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Abstract

Hydroponics is a method of crop production that has been successfully used for the growth of vegetables and flowers. It uses a nutrient solution and generally controlled environmental conditions which makes it more energy intensive, yet more productive than conventional agriculture. Hydroponic systems can be used as a treatment process for partially treated wastewater or reclaimed water (RW) before its release to the environment, as plants have the ability to uptake nutrients, toxic metals and emerging contaminants. The present review has the aim to look into the advantages of hydroponics and evaluate the success of using RW as a nutrient solution. It was found that many examples exist of successful experiments: however, full‐scale examples are still limited. With the recent interest in vertical farming and the production of legal cannabis, interest in hydroponics has increased and the use of RW as a nutrient solution may finally be economically viable.

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... Despite its potential as an environmentally friendly complement to traditional farming, CEA faces numerous sustainability challenges that must be identified and addressed in order for farmers and communities to achieve their economic, social, and environmental goals. Past literature reviews of CEA have focused considerably on summarizing its benefits and drawbacks compared to field-based agriculture (Specht et al. 2014;Eigenbrod and Gruda 2015;Buehler and Junge 2016;Luvisi 2016;Ampatzidis et al. 2017;Siegner et al. 2018;van Tuijl et al. 2018;Weidner et al. 2019;Lefers et al. 2020;Orsini et al. 2020;Cifuentes-Torres et al. 2021;Engler and Krarti 2021;McClements et al. 2021;Stein 2021;van Delden et al. 2021;Wang et al. 2021;Xi et al. 2021). Beyond that, a significant number of reviews addressed how the CEA field fits into an urban agriculture landscape to address sustainable urban development goals and the needs of local food production (Specht et al. 2014;Eigenbrod and Gruda 2015;Goldstein et al. 2016a, b;Buehler and Junge 2016;Siegner et al. 2018;van Tuijl et al. 2018;Weidner et al. 2019;McClements et al. 2021;Biancone et al. 2022;Cowan et al. 2022;Lin and Gomez-Maqueo 2023;Marini et al. 2023;Ning and Xydis 2023). ...
... An example from one review describes the use of LEDs, hydroponics, aquaponics, and environmental control systems, the challenges associated with each technology, and how the technology influences resource use efficiencies (Orsini et al. 2020). Some reviews were dedicated to an entire type of technology and how it could address sustainability and production challenges within CEA, such as nanomaterials (Xi et al. 2021), robotics (Ampatzidis et al. 2017), evapotranspiration models (Wang et al. 2021), wastewater reuse (Cifuentes-Torres et al. 2021), liquid desiccants (Lefers et al. 2020), machine learning (Ojo and Zahid 2022), and internet of things (Farooq et al. 2022). Most reviews on CEA have discussed its implications only in one or two pillars of sustainability. ...
... Implementing resource recirculation and reuse consistent with circular economies was proposed often to reduce waste and improve sustainability in CEA. Nutrients for plant use was the largest component of circularity addressed by the literature, encompassing multiple forms of capture from inside and outside the farm including compost (Dsouza et al. 2021), vermicompost (Quantius et al. 2014), anaerobic digestion (Germer et al. 2011;Bergstrand et al. 2020), and sewer/wastewater capture and reuse (Sanjuan-Delmás et al. 2018;Cifuentes-Torres et al. 2021). However, managing circular CEA systems requires extensive knowledge of the physiochemical properties of waste outputs (Dsouza et al. 2021) and the various processing technologies or utilization pathways available to transform them (Rogers 2017;Riera-Vila et al. 2019) so that consistent resource inputs are regenerated (Bergstrand et al. 2020) with positive benefits to the crops and the sustainability efforts ). ...
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When compared to traditional field production, controlled environment agriculture (CEA) such as greenhouses and indoor vertical farms (VF) have sustainability benefits such as reduced land use, less product transportation to consumers, improved resource and land-use efficiencies, food safety, and local food availability. Despite its potential as an environmentally beneficial complement to conventional farming, CEA has numerous issues that limits its adoption and viability as a sustainable option. This review summarizes the literature on key areas of sustainability in CEA, such as (1) sustainability challenges, (2) technologies identified to address sustainability in CEA, (3) quantification and reporting of sustainability in CEA, and (4) gaps and opportunities in addressing CEA sustainability. To filter the available literature from the databases including Web of Science, this scoping review employed a combination of the keywords “sustainability,” “controlled environment agriculture,” “urban farm,” “vertical farm,” and “indoor farm.” According to the review, main obstacles in CEA were high electricity use, geographical location-related tradeoffs, and an unfavorable public perception of CEA in comparison to field production. These issues are now being addressed by optimized lighting and sensor technology, models, decision support tools to reduce electricity use, and marketing tactics to educate people about the benefits of CEA. This scoping review offers two critical areas to focus sustainability improvement efforts: lowering electrical demand and using circular techniques for organic waste and wastewater reuse in CEA to increase water, nutrient, and energy use efficiency and recovery. In addition, it discusses the techniques and approaches to sustainability assessment in CEA, particularly within the research and application contexts. This scoping review, thus, outlines strategies for enhancing sustainability in CEA, highlighting the importance of integrating circular economy principles and advanced technologies to optimize resource use, and advocates for ongoing research and education to shift public perceptions toward the sustainable potential of CEA. Graphical abstract
... The Nutrient Film Technique (NFT), established by Allan Cooper in 1960 (Torres et al., 2020), is among the most prevalent methods in closed hydroponic systems. A thin film of the nutritional solution is applied to the bases with this method, which additionally opens up the oxygen that is needed (Morgan, 1999). ...
... This system needs to be constantly monitored because a malfunction might quickly lead to the plants being dehydrated. The rapid proliferation of bacterial or fungal diseases on the plant roots poses a disadvantage (Torres et al., 2020). ...
... N, P, K, and Ca are commonly found in soil fertilizers since they are traditionally seen as being crucial to plant growth (FAO, 2019). Additionally, several of these essential elements might not be available as a result of poor management of farming soils (i.e., adjustments to soil composition, a single culture, and destruction of the forest) (Torres et al., 2020). Investigators established a comprehensive nutrient solution in the 1970s that clearly showed the nutritional benefits of soilless cultures and the proper development of roots. ...
Chapter
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Heavy metal removal from polluted hydroponic solutions is a key challenge in contemporary agriculture. Due to its affordability and ecological consciousness, bio-sorption, a biotechnological technique, has gained interest as an effective heavy metal expulsion technique. The study presents the findings of several investigations about various bio-sorbents for heavy metal removal in hydroponic systems, including bacteria, fungus, algae, and plant-based materials. It emphasizes bio-sorption mechanisms such as adsorption, chelation, ion exchange, and phytoremediation, which aid in binding heavy metals to the bio-sorbent surface. The review also goes through the variables influencing bio-sorption effectiveness, including pH, temperature, contact duration, and metal level. It has shown remarkable removal efficiency for different heavy metals from hydroponic solutions, including lead, cadmium, copper, arsenic, chromium, and nickel. Furthermore, bio-sorption is an appealing choice for heavy metal removal in hydroponic systems because of its low cost, convenience of use, and environmental sustainability. Furthermore, the possibility of bio-sorbent regeneration, reusability, and the long-term impacts of bio-sorption on plant development and soil health should be investigated. Finally, bio-sorptive heavy metal removal from hydroponic solutions appears to be a potential technique for controlling heavy metal pollution in agricultural systems. The assessment’s outcomes indicate that biosorption can be a successful and sustainable technology for heavy metal removal in hydroponic systems, but additional study is required to improve the procedure and investigate its long-term effects.
