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Abstract

Water is the primary input for crop production and increasingly becomes scarce due to its high demand in agricultural sector. Quality of water is assuming great importance with the increasing demand in industries, agriculture and rise in standard of living. Agriculture is the major user (89%) of India's water resources. However, dwindling of freshwater resources and deterioration of irrigation water quality due to its overuse to meet up the high demands in agriculture sector becomes the serious concern in sustainable crop production. Clay pot irrigation in its simplest form consists of unglazed baked clay pots, which are buried up to the neck in the soil and filled with water. This method is one of the most efficient systems of irrigation known and is ideal for many small farmers. Clay pot irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation alternative to drip method is the latest advancement and effective innovation of localized methods of irrigation and found suitable where water scarcity becomes major stress for crop production. It also helps to improve soil physical properties particularly the structural status in soil and also enhances the water use efficiency of the crop, soil organic carbon and builds up soil fertility.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: E-mail: rahul.adhikary@cutm.ac.in;
Asian Plant Research Journal
5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
ISSN: 2581-9992
Clay Pot Irrigation- A Review Study
Rahul Adhikary
1*
and Arunabha Pal
1
1
Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Author RA designed the study, wrote
the first draft of the manuscript and managed the other parts of the study. Author AP managed the
literature searches. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/APRJ/2020/v5i130099
Editor(s):
(1)
Dr. Msafiri Yusuph Mkonda, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania.
Reviewers:
(1) Nitin Mishra, Graphic Era University, India.
(2)
Fadhil AL-Mohammed, Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University, Iraq.
Complete Peer review History:
http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/57137
Received 26 March 2020
Accepted 04 June 2020
Published 17 June 2020
ABSTRACT
Water is the primary input for crop production and increasingly becomes scarce due to its high
demand in agricultural sector. Quality of water is assuming great importance with the increasing
demand in industries, agriculture and rise in standard of living. Agriculture is the major user (89%) of
India’s water resources. However, dwindling of freshwater resources and deterioration of irrigation
water quality due to its overuse to meet up the high demands in agriculture sector becomes the
serious concern in sustainable crop production. Clay pot irrigation in its simplest form consists of
unglazed baked clay pots, which are buried up to the neck in the soil and filled with water. This
method is one of the most efficient systems of irrigation known and is ideal for many small farmers.
Clay pot irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation alternative to drip method is the latest
advancement and effective innovation of localized methods of irrigation and found suitable where
water scarcity becomes major stress for crop production. It also helps to improve soil physical
properties particularly the structural status in soil and also enhances the water use efficiency of the
crop, soil organic carbon and builds up soil fertility.
Keywords: Clay pot; irrigation; soil properties.
1. INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is the most important input for growing
crops that require high water supply in
agriculture. Clay pot irrigation, a traditional
system of irrigation alternative to drip method is
the latest advancement and effective
innovation of localized methods of irrigation and
Review Article
Fig
. 1. Schematic diagram of buried clay pot (Setiawan, 1998)
found
suitable where water scarcity becomes
major stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation
is a self-
regulative, low cost and eco
technique of irrigation having a high potential of
energy saving, water saving and very much
efficiency in orchard planting [1]
. In this method,
unglazed backed earthen pitchers buried up to
neck into the soil, filled with water which slowly
seeps out through their pores wall into the root
zone by the action of static and soil suction
pressure. The seepage rate is direct
proportional to the pitchers’ conductance and
potential evapo-
transpiration of crops and is
controlled by the moisture content in the soil
matrix or its environments, namely the soil,
climate and plan
ts and the pitcher
efficiency of irrigation
depends on many factors
including soil type, plant species, soil structure
and soil fertility, weed competition, and site
microclimate. Only a few scientific studies are
available on pitcher irrigation relating to various
controlling factors. There is stil
sufficient understanding of the system, which is
necessary for evolving design criteria. Because
of this studies have been conducted by the
authors on the rate of water flow through buried
pitchers under different climatic conditions. The
first
step is obtaining or making suitable clay
pots. The size of buried clay pot will depend on
the type of crop, the density of planting, and the
time desired between refills. Five to ten liter (5
ltr) sizes are a convenient size for field purposes.
