Plains & Ghats
0.98
3.86
3.93
Gujarat Plains & Hills
0.72
2.30
3.19
Western Dry
0.03
0.14
4.67
The Islands
0.01
0.03
3.00
India
42.5
151.6
3.86
Source: Updated from Pathak et al. (2019c)

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
28 29
Manipur
1.29
0.98
-0.31
Meghalaya
0.24
3.49
3.25
Mizoram
-2.27
-2.77
-0.51
Nagaland
1.73
3.96
2.19
Orissa
-0.43
1.09
1.53
Punjab
1.45
2.39
0.92
Rajasthan
0.26
3.49
3.22
Sikkim
-1.82
-0.66
1.18
Tamil Nadu
-0.82
-0.80
0.02
Tripura
0.04
2.08
2.04
Uttar Pradesh
0.46
1.32
0.85
West Bengal
-0.32
1.22
1.54
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
0.18
0.78
0.61
Pondicherry
-1.92
-1.09
0.85
India
0.09
1.45
1.36
Source: DAC (2019)
Table6. Demandforricefortheyear2020,2030,2040and2050.
Table7. Delineationofsuitabilityclassesforgrowingrice.
Table8. CurrentandrequiredproductionscenariosofkharifriceinIndia.
Year
(Billion)
Population
Demandforrice(Mt)
Direct
Indirect
Totaldemand
2020-21
1.38
99.39
10.61
110.00
2030-31
1.51
125.39
11.90
137.29
2040-41
1.60
153.45
13.20
166.65
2050-51
1.65
182.90
14.49
197.40
Suitabilityclass
SuitabilityIndex
1.
Very suitable
>800
2.
Suitable
600-800
3.
Moderately suitable
400-600
4.
Unsuitable
<400
Productionscenario
Production(Mt)
1.
Current production
97.10
2.
Current production in suitable areas
74.68
3.
10% increase in production in suitable areas
82.15
4.
20% increase in production in suitable areas
89.62
5.
30% increase in production in suitable areas
97.08
6.
40% increase in production in suitable areas
104.55

NRRI Research Bulletin No. 22 February, 2020
28 29
Manipur
1.29
0.98
-0.31
Meghalaya
0.24
3.49
3.25
Mizoram
-2.27
-2.77
-0.51
Nagaland
1.73
3.96
2.19
Orissa
-0.43
1.09
1.53
Punjab
1.45
2.39
0.92
Rajasthan
0.26
3.49
3.22
Sikkim
-1.82
-0.66
1.18
Tamil Nadu
-0.82
-0.80
0.02
Tripura
0.04
2.08
2.04
Uttar Pradesh
0.46
1.32
0.85
West Bengal
-0.32
1.22
1.54
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
0.18
0.78
0.61
Pondicherry
-1.92
-1.09
0.85
India
0.09
1.45
1.36
Source: DAC (2019)
Table6. Demandforricefortheyear2020,2030,2040and2050.
Table7. Delineationofsuitabilityclassesforgrowingrice.
Table8. CurrentandrequiredproductionscenariosofkharifriceinIndia.
Year
(Billion)
Population
Demandforrice(Mt)
Direct
Indirect
Totaldemand
2020-21
1.38
99.39
10.61
110.00
2030-31
1.51
125.39
11.90
137.29
2040-41
1.60
153.45
13.20
166.65
2050-51
1.65
182.90
14.49
197.40
Suitabilityclass
SuitabilityIndex
1.
Very suitable
>800
2.
Suitable
600-800
3.
Moderately suitable
400-600
4.
Unsuitable
<400
Productionscenario
Production(Mt)
1.
Current production
97.10
2.
Current production in suitable areas
74.68
3.
10% increase in production in suitable areas
82.15
4.
20% increase in production in suitable areas
89.62
5.
30% increase in production in suitable areas
97.08
6.
40% increase in production in suitable areas
104.55