... Many of those approaches involved growing the plants directly in wastewater, without taking into account the requirements for nutrient solutions (Chakraborty et al., 2023;Cifuentes-Cabezas et al., 2023;da Silva Cuba Carvalho et al., 2018;Kreuzig et al., 2021;Magwaza et al., 2020a;Rana et al., 2011;Weimers et al., 2022). As a result, the performance of those systems was poor, with deficiencies in crop growth, yield, and nutritional quality (e. g., heavy metal, sodium and chloride content) been observed (Bergstrand et al., 2020;Cifuentes Torres et al., 2021;da Silva Cuba Carvalho et al., 2018;Ezziddine and Liltved, 2021;Magwaza et al., 2020b;Ntinas et al., 2021). Some studies enhanced vegetable growth by adding nutrients to wastewaters or adjusting the operational mode of cultivation systems for a continuous nutrient supply with fresh wastewater (Bliedung et al., 2020;Cifuentes Torres et al., 2021). ...
... As a result, the performance of those systems was poor, with deficiencies in crop growth, yield, and nutritional quality (e. g., heavy metal, sodium and chloride content) been observed (Bergstrand et al., 2020;Cifuentes Torres et al., 2021;da Silva Cuba Carvalho et al., 2018;Ezziddine and Liltved, 2021;Magwaza et al., 2020b;Ntinas et al., 2021). Some studies enhanced vegetable growth by adding nutrients to wastewaters or adjusting the operational mode of cultivation systems for a continuous nutrient supply with fresh wastewater (Bliedung et al., 2020;Cifuentes Torres et al., 2021). However, limited knowledge about optimal nutrient addition can continue to hinder plant growth due to excess or deficiency (da Silva Cuba Carvalho et al., 2018;Magwaza et al., 2020a). ...
Article
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Nutrient recovery from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for hydroponic cultivation holds promise for closing the nutrient loop and meeting rising food demands. However, most studies focus on solid products for soil-based agriculture, thus raising questions about their suitability for hydroponics. In this study, we address these questions by performing the first in-depth assessment of the extent to which state-of-the-art nutrient recovery processes can generate useful products for hydroponic application. Our results indicate that less than 11.5% of the required nutrients for crops grown hydroponically can currently be recovered. Potassium nitrate (KNO3), calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), constituting over 75% of the total nutrient demand for hydroponics, cannot be recovered in appropriate form due to their high solubility, hindering their separated recovery from wastewater. To overcome this challenge, we outline a novel nutrient recovery approach that emphasizes the generation of multi-nutrient concentrates specifically designed to meet the requirements of hydroponic cultivation. Based on a theoretical assessment of nutrient and contaminant flows in a typical municipal WWTP, utilizing a steady-state model, we estimated that this novel approach could potentially supply up to 56% of the nutrient requirements of hydroponic systems. inally, we outline fundamental design requirements for nutrient recovery systems based on this new approach. Achieving these nutrient recovery potentials could be technically feasible through a combination of activated sludge processes for nitrification, membrane-based desalination processes, and selective removal of interfering NaCl. However, given the limited investigation into such treatment trains, further research is essential to explore viable system designs for effective nutrient recovery for hydroponics.
... As nitrate is required in larger quantitie for vegetative growth and ammonium is toxic to plants in high concentrations, nitrific tion plays a crucial role. However, only low nitrification rates can be obtained by aerob digestion itself due to the slow growth of the relevant microbial community [11,12 Among the studied resources used to produce bioponic nutrient solutions are digesta from biodigesters [13,14], animal manures [15][16][17], municipal wastewater [9,18], and foo waste [19]. Due to the challenge of producing an adequate and balanced nutrient solutio which is required in hydroponic cultivation, the vast majority of studies have focused o the cultivation of leafy greens, such as lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), Pak Choi (Brassica cam pestris v. Chinensis cv. ...
... However, only low nitrification rates can be obtained by aerobic digestion itself due to the slow growth of the relevant microbial community [11,12]. Among the studied resources used to produce bioponic nutrient solutions are digestate from biodigesters [13,14], animal manures [15][16][17], municipal wastewater [9,18], and food waste [19]. Due to the challenge of producing an adequate and balanced nutrient solution, which is required in hydroponic cultivation, the vast majority of studies have focused on the cultivation of leafy greens, such as lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), Pak Choi (Brassica campestris v. Chinensis cv. ...
Article
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Technological advancement in recent decades has allowed for crop cultivation in soilless controlled environments, known as hydroponics, and this is being employed in an increasing number of factories worldwide. With continued local and regional disruptions in the supply chain to provide mineral fertilizers, new pathways to generate nutrient solutions are being developed. One potential approach is the recovery of nutrients from organic waste and wastewater using bioponics. Bioponics refers to the biological mineralization of organic residues through processes such as anaerobic and aerobic digestion and the use of such organically produced nutrient solutions in hydroponic systems. However, without disinfection of the nutrient solution, the high microbial loads increase the risk of pathogens affecting plant and consumer health. In this work, electrochemical hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) demonstrated success in reducing microbial loads. Different scenarios of application were considered: (1) variation in the H2O2 concentration in the nutrient solution by dosing H2O2 from ex situ electrochemical production, (2) variation in the dosing time-dependent reaction between the nutrient solution and H2O2 produced ex situ, and (3) the in situ production of H2O2 of the organic nutrient solution. The highest tested H2O2 concentration of 200 mg L−1 showed a microbial load reduction of bacteria at 93.3% and of fungi at 81.2%. However, the in situ production showed the highest reduction rate for bacteria and fungi in bioponic nutrient solutions, where longer reaction times also impact microbial concentrations in situ. Final microbial reductions of 97.8% for bacteria and of 99.1% for fungi were determined after a H2O2 production time of 60 min. Overall, our results show that electrochemical H2O2 production can be used to disinfect bioponic nutrient solutions, and the production cell can be implemented in bioponic systems in situ.
... Hydroponics is used now successfully on a large scale by trade farmers of fast-growing gardener crops, as it appropriates a more use efficiency of fertilizers and water, as well as a good dominance of climate and pest factors. Moreover, hydroponic outputs in increasing of crop yield and quality, which causes higher competitiveness and economic income [15]. A nutrient solution for hydroponics is an aquatic solution composed of inorganics ions from soluble salts of essential elements for higher plants [16]. ...
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Citation: El-Shal, R.M.; El-Naggar, A.H.; El-Beshbeshy, T.R.; Mahmoud, E.K.; El-Kader, N.I.A.; Missaui, A.M.; Du, D.; Ghoneim, A.M.; El-Sharkawy, M.S. Effect of Nano-Fertilizers on Alfalfa Plants Grown under Different Salt Stresses in Hydroponic System.