Larger
pots may be more suitable for trees or for
long refill intervals. The hole can be sealed with
silicone caulk, a rubber cork, or a wood plug. It is
easiest to use caulk, simply put some masking
tape over
the outside bottom of the pot
turn the pot
over and use a caulking gun to fill the
hole (Fig
. 1). Let dry for two days, then use. One
pitcher (10 liter capacity) was surrounded by 4
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020
; Article no.
38
. 1. Schematic diagram of buried clay pot (Setiawan, 1998)
suitable where water scarcity becomes
major stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation
regulative, low cost and eco
-friendly
technique of irrigation having a high potential of
energy saving, water saving and very much
. In this method,
unglazed backed earthen pitchers buried up to
neck into the soil, filled with water which slowly
seeps out through their pores wall into the root
zone by the action of static and soil suction
pressure. The seepage rate is direct
ly
proportional to the pitchers’ conductance and
transpiration of crops and is
controlled by the moisture content in the soil
matrix or its environments, namely the soil,
ts and the pitcher
[2]. The
depends on many factors
including soil type, plant species, soil structure
and soil fertility, weed competition, and site
microclimate. Only a few scientific studies are
available on pitcher irrigation relating to various
controlling factors. There is stil
l a lack of
sufficient understanding of the system, which is
necessary for evolving design criteria. Because
of this studies have been conducted by the
authors on the rate of water flow through buried
pitchers under different climatic conditions. The
step is obtaining or making suitable clay
pots. The size of buried clay pot will depend on
the type of crop, the density of planting, and the
time desired between refills. Five to ten liter (5
-10
ltr) sizes are a convenient size for field purposes.
pots may be more suitable for trees or for
long refill intervals. The hole can be sealed with
silicone caulk, a rubber cork, or a wood plug. It is
easiest to use caulk, simply put some masking
the outside bottom of the pot
[3]. Then
over and use a caulking gun to fill the
. 1). Let dry for two days, then use. One
pitcher (10 liter capacity) was surrounded by 4
plants. The soil surface was covered with plastic
mulches to prevent evaporation. Water and
fertilizers were given
through the water supplier.
The only irrigation operation was to open or close
the main water tap at the
water supplier
Root of the plants was accumulating in the region
and tended to intensify as closer to the body of
the pitcher. In morning, lea
ves of the plants were
seen very fresh but as coming to afternoon they
changed as usually indicated when evapo
transpiration was higher than the rate of the
water being consumed.
2. PITCHER IRRIGATION: AN OVERVIEW
Quality of water is assuming great impor
with the increasing demand in industries,
agriculture and rise in standard of living.
Agriculture is the major user (89%) of India’s
water resources. Indiscriminate use of saline
irrigation water in absence of proper
management of water – crop-
soil
risk of endangering the development of salt
effected soils accompanied by serious crop
damage. Saline water is to be irrigated in such
amount and quality that it meets the evapo
transpiration demands of the crop minimizes root
zone salinity a
nd selecting suitable crop and
varieties tolerant to water and salinity stress
Pitcher irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation
alternative to drip method is the latest
advancement and effective innovation of
localized methods of irrigation and
suitable where water scarcity becomes major
stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation in
(Fig
. 2) in its simplest form consists of unglazed
baked clay pots, which are buried up to the neck
in the soil and filled with water [6].
In the alternative, under such circumstances,
some dryland countries have adopted certain
; Article no.
APRJ.57137
plants. The soil surface was covered with plastic
mulches to prevent evaporation. Water and
through the water supplier.
The only irrigation operation was to open or close
water supplier
[4]. The
Root of the plants was accumulating in the region
and tended to intensify as closer to the body of
ves of the plants were
seen very fresh but as coming to afternoon they
changed as usually indicated when evapo
-
transpiration was higher than the rate of the
2. PITCHER IRRIGATION: AN OVERVIEW
Quality of water is assuming great impor
tance
with the increasing demand in industries,
agriculture and rise in standard of living.