... hydroponics, aquaponics, aeroponics), and more recently, integrating both wastewater recycling and soilless cultivation in closed-loop systems. Use of alternative water sources (AWS) for irrigation [7][8][9] poses unique safety risks to food consumers. Reuse of alternative water sources (AWS) is governed by local policy, and geography also plays a pivotal role in system efficiency [10]. ...
Article
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Consumption of fresh produce, such as leafy greens, is often encouraged as part of a healthy diet. Hence, indoor facilities for hydroponic production of leafy greens are increasingly being established. However, fresh produce entails a higher risk of microbial foodborne illnesses than processed foods. Listeria monocytogenes is a major source of fresh produce contamination and is among the leading causes of severe foodborne illnesses in the United States, with a 16% mortality rate. Tools for rapid monitoring are needed for pathogens such as L. monocytogenes to prevent outbreaks. In this manuscript, we have demonstrated the feasibility of a multi-aptamer approach for development of label-free aptasensors targeting L. monocytogenes in irrigation water for lettuce hydroponic production. We use screening studies with surface plasmon resonance to rationally develop mixtures of relevant aptamers for targeting L. monocytogenes . Based on this screening, multiple aptamers targeting extracellular structures on intact L. monocytogenes were tethered to platinum-modified laser inscribed graphene electrodes. This is the first report of a L. monocytogenes biosensor based on laser inscribed graphene. We show that mixing multiple aptamers with varying affinity improves the diagnostic performance over one aptamer alone in complex sample matrices (lettuce hydroponic water). Multi-aptamer biosensors showed high accuracy for L. monocytogenes and were at least three times more selective than Escherichia coli (Crooks, K12, O157:H7) with an accuracy of 85%. The limit of detection (10 CFU/10 mL) is based on data which were significantly different after calibration toward L. monocytogenes or E. coli (Crooks) and validated against gold standard molecular analysis (polymerase chain reaction). Rapid screening of pathogens is a global need to meet food safety and water quality regulations. This study shows the importance of sensors targeting more than one bacterial surface structure in complex samples relevant to the food-water nexus.
... In this context, the conventional agricultural systems are being reevaluated, leading to innovative approaches like hydroponics, which significantly reduce water and fertiliser usage by utilising nutrient solutions in soilless cultivation (Cifuentes-Torres et al., 2021). Despite the efficiency of hydroponics in resource use, managing the nutrient solutions presents challenges, such as nutrient imbalances and environmental risks associated with the disposal of hydroponic waste nutrient solutions (HWNS) (Bawiec et al., 2019;Koide & Satta, 2004;Nagare et al., 2021;Park et al., 2015;Raviv & Lieth, 2007). ...
... pest and disease incidence [6,7]. Additionally, it yields advantages such as reduced growth cycles, cost efficiency, and the possibility of nutrient solution reuse [8][9][10]. Focusing on water and nutrient management is essential in substrate cultivation research, especially regarding irrigation's impact on lettuce yield and quality. ...
Article
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As living standards rise, enhancing quality has become a central objective for many researchers. Soilless cultivation, known for its efficient use of resources, is increasingly used in vegetable production. It is critical to develop effective water and fertilizer management strategies to achieve high-quality yields and promote sustainable development in modern agriculture. This study employed an orthogonal experimental design to assess the impact of varying nutrient solution concentrations (50%, 75%, 100%, and 125% of Hoagland’s), lower irrigation thresholds (40%, 55%, 70%, and 85% field capacity (FC)), and ozone concentrations (0, 1, 2, and 4 mg·L−1) on lettuce growth, yield, quality, and water–fertilizer use efficiency. The results indicated that fixed nutrient solution concentrations and lower irrigation thresholds enhanced growth metrics for lettuce. Similarly, increasing ozone concentrations initially improved, then reduced growth metrics when the lower irrigation threshold was constant. Furthermore, maintaining stable ozone concentrations while raising the nutrient solution concentration initially boosted, then diminished, growth indicators. Optimal conditions for water and fertilizer management were identified at a nutrient solution concentration of 75% to 100% and an ozone concentration of 0 to 1 mg·L−1. Variance analysis highlighted the significant effects of nutrient solution concentration, lower irrigation thresholds, and ozone concentrations on lettuce yield, quality, and water and fertilizer use efficiency. Range analysis revealed the optimal management combination to be a nutrient solution concentration of 100%, an 85% lower FC irrigation threshold, and an ozone concentration of 1 mg·L−1, yielding 16.82 t·ha−1 of lettuce and a water use efficiency of 40.14 kg·m−3. These findings provide theoretical support for the sustainable advancement of soilless cultivation in contemporary agriculture.
... Vinci & Rapa (2019) assessed various substrates for hydroponic systems and offered valuable guidance for choosing substrates based on environmental sustainability and cost. Cifuentes-Torres et al. (2021) highlighted hydroponics as a promising and economically viable method for crop production, especially when using reclaimed water as a nutrient solution thereby supporting sustainable agriculture and environmental efforts. Several studies have delved into the environmental implications and efficiencies of hydroponics across different regions. ...
Article
As the global population is approaching toward 9 billion by 2050, challenges of food and water scarcity intensify. Hydroponics, an innovative and eco-friendly technology, has gained prominence in addressing these challenges. This study employs life cycle assessment (LCA) to comprehensively evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of utilizing reclaimed water in a hydroponic system. Results from midpoint, endpoint, and normalized analyses reveal key contributors to the hydroponic system's environmental burden, including water, substrates, fertilizers, and energy sources. Significant impacts have been observed in marine and terrestrial ecotoxicity as well as photochemical ozone formation. Reclaimed water consistently demonstrates lower environmental impacts compared to conventional water across various indicators, such as climate change (131 kg CO2 eq.), fine particulate matter formation (0.108 kg PM2.5 eq.), and freshwater consumption (0.291 m3). The study emphasizes the potential of hydroponics with reclaimed water to offer sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural practices. The detailed LCA results provide valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders, promoting the adoption of hydroponics to address food and water scarcity challenges. From the findings, reclaimed water in hydroponics lowers the environmental impacts as compared to conventional water and PVC along with electricity is the major contributor in environmental burden.
... Several literature reviews have addressed the development of hydroponic systems from a historical (Khan et al., 2020), economical (Manos & Xydis, 2019) and environmental (Khan, 2018) perspective. Other reviews have analysed them from a technological point of view, comparing different nutrients (Cifuentes- Torres, et al., 2021) or possible wastewates treatment (Richa et al., 2020). This paper aims to make a contribution to the current state of the art through an integrative review (Torraco, 2005) that intends to broaden the horizon of research in Design to create new theoretical and practical models (Snyder, 2019). ...
Article
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Al enfrentar la complejidad del desafío que plantean el crecimiento urbano y el aumento de la población mundial, las disciplinas del diseño están llamadas a cuestionar nuevas estrategias para mitigar su impacto en la biodiversidad y el sistema de producción de alimentos. En este contexto, la hidroponía representa una solución viable para ayudar a restablecer una conexión con la naturaleza y crear vegetación productiva en los contextos más diversos. Aunque el potencial de estos sistemas se discute ampliamente desde diversas perspectivas, faltan estudios comparativos y evaluativos que ilustren su potencial para los diseñadores. A través del análisis de la literatura y los estudios de casos centrados en cultivos hidropónicos, pretendemos investigar las posibilidades y aspectos críticos que se ofrecen no solo para la producción de alimentos sino también como un medio para mejorar contextos degradados, desencadenar movimientos de innovación social y restaurar la identidad y los medios de vida de las personas y los territorios. Al comparar proyectos implementados en diferentes latitudes y la transferencia de soluciones de un contexto a otro, pretendemos dotar al Diseño de modelos virtuosos, integrando perspectivas del Norte y del Sur Global, para una mejor comprensión y nueva gestión de proyectos de estos sistemas. In facing the complexity of the challenge posed by urban growth and increasing world population, design disciplines are called upon to question new strategies to mitigate their impact on biodiversity and the food production system. In this context, hydroponics represents a viable solution to help re-establish a connection with nature and to create productive greenery within the most diverse contexts. Although the potential of these systems is widely discussed from various perspectives, there is a lack of comparative and evaluative studies illustrating their potential for designers. Through the analysis of literature and case studies focusing on hydroponic crops, we intend to investigate the possibilities and criticalities offered not only for food production but also as a means to improve degraded contexts, trigger social innovation movements and restore identity and livelihood to people and territories. By comparing projects implemented at different latitudes and the transfer of solutions from one context to another, we intend to provide Design with virtuous models, integrating perspectives from the Global North and South, for a better understanding and new project management of these systems.
... Some of the authors discuss the benefits of hydroponics as a method of crop production and its potential to treat partially treated wastewater [9]- [11]. They suggest that while successful experiments have been conducted, full-scale examples of using reclaimed water as a nutrient solution in hydroponic systems are limited, but may become economically viable with the recent interest in vertical farming and cannabis production. ...
Article
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The global agriculture system faces significant challenges in meeting the growing demand for food production, particularly given projections that the world's population will reach 70% by 2050. Hydroponic farming is an increasingly popular technique in this field, offering a promising solution to these challenges. This paper will present the improvement of the current traditional hydroponic method by providing a system that can be used to monitor and control the important element in order to help the plant grow up smoothly. This proposed system is quite efficient and user-friendly that can be used by anyone. This is a combination of a traditional hydroponic system, an automatic control system and a smartphone. The primary objective is to develop a smart system capable of monitoring and controlling potential hydrogen (pH) levels, a key factor that affects hydroponic plant growth. Ultimately, this paper offers an alternative approach to address the challenges of the existing agricultural system and promote the production of clean, disease-free, and healthy food for a better future.
... On the other hand, Chanu and Gupta (2016) reported that water spinach not only possesses the ability to separate lead from wastewater but also to store this inside its root system. Findings showed that elimination got quicker in roots owing to outer layer adsorption, which includes mechanisms like quelation, ion exchange, and selective absorption (Cifuentes-Torres et al., 2021). The physiological aspect of the elimination mechanism comprises intracellular ingest, vascular deposition, along with sprout translocation onto shoots (Kumar et al., 2017). ...
Chapter
Demands from the agricultural sector to provide the rising population’s needs for fresh produce, together with population growth and urbanization, have severely strained the world’s natural water resources. Water is thus no doubt one of the most important resources in the modern era. Aquatic weeds which are difficult to completely eradicate, are typically considered as a global threat to both humans and the aquatic ecosystem. Nevertheless, several studies and research have demonstrated their importance in the field of wastewater phytoremediation, whether in created wetlands, open ponds, or hydroponic systems in a cost-effective and environmentally acceptable manner with little to no sludge waste. Phytoremediation is the employment of plants to clean up contaminants or lower their bioavailability and using this technique to treat wastewater is referred to as wastewater phytoremediation. Plant body parts come in direct contact with contaminants are considered as the active surface area for phytoremediation. Hydroponics, a soil less method of growing plants in vertical farming, has a promising and economical role in phytoremediation of wastewater and heavy metal by the modest space requirements. Most of the hydroponic studies only feature a single plant species, either rooted or free floating. Grasses having rapid growth rate and large root biomass are preferred. Though foliar surface, root and shoot system have their own mechanism in reducing the contaminants, a key approach of improving the effectiveness is to increase their surface area which in turn provide additional areas for microbes to grow, absorb and take up nutrients. In addition to its use in organic food and ornamental plant culture, the value of hydroponically produced plants in toxicological investigations is firmly established. An alternative sustainable solar energy source or devices can be employed to power the hydroponic systems in order to get good results at a reasonable price.
... Twelve pots were placed in each greenhouse. They were placed with the same space between pots, the same amount of substrate and pre-watering was applied, and the seedlings were transplanted [32,33]. ...
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Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) has become an important field of study in recent years. The objective of this research is to evaluate the growth rate of the serrano pepper crop under controlled conditions of vapor pressure deficit in a pilot-scale hydroponic greenhouse. The controlled conditions were generated with the development of a control system composed of a non-mixed crossflow heat exchanger for internal temperature and a humidification system for internal humidity control. The comparison of variables and the growth rate of the crop was carried out in a controlled and a timed greenhouse. The best growth rate for serrano pepper cultivation was obtained under the following conditions: between 4.14 and 5.42 kPa with 0.251 and 0.225 cm/day in the controlled greenhouse. The results show that it is possible to obtain higher crop growth rates by controlling the vapor pressure deficit in a pilot-scale hydroponic greenhouse, using a heat exchanger for temperature control and a humidification control system. Controlling vapor pressure deficit can be a useful tool for agriculture in CEA.
... Table 5 exemplifies the filtering result of the quality assessment of all that paper that was classified as very good scores. 15 selected scored a very good quality scoring (3)(4) with 93.34% and only 1 paper have a good quality score (2-3) with 6.66%. 3.3. ...
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Hydroponics is the cultivation of plants by utilizing water without using soil which emphasizes the fulfillment of the nutritional needs of plants. This research has introduced smart hydroponic system that enables regular monitoring of every aspect to maintain the pH values, water, temperature, and soil. Nevertheless , there is a lack of knowledge that can systematically represent the current research. The proposed study suggests a systematic literature review of smart hydroponics system to overcome this limitation. This systematic literature review will assist practitioners draw on existing literature and propose new solutions based on available knowledge in the smart hydroponic system. The outcomes of this paper can assist future researchers by providing a guideline for user in highlighting approaches for the successful implementation of smart hydroponic system. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
... This alternative cultivation method could yield traditional feed ingredients with properties that potentially improve nutrient digestibility and animal performance, while generating environmental benefits by reducing the land footprint and reliance on synthetic inputs (e.g., fertilisers) of conventional feed production [76]. Further environmental opportunities of hydroponics can be unlocked when wastewater is upcycled to input for production [18]. ...