Agriculture is the major user (89%) of India’s
water resources. Indiscriminate use of saline
irrigation water in absence of proper
soil
poses a grave
risk of endangering the development of salt
effected soils accompanied by serious crop
damage. Saline water is to be irrigated in such
amount and quality that it meets the evapo
-
transpiration demands of the crop minimizes root
nd selecting suitable crop and
varieties tolerant to water and salinity stress
[5].
Pitcher irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation
alternative to drip method is the latest
advancement and effective innovation of
localized methods of irrigation and
is found
suitable where water scarcity becomes major
stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation in
. 2) in its simplest form consists of unglazed
baked clay pots, which are buried up to the neck
In the alternative, under such circumstances,
some dryland countries have adopted certain
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
39
water-saving technologies like drip and sprinkler
systems to irrigate their crops so that their
scarcely available water resources will not be
deleted. Here again, although such irrigation
methods are known to save about half of the
water presently used for surface or furrow
irrigation, their technical, economical (high
investment and operational costs), and socio-
cultural factors have remained a serious
hindrance from adoption, especially by small-
scale farmers [7]. The use of such techniques
has thus been limited to commercial farms and to
those areas with relatively plain landscapes or
topographies that are relatively located in closer
proximity to water points. As such, the large
majority of smallholder farmers in those areas
are still by and large deprived of irrigated farming
and so much exposed to food and nutrition
insecurity.
Fig. 2. Buried clay pot with crops
Conservation and use of water are very
important, especially for farmers in developing
countries like India where water is often a major
limiting aspect of agricultural production and
development. To take benefit of the prospective
year-around growing seasons of the tropics and
the resulting increased production, well-
developed irrigation systems are often essential.
A reliable supply of water is critical to intensive
for crop production. When the farmer has an
irrigation system, even though he may seem to
have an unlimited amount of water, it should be
used with care. Too much water, besides being a
waste of energy and water will leach down
through the soil and carry nutrients out of the
reach of the roots of plants. Water run-off on that
soil which absorbs water slowly will also wash
away topsoil and nutrients.
In India, a water resource is reducing slowly and
continues increased pressure due to uncertain
rainfall, a rising population, old and ineffective
irrigation techniques, and dependence on water-
intensive crop varieties. To get maximum crop
productivity from each drop of water is observed
as vital for the sustainability of the agriculture
sector and food security. But achieving this goal
will be difficult unless farmers switch to new
methods such as pitcher and drip irrigation. State
like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh receives sparse
and erratic rainfall, per year average rainfall is
also less, with the temperature hovering above
49 degrees centigrade from May to July. In this
harsh climate, which could become even more
extreme as the planet warms, villagers have had
no access to canal water, ruling out crop
cultivation in the past. Pitcher irrigation has made
agriculture potential; helping in a new era for
local farmers. The clay pot irrigation system is
one of the most efficient systems of irrigation
known and is ideal for many small scale farmers
[8,9]. Pitcher irrigation is an ancient technique
that has been practiced in many parts of the arid
world including India, Iran, African and South
American countries [10]. Developed countries
advanced micro-irrigation techniques such as
sprinkler and drip irrigation are used
progressively; many farmers in developing
countries are unwilling to adopt these methods
due to their high early cost of installation and
costly maintenance. Traditional irrigation
methods such as subsurface pitcher and porous
clay pipe irrigation [11,12,13] are often preferred
by poor farmers in small scale irrigation projects
because of their low cost and high irrigation
efficiency [14].
The clay pot irrigation technology is a
conservation irrigation system, which saves
between 50% and 70% of water when compared
to conventional watering can irrigation system
[15]. The clay pot system is therefore important
when water conservation is crucial [16]. The
buried clay pot irrigation maintains stable soil
moisture, enables crops to grow in both soil or
saline soils and is suitable for using saline waters
not applicable with conventional irrigation [10].
By using this pitcher irrigation system and
unusual water, the salt accumulates in the
surface of the soil and the moisture in the soil
around the roots, the concentration of salts in the
soil around the roots is reduced [17].