Article
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Although pig systems start from a favourable baseline of environmental impact compared to other livestock systems, there is still scope to reduce their emissions and further mitigate associated impacts, especially in relation to nitrogen and phosphorous emissions. Key environmental impact hotspots of pig production systems are activities associated with feed production and manure management, as well as direct emissions (such as methane) from the animals and energy use. A major contributor to the environmental impacts associated with pig feed is the inclusion of soya in pig diets, especially since European pig systems rely heavily on soya imported from areas of the globe where crop production is associated with significant impacts of land use change, deforestation, carbon emissions, and loss of biodiversity. The "finishing" pig production stage contributes most to these environmental impacts, due to the amount of feed consumed, the efficiency with which feed is utilised, and the amount of manure produced during this stage. By definition therefore, any substantial improvements pig system environmental impact would arise from changes in feed production and manure management. In this paper, we consider potential solutions towards system environmental sustainability at these pig system components, as well as the bottlenecks that inhibit their effective implementation at the desired pace and magnitude. Examples include the quest for alternative protein sources to soya, the limits (perceived or real) to the genetic improvement of pigs, and the implementation of alternative manure management strategies, such as production of biogas through anaerobic digestion. The review identifies and discusses areas that future efforts can focus on, to further advance understanding around the potential sustainability benefits of modifications at various pig system components, and key sustainability trade-offs across the environment economy society pillars associated with synergistic and antagonistic effects when joint implementation of multiple solutions is considered. In this way, the review opens a discussion to facilitate the development of holistic decision support tools for pig farm management that account for interactions between the "feed * animal * manure" system components and trade-offs between sustainability priorities (e.g., environmental vs economic performance of pig system; welfare improvements vs environmental impacts).
... On the positive side, hydroponic systems are highly resource-efficient, using less water than traditional soil-based farming, which makes them ideal for regions facing water scarcity [40]. They also allow for a controlled environment where variables like nutrient levels and pH can be precisely managed, leading to optimized plant growth and potentially higher yields [41]. Additionally, these systems are particularly beneficial in urban settings where space is limited, thanks to their efficient use of space [42], especially when combined with vertical farming techniques [43]. ...
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This review article conducts an in-depth analysis of the role of next-generation technologies in soilless vegetable production, highlighting their groundbreaking potential to revolutionize yield, efficiency, and sustainability. These technologies, such as AI-driven monitoring systems and precision farming methods, offer unparalleled accuracy in monitoring critical variables like nutrient concentrations and pH levels. However, the paper also addresses the multifaceted challenges that hinder the widespread adoption of these technologies. The high initial investment costs pose a significant barrier, particularly for small and medium-scale farmers, thereby risking the creation of a technological divide in the industry. Additionally, the technical complexity of these systems demands specialized expertise, potentially exacerbating knowledge gaps among farmers. Ethical considerations are scrutinized, including data privacy concerns and potential job displacement due to automation. Regulatory challenges, such as international trade regulations and policy frameworks, are discussed as they may need revision to accommodate these new technologies. The paper concludes by emphasizing that while these sustainable technologies offer transformative benefits, their potential for broad adoption is constrained by a complex interplay of financial, technical, ethical, regulatory, and social factors. Comprehensive, multi-faceted solutions are therefore essential for their ethical and equitable implementation.
... It is composed of six structural compo anents to optimize plant growth and appropriate delivery of nutrients. A hydroponics-based delivery system working on the principle of various types of hydroponics as the deep-water culture and nutrient film technique is used for the purpose [34][35][36] . A balance between growing media, pH, air, and water in the root zone is required for maintaining the optimum growth rate. ...
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... Nevertheless, only a few studies explored the effects of light conditions on the crops grown in hydroponic systems using nutrients recovered from wastewater. Vertical hydroponics represents a great alternative to conventional farming strategies since it reduces land and water requirements (Cifuentes-Torres et al., 2021). Nevertheless, ideal light conditions are not guaranteed in overpopulated urban areas. ...
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Please find below a special link through which anyone can freely access the article for 30 days starting 12/01/2023 ................................................................................................................................... https://bit.ly/3RvAK4o ......................................................................................................................................... Nitrogen-rich effluents from anaerobic processes present nutrient resource recovery opportunities for fertilizer applications in hydroponic systems, thus facilitating agricultural production in less conventional contexts such as urbanized areas. However, the high ammonia and soluble chemical oxygen demand, which is common in anaerobic digestate, can inhibit crop development in a hydroponic system, requiring conditioning to enable optimal performance of the system. This study examines the use of three nutrient sources to support the growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) in vertical hydroponic systems: (i) synthetic permeate (SP) solution, (ii) desorption solution (DS) from an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR), and (iii) DS modified with acetic acid addition. Two light conditions were used to observe the effect of photon flux (from 150–200 to 10–15 lmol/ [m 2$s]) on lettuce crop development and nitrification efficiency of the treated AnMBR permeate. Fresh and dry mass of the harvested lettuce crops as well as chlorophyll content were measured as an indicator of crop quality after a 13-day development period. Crops grown under well-lit conditions in DS had harvested fresh weight (2929.0 – 454.6 mg/plant) than SP-grown crops (2646.2 – 908.8 mg/plant). The lighting conditions did not significantly impact the nitrification efficiency; thus nitrate, the preferred form of nitrogen for supporting lettuce crop development, was sufficiently available to support crop growth in the recirculating hydroponic systems.
... As shown in Figure 4- (Resh, 2013), leaving plants in soilless system fully exposed to contaminants present in 489 nutrient solutions. A cautionary note on the challenges presented by the strict requirements of soilless systems 490 is given by the mixed track record of previous attempts to cultivate crops hydroponically in wastewaters or 491 treated effluents (Cifuentes-Torres et al., 2021;Haddad and Mizyed, 2011;Richa et al., 2020). and Oyama et al. (2005). ...
... Plants may be grown directly in a liquid solution, or with the support of an inert medium (Kaiser & Ernst, 2016). The potential benefits of hydroponically grown lettuce include growing the crop in a controlled environment, thus reducing impacts of adverse growing conditions (Domingues et al., 2012;Matysiak et al., 2021); recycling nutrients or wastewater for irrigation and nutrient delivery (Cifuentes- Torres et al., 2021;Jesse et al., 2019); elimination of labor-intensive management practices, such as weeding (Domingues et al., 2012); more control over production standards and practices, resulting in more predictable yields; and shorter growing cycles and economic savings (Majid et al., 2021). ...
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... The nutrient was changed every 10 days, and the samples were collected at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 days. The continuous aeration allows the roots to be submerged within the nutrient solution [59]. A hydraulic retention time of 10 days was used for this experiment. ...
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The study uses IoT-interfaced miniaturized ion sensors to monitor element-specific nutrient information during hydroponic cultivation in a greenhouse. The sensor provides insights into crop nutrient absorption efficiency and alterations in specific ion concentrations in response to vapor pressure deficit (VPD) fluctuations. Solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (SCISEs) were fabricated into an ion sensor array and interfaced with wireless embedded systems to construct an IoT nutrient sensor system (IoNSS). The IoNSS framework included two different microcontrollers for nutrient solution sampling, sensing module controlling, automated procedure setting, and data recording, a private cloud server for data management, and MQTT webpage-based interactive interfaces. The IoNSS enables real-time assessment of changes in electrical conductivity (EC) values and specific element concentrations (NO 3 - , NH 4 + , Ca 2+ , and K + ,) in nutrient solutions within a commercial hydroponic greenhouse. It also facilitates the determination of the NO 3 - /NH 4 + ratio, aiding in tracking nitrogen fertilization absorbed by plants. Decreases in K + concentration measured by the IoNSS correlate with deviations from normal VPD levels, indicating leaf transpiration efficiency. Measurement of other ions reflects physiological disorders resulting from abnormal VPD. In summary, the IoNSS provides specific-element information crucial for adjusting environmental parameters and optimizing greenhouse environmental control strategies, thus advancing precision agriculture in hydroponic cultivation.
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This paper presents the design and construction of a hydroponics monitoring system that can collect parameters of hydroponic systems, such as temperature, water limit, pH level, and nutrient levels. The monitoring system was developed using an ESP32 microcontroller and several sensors, including total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, water level, and temperature sensors. The ESP32 microcontroller gathers and processes data from the sensors to automatically activate the water or salt pump and drain the necessary materials into the hydroponic system's plant basin. The user can then view the hydroponic parameters through the Blynk application on a smart phone. The user can also activate the pumps for water, nutrients, or salt using the application's interface on a smart phone, or the ESP32 microcontroller can activate them automatically if the parameter values deviate from the required values
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This study aimed to assess the performance of hydroponics vegetated with Duranta erecta in removing nutrients from domestic wastewater in a pilot-scale study. Domestic wastewater was fed to four lines of hydroponic-constructed filter systems (HCFS). The lines 1 and 3 were filled with gravel, but the lines 2 and 4 were filled with polyester sponges. The experimental biofilters (lines 1 and 2) were planted with Duranta erecta, and the control biofilters (lines 3 and 4) were unplanted. This experiment was operated at hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 1, 3, 5, and 7 days which were conducted sequentially. Results indicated that the planted biofilters in gravel media removed nutrients better than the other planted biofilters in sponge media. Better removal efficiencies of 55 and 47% for total nitrogen (TN) and of 32 and 26% for total phosphorus (TP) removal by planted and control lines, respectively, were obtained at 7 days HRT. At the end of the experiment, TN and TP accumulation in the plant biomass sample increased from 132 to 216 g TN/Kg of dry weight, and from 53to 86 g TP/Kg of dry weight, respectively at 7 days HRT. Hence, it can be concluded that nature-based hydroponic filters planted with Duranta erecta might have a promising potential, mainly with gravel media. HCFS represents a very welcome technology to treat domestic wastewater at a decentralized level in developing countries, including Ethiopia.
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This study investigates the feasibility of utilizing saline water as a nutrient solution in hydroponic systems to grow salt-tolerant plants. We evaluate crop production, nutrient uptake, and plant growth using a range of hydroponic techniques, such as aeroponics, deep water culture, and nutrient film, in comparison to conventional soil-based procedures. While examining the effects of different salinity levels on plant physiology, the study focuses on optimizing important characteristics in the hydroponic solution, such as pH, electrical conductivity, and nutrient concentration. According to preliminary research, some salt-tolerant plant species grow and adapt better in hydroponic systems, which presents a viable method for saline-tolerant sustainable agriculture. This study adds important knowledge for creating effective and sustainable solutions to problems with food production in areas where soil salinity is a problem.
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This review article conducts an in-depth analysis of the role of next-generation technologies in soilless vegetable production, highlighting their groundbreaking potential to revolutionize yield, efficiency, and sustainability. These technologies, such as AI-driven monitoring systems and precision farming methods, offer unparalleled accuracy in monitoring critical variables such as nutrient concentrations and pH levels. However, the paper also addresses the multifaceted challenges that hinder the widespread adoption of these technologies. The high initial investment costs pose a significant barrier, particularly for small-and medium-scale farmers, thereby risking the creation of a technological divide in the industry. Additionally, the technical complexity of these systems demands specialized expertise, potentially exacerbating knowledge gaps among farmers. Other considerations are scrutinized, including data privacy concerns and potential job displacement due to automation. Regulatory challenges, such as international trade regulations and policy frameworks, are discussed, as they may need revision to accommodate these new technologies. The paper concludes by emphasizing that while these sustainable technologies offer transformative benefits, their potential for broad adoption is constrained by a complex interplay of financial, technical, regulatory, and social factors.
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Background. The development of the times brings a number of changes in life. UMKM or Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises have a central function to bring changes in improving the economy of a country. UMKM are also referred to as businesses that are able to survive in crisis conditions. UMKM are usually more elastic, flexible, and adaptive so that capital becomes the beginning in working on their business. Purpose. This study aims to determine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats affecting the Kudus Hydrofarm Farming Nature. Method. The method used in this research is qualitative. The data used in this research is primary data by conducting interviews and observations at UMKM Alam Tani Hidrofarm Kudus. Results. The results of this study indicate that the strengths of Alam Tani Hidrofarm Kudus are reducing dependence on large agricultural land, good quality products, appropriate market segmentation. The weaknesses include the unstable availability of hydroponic lettuce to fulfil the demand for vegetables, the lack of variety of vegetable products, and the risk of technical failures in the hydroponic system that can disrupt production. Conclusion. The conclusion of this study is that Alam Tani Hydrofarm UMKM in Kudus has a SWOT analysis that identifies the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats faced by their business. From this analysis, UMKM have several alternative strategies that can be implemented to optimise their potential. By implementing appropriate strategies, UMKM are expected to overcome the challenges faced, capitalise on existing opportunities, and contribute to the growth of a sustainable agriculture sector as well as the overall economy.
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This paper presents the design and construction of a hydroponics monitoring system that can collect parameters of hydroponic systems, such as temperature, water limit, pH level, and nutrient levels. The monitoring system was developed using an ESP32 microcontroller and several sensors, including total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, water level, and temperature sensors. The ESP32 microcontroller gathers and processes data from the sensors to automatically activate the water or salt pump and drain the necessary materials into the hydroponic system's plant basin. The user can then view the hydroponic parameters through the Blynk application on a smartphone. The user can also activate the pumps for water, nutrients, or salt using the application's interface on a smartphone, or the ESP32 microcontroller can activate them automatically if the parameter values deviate from the required values. The monitoring hydroponics system and IoT interface were successfully built and implemented. The experiments were compiled, and the data gathered and discussed. • An ESP32 microcontroller with TDS, pH, water level, and temperature sensors was used to build the hydroponic monitoring system. • The ESP32 automatically collects and evaluates sensor data in order to drain water nutrients, or salt into the plant basin of the hydroponic system as necessary. • The user can also check the parameters of the hydroponic system and, if necessary, run the pumps for water, fertilizers, or salt using his smartphone through the Blynk IoT app.
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Aquaponics is a food production technique that may be applied in the context of urban agriculture to help achieve food security and promote sustainable agriculture and production patterns, among other Sustainable Development Goals. Brazilian population is large and highly concentrated in urban areas and might benefit from this technique. Similar to any other production activity, aquaponic systems generate wastes that must be properly managed, but until now no study focused on waste generated on such systems or on management practices adopted by Brazilian producers; the goal of this article was to address both of these gaps. A systematic review identified waste streams generated on aquaponics, while management practices were seldom mentioned and addressed. A survey on producers located in 17 of the 27 Brazilian federal units helped confirm sludge, packaging waste, dead fish and unusable plant fractions as typical waste streams. It also identified a lack of concern for a more in-depth assessment of such streams to improve management practices, which tended to gravitate toward adequate and inadequate disposal. Finally, the article proposes management practices for each waste stream, drawing from strategies foreseen in Brazilian National Solid Waste Policy.