Clay pot pores allow the water to spread into the
soil and making the availability of moisture for
crop growth. Water filled on the pot by weekly
checkup and when required, thus maintaining a
continuous supply of water to the plants. While
burying the pitcher in the soil, farmers should
take care to see that the neck region of the pot is
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
40
positioned in such a manner that rainwater runoff
does not enter into the pitcher. Otherwise, small
sand particles will block the pores of the pitcher.
The main advantage of the wick which is
attached at the bottom of the pot is to increase
the water penetration into the soil and to deliver
the water directly to the plant roots. The rate of
water seepage from a pitcher depends on the
type of plant and soil, and climatic conditions.
When water level in soil is increased and soil
becomes saturated water will soak back into the
pot, filling it again. The system is self-regulating
and water losses are negligible.
The number of clay pot required per hectare
differs with the sort of crop. Creeping vegetables
like cucumber, okra, eggplant, and bitter gourd
need 2,000 to 2,500 pitchers per hectare,
whereas upright and canopy crops like beans,
tomatoes, leeks, and melons, need up to 4,000
to 5,000 pots per hectare. The amount of water
seepage from a pitcher depends on the age of
plant and soil, and climate. Once the
encompassing soil becomes saturated, water will
soak back to the pot, filling it again this method of
irrigation is ideal for sandy to loamy soil with
good porosity. For small farmers, the system
costs around Rs. 4,500 (nearly $48) per acre –
about 80 percent cheaper than drip and sprinkler
irrigation. The yield per acre is around 60 percent
higher than with furrow and flood irrigation, which
many farmers continue to use. A farmer can save
90 percent of water as compared to flood
irrigation. Fertilizers can also be mixed along with
the water and poured into the pot. Weed growth
is very minimal because water delivery is limited
to the roots. Many farmers in the coastal districts
are following this method.
2.1 Advantages of Pitcher Irrigation
Pitcher irrigation is still used on a limited basis
in the dry-lands of India.
It has been successfully used for a wide
range of annual and perennial plants including
many vegetables and fruits.
It is especially useful in difficult conditions of
high salinity, extreme aridity, limited water
supply and limited resources.
The water use efficiency of irrigation systems
depends on many factors including soil type,
crop type, weed competition and
microclimate.
The experimental test has been suggested of
pitcher irrigation may use as little as 10% of
the water used in conventional surface
irrigation.
Pitcher irrigation facilitated rapid
establishment and faster growth of plants.
3. EFFECT OF CLAY POT IRRIGATION
ON CROPS AND SOIL
Bhingardeve [18] studied the influence of saline,
canal water and N-fertilizer level through pitcher
irrigation on pH, EC of soil and plant height at
different growth stages of brinjal and observed
that pH and EC of soil increased in both depths
of soil (0-15 and 15-30 cm) at harvesting stage of
plant for saline and canal water treatments.
Regarding fertility levels, 100% recommended
dose of urea (150 kg urea ha-1) level recorded
the highest values of pH and EC of soil. Similar
experiment was conducted with pumpkin (C.
moschata) involving three methods of irrigation
(drip irrigation by a direct pitcher, drip irrigation
by pipe from pitcher and basin system of
irrigation) [19]. The direct pitcher method
recorded significantly higher values for vine
length, a number of nodes per vine, stem girth
and significantly lower values for inter node
length compared to the other two methods of
irrigation at all stages of plant growth. Pachpute
[20] also concluded that the increase in total yield
due to a package of water management
practices including pitcher irrigation method is
203 percent and water use efficiency obtained is
12.06 kg m-
3
. than 30 cm and 40 cm,
respectively for both tested soils. The
surrounding soil moisture was in a range
available for plant growth. Different depths of
pitcher placement in the soil produced different
reaching distances of the wetting front but
showed insignificant differences in water
availability. Researcher described the salt
tolerance of five cultivars of Capsicum annuum L
and the variety NMCA 10652 had the highest
survival percentage at 100% in the 4.1 dS m-1
treatment, followed by ‘Early Jalapeno’, ‘Nu-Mex
Sweet’, Pimienta De Chiera’, ‘Santa Fe Grande’,
‘Golden Treasure’, and ‘Nu-Mex Joe E [21].