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A healthy and safe diet today is increasingly threatened by climate change and economic crises; the rapid growth of the world population and urbanization will lead to an increase in global food needs and highly complex supply chains. Plant factories with artificial lighting (PFAL) give optimal answers to these critical issues, according to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, as opposed to conventional agricultural production systems which have reduced the availability of land per capita, generating negative environmental impacts. This work aims to provide a holistic assessment of the PFAL production processes, for efficient use of resources, according to the food-energy-water nexus. The productive yields of the cultivated plant species, the soilless cultivation technologies and fertigation systems, the thermo-hygrometric conditions, the CO2 level and the artificial lighting conditions are defined, as well as energy sources and automation for production management. PFALs can be implemented in abandoned urban buildings, with a sustainable approach and a view to zero agricultural land consumption, to zero-mile food production and to the circular economy. The analysis shows that many PFALs are installed in countries with high density of urban populations, such as China, the USA, Japan and Northern Europe, to produce mainly herbs and leafy vegetables. Finally, a proposal for the reuse of abandoned industrial and tertiary sector buildings in Mediterranean peri-urban sites for sustainable urban farming is provided.KeywordsFood-energy-water nexusSoilless culture systemsLeafy vegetablesArtificial intelligenceUrban agriculture
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Global food production faces great challenges in the future. With a future world population of 9.6 billion by 2050, rising urbanization, decreasing arable land, and weather extremes due to climate change, global agriculture is under pressure. While today over 50 % of the world population live in cities, by 2030, the number will rise to 70 %. In addition, global emissions have to be kept in mind. Currently, agriculture accounts for around 20–30 % of global greenhouse gas emissions. Shifting food production to locations with high demands reduces emissions and mitigates climate change. Urban horticulture increases global food production by exploiting new locations for cultivation. However, higher land prices and urban pollution constrain urban horticulture. In this paper, we review different urban cultivation systems throughout the world. Our main findings from ecological, economical, and social aspects are: (1) Urban horticulture activities are increasing globally with at least 100 million people involved worldwide. With potential yields of up to 50 kg per m2 per year and more, vegetable production is the most significant component of urban food production which contributes to global food security. (2) Organoponic and other low-input systems will continue to play an important role for a sustainable and secure food production in the future. (3) Despite the resource efficiency of indoor farming systems, they are still very expensive. (4) Integrating urban horticulture into educational and social programs improves nutrition and food security. Overlaying these, new technologies in horticultural research need to be adopted for urban horticulture to increase future efficiency and productivity. To enhance sustainability, urban horticulture has to be integrated into the urban planning process and supported through policies. However, future food production should not be “local at any price,” but rather committed to increase sustainability.
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Global patterns of cannabis cultivation have followed a fascinating development, from highly concentrated production in certain developing countries to decentralized production in almost every country around the world (UNODC, 2014). Historically, the spread of cannabis cultivation across the globe reflected the industrial utility of hemp; the widespread use of cannabis as a recreational drug did not appear until much later (Abel, 1980 and Booth, 2003). It is with the emergence of modern patterns of cannabis use in the developed world that we have seen major changes in patterns of cannabis production. As demand for cannabis increased globally, fuelled by the developments of the “counter-culture” of the 1960s and 1970s, so cultivation in the developing world began to take on new dimensions. Firstly, cultivation increased in many traditional growing regions as exportation to the consumer markets of the industrialized world became an attractive option. Secondly, in response to global demand, countries such as Morocco and Mexico became large-scale producers of cannabis and major suppliers to, respectively, European and American consumers, despite not having the traditions of cannabis cultivation found in Asia, the Middle-East or the Caribbean (Gooberman, 1974, UNODC, 2003, UNODC, 2005 and Moreno, 1997). A third phase in the evolution of cannabis production has been the increase in cultivation across the industrialised world. From Europe to the Americas and Oceania, import substitution in the cannabis market has been noticed in almost every developed country (UNODC, 2014 and Decorte et al., 2011). Although some small-scale cultivation probably has almost as long a history as cannabis use in the west, widespread small-scale cultivation and larger-scale commercial production only begins to appear towards the end of the twentieth century. In some countries the levels of domestic cultivation have reached the stage where self-sufficiency in cannabis markets has largely been attained (Leggett, 2006, Bouchard, 2008 and Jansen, 2002).
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The use of untreated or partially treated wastewater for crops irrigation is common practice worldwide, espe- cially in countries that face hydric limitations such as Mexico and South Africa. Both are countries denominated new world producers of wine and its economic importance in both regions is evident. Recent droughts in both countries have made it imperative to look for new sources of water for irrigation purposes in order to maintain agricultural production. It was found that there are no scienti c or legal obstacles to implementing vineyard irrigation with reclaimed water. In particular, Mexico has de nite plans to use reclaimed water in its Guadalupe Valley at a owrate of 1000 litres per second, thus with the potential of becoming the largest place worldwide to use reclaimed water for the vineyards irrigation. South Africa, has faced recent severe water droughts that also call for unconventional sources of water for irrigation but as yet has no concrete plans despite having a reg- ulatory framework that promotes water reuse. More emphasis on wastewater irrigation during national resource planning, and inclusion of wastewater as a resource when undertaking water planning could reap rewards in terms of job creation, rural development and economic security in both countries.
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Purpose Nowadays, hydroponic cultivation represents a widely used agricultural methodology. The purpose of this paper is to study comparatively on hydroponic substrates. This study is highlighting the best substrate to be involved in hydroponic systems, considering its costs and its sustainability. Design/methodology/approach Seven substrates were evaluated: rock wool, perlite, vermiculite, peat, coconut fibres, bark and sand. Life cycle assessment (life cycle inventory, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) and life cycle costing (LCC)) was applied to evaluate the environmental and economic impact. Through the results of the impacts, the carbon footprint of each substrate was calculated. Findings Perlite is the most impacting substrate, as highlighted by LCIA, followed by rock wool and vermiculite. The most sustainable ones, instead, are sand and bark. Sand has the lower carbon footprint (0.0121 kg CO2 eq.); instead, bark carbon footprint results in one of the highest (1.1197 kg CO2 eq.), while in the total impact analysis this substrate seems to be highly sustainable. Also for perlite the two results are in disagreement: it has a high total impact but very low carbon footprint (0.0209 kg CO2 eq.) compared to the other substrates. From the LCC analysis it appears that peat is the most expensive substrate (€6.67/1,000 cm³), while sand is the cheaper one (€0.26/1,000 cm³). Originality/value The LCA and carbon footprint methodologies were applied to a growing agriculture practice. This study has highlighted the economic and environmental sustainability of seven substrates examined. This analysis has shown that sand can be the best substrate to be involved in hydroponic systems by considering its costs and its sustainability.
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Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) is an emerging form of farming increasingly found in cities worldwide. Advocates promote CEA as the future of food production, arguing for its potential to address challenges ranging from climate change to food insecurity. Detractors state that CEA’s narrow focus on high-end produce, along with its intensive capital and energy needs, limit its meaningful contribution to the urban food system. Over the last seven years, New York City has become an epicenter for urban CEA, offering planners an in-situ setting in which to evaluate its impact. The following case study examines the current state of CEA in New York City, its composition, requirements, and future. The authors identify CEA’s relative contributions, which include providing a small number of green-sector jobs and increasing access to produce in low-income communities. In parallel, they question if CEA provides sufficient benefits to warrant public-sector support. Recommendations for cities considering CEA include critically analyzing its purported benefits; evaluating the environmental, economic and social potential of projects located on publicly-owned rooftops and land; and focusing incentives on nonprofit and institutional production that show clear community benefits.
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The rapidly increasing demand for agricultural food needs coupled with rising energy costs marked challenges for ensuring food bigger than any previous period. Therefore, greenhouses agriculture is a main focus for farmers, engineers and greenhouses designers in view of ways of improvement that provides. Compared to the conventional greenhouses, hydroponics warrant better quality, greater nutrient content, higher yield, efficient water and fertilizer use, but also more energy requirements. A new Hydroponic Greenhouse was designed and installed in the Research and Technology Center of Energy in Tunisia. A Solar Air Heater with Latent thermal storage using Phase Change Material was also realized for the hydroponic greenhouse heating taking into account the thermal heat loads of the specific application. In this work, the microclimate of the Hydroponic Greenhouse without heating was pursued to evaluate the performance of the hydroponic design. Hydroponic greenhouse allowed better environment than conventional greenhouses. During daytime, the new greenhouse temperature exceeded 18 °C and the difference between the inside and the outside reached mostly 6 °C. The relative humidity ranged between 20 and 35% the day and 70–85% at night. Several measurements were also carried out after the heating to pursue the Solar Air Heater contribution. The temperature of the hydroponic greenhouse during nighttime after the heating raised by 6 °C and the nocturnal temperature was mainly over 15 °C. The diurnal temperature of the Heated Hydroponic Greenhouse was generally higher than 32 °C. Compared to conventional solar heating, the two packed beds of latent storage energy improved the indoor greenhouse environment especially during harsh and nocturnal periods.
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In arid and semi-arid areas the use of treated wastewater for crop irrigation and other agricultural practices, such as the use of pesticides, increase the number of emerging contaminants (ECs) in crops. Hazards of these practices to human being are largely unknown since there are few studies yet covering a short range of compounds and most of them under non-realistic conditions. This study aims at assessing this problem that will become global soon in an area of Saudi Arabia heavily affected by the reuse of treated wastewater and pesticide in order to ascertain its scale. The novelty of the study relays in the large number of ECs covered and the variety of crops (cabbage, barley, green beans, eggplants, chili, tomato and zucchini) analysed. Extraction procedure developed provided an appropriate extraction yield (up to 50% of the compounds were recovered within a 70–120% range), with good repeatability (relative standard deviations below 20% in most cases) and sensitivity (LOQ < 25 ng g⁻¹) for the model compounds. Determination by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight (LC-QqTOF-MS) is able to identify >2000 contaminants. Sixty-four ECs were identified in wastewater but of the sixty-four compounds, six pharmaceuticals (atenolol, caffeine, carbamazepine and its metabolites 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine, gemfibrozil, and naproxen) and seven pesticides (acetamiprid, atrazine deethyl, azoxystrobin, bupirimate, diazinon, malathion, pirimicarb and some of their metabolites) were detected in plants. Furhermore, one metabolite of the ibuprofen (not detected in water or soil), the ibuprofen hexoside was also found in plants. Up to our knowledge, this study demonstrate for the first time the accumulation of ECs in crops irrigated with treated wastewater under real non-controlled environmental conditions.
Article
Due to current water shortages, the use of water from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for horticultural crop irrigation is becoming increasingly common. This practice implies the risk of introducing pharmaceutical compounds into the food chain. The main aim of this work was to study the accumulation of two drugs in lettuces and their subsequent transfer into the food chain. The study focused on two widely used drugs, the anticonvulsant carbamazepine (CBZ) and the anti-inflammatory diclofenac (DCF), with different physicochemical properties in terms of their hydrophobicity and solubility in water. Three varieties of lettuce were selected and irrigated with water containing a mixture of the two pharmaceutical compounds at different concentrations. The results show the leaves presented the highest levels of uptake and greatest bioconcentration factors in the case of CBZ; however, in the case of DCF, by contrast, the highest uptake levels and greatest bioconcentration factors were observed in the roots. For CBZ, the Cleaf/Croot ratio was greater than 1, indicating good root-to-leaf drug translocation, whereas all Cleaf/Croot ratios were less than 1 for DCF. From the data acquired, our evaluation suggests that the concentrations of CBZ and DCF detected in the edible part of the lettuces do not imply any risk to human health.
Article
Hydroponic type advanced wastewater treatment system, which consists of a water channel packed with porous concrete and hydroponic type cultivation tanks (HTCT). was developed and its applicability to advanced treatment of secondary effluent and polluted river and drain water was experimentally studied. Porous concrete (PC) provided enough interfacial area for reaeration and enough space for attached microbial growth and improved treatment capability of water channel tremendously. It was revealed that TOC could be removed efficiently under TOC loading rate of 80 mg-TOC/L-day. Owing to the high sludge entrapment capacity of PC, the observed sludge yield (Yobs) decreased to 0.25-0.33 g-MLSS/g-TOC. Crop yield of pak-bung plant during continuous treatment of effluent from water channel was proved experimentally to be 1.18 kg fresh weight/m2 ·month. Hydroponic cultivation of midi-tomato was succeeded by using the effluent from the water channel with low nutrient concentration which indicated that this advanced wastewater treatment process has a high applicational potential for direct purification of polluted river and drain water.
Article
Fresh water resources are diminishing rapidly through increased inadequately treated or untreated wastewater disposal in water bodies. Disposal of untreated wastewater in freshwater bodies threatens the environment, aquatic and human life. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the removal of contaminants using a simple cost effective hydroponic system in the treatment of raw wastewater to allowable discharge limits. After macrophytes were planted and water circulated in the hydroponic system the influent and effluent samples were collected at various time intervals between 24 and 244 h for the period of 3 months at varying concentrations. Ammonia, nitrite, nitrate and total phosphorus were measured using spectrophotometric methods and membrane filtration technique was used for faecal coliform counts. The removal of ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, total phosphorus and faecal coliforms reached 87%, 96%, 99%, 87% and 92% respectively. The paired t-test indicated the removal of these contaminants to be statistically significant (0.019 ≥ p ≥ 0.001). Irrespective of the change in wastewater composition the system efficiently treated water to allowable discharge limits. The system proved to be a cheaper method of wastewater treatment and its applications may offer an alternative to the problems of wastewater treatment in areas where modern systems are either unavailable or cost ineffective.
Article
To implement tariffs and regulations on sanitation and wastewater treatment, as well as for disposal or reuse of treated effluents, it is necessary to know the treatment technologies, which one would be best adapted to the present circumstances of any site and finally if the treated wastewater can be disposed of, legally or reused complying the rules and regulations, in a safe way. Wastewater treatment has been evolving at different pace along the history, according to the increasing concentration of people in towns and cities. With the increasing pressures on water resources, concerns on how to find new resources capable to help reaching equilibrium within demand and offer arise. In this context, one of the main possibilities to cope with water scarcity is wastewater reclamation and reuse. The main features of wastewater treatment and several of the characteristics of reclamation and reuse are developed in this chapter.