Scientist found that the highest dry chili yields of
8.12 and 20.78 q ha-
1
were obtained from non-
saline canal water followed by two applications of
non-saline water alternating with one saline
water with 7.30 and 20.38 q ha-
1
respectively
[22]. Saline (well) water irrigated plants yielded
3.99 and 11.72 q ha-
1
respectively, which
represented yield reductions of 50.8% and
43.6%, respectively as compared with non-
saline. The effect of saline water and fertigation
on the yield contributing parameters of brinjal
and found that the highest dry matter
accumulation in plant and fruit (112.66 g and
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
41
87.4 g, respectively) was obtained under best
available canal water. The dry matter
accumulation with saline water under different
fertilizer levels i.e. 100, 75 and 50%
recommended urea applied through drip
irrigation was 103.72, 101.66 and 86.38 g plant-1
respectively [23]. Similar results showed the
infiltration rates decreased linearly rather than
exponentially even though the soil was initially
dry. The advancement of the wetting front was
very slow and somewhat limited to a radius and
depth of no more canal water only [24].
4. CONCLUSION
Effective irrigation, water controlling and its
suspicious use, by encouraging water-saving
irrigation techniques – such as clay pot, drip and
sprinkler irrigations will help sustain food-
production structures in our water-stressed
country. Clay pot irrigation as a substitute to drip
or sprinkler irrigation can be a feasible option for
water-scarce area mainly for farmers those are
looking to living out of their small holdings of
land. Irrigation water saving by clay pot irrigation
can be further enhanced by altering the porosity
of pots and hence, appropriate clay: sand
composition, wall thickness and firing
temperature for various vegetables should be
further investigated.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.
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_________________________________________________________________________________
© 2020 Adhikary and Pal; This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
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Peer-review history:
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/57137
... • Arid regions characterised by annual rainfall of less than 500 mm [43]; • Areas where access to sufficient water is a challenge due to scarcity or financial constraints [45]; • Areas characterized by uneven or sloping terrain, wherein levelling the soil for traditional irrigation methods is challenging, ensuring water distribution remains consistent and efficient [25]; • Regions with light or sandy soils that face moisture retention challenges, as clay pot irrigation conserves water by delivering it directly to a plant's roots [45]; • Situations where the available water supply is limited and cannot cover a wide area [44]; • Regions where the irrigation water is highly saline and unsuitable for crop growth [30,41,45]; • For the initial establishment of horticulture [25] (c) Advantages ...
... • Arid regions characterised by annual rainfall of less than 500 mm [43]; • Areas where access to sufficient water is a challenge due to scarcity or financial constraints [45]; • Areas characterized by uneven or sloping terrain, wherein levelling the soil for traditional irrigation methods is challenging, ensuring water distribution remains consistent and efficient [25]; • Regions with light or sandy soils that face moisture retention challenges, as clay pot irrigation conserves water by delivering it directly to a plant's roots [45]; • Situations where the available water supply is limited and cannot cover a wide area [44]; • Regions where the irrigation water is highly saline and unsuitable for crop growth [30,41,45]; • For the initial establishment of horticulture [25] (c) Advantages ...
... • Arid regions characterised by annual rainfall of less than 500 mm [43]; • Areas where access to sufficient water is a challenge due to scarcity or financial constraints [45]; • Areas characterized by uneven or sloping terrain, wherein levelling the soil for traditional irrigation methods is challenging, ensuring water distribution remains consistent and efficient [25]; • Regions with light or sandy soils that face moisture retention challenges, as clay pot irrigation conserves water by delivering it directly to a plant's roots [45]; • Situations where the available water supply is limited and cannot cover a wide area [44]; • Regions where the irrigation water is highly saline and unsuitable for crop growth [30,41,45]; • For the initial establishment of horticulture [25] (c) Advantages ...
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Arid and semi-arid areas are suffering from declines in fresh water availability, making food security in these regions strongly dependent on the adaptability of agricultural production to the minimum usage of irrigation water. In response to this critical need, efforts have been directed towards enhancing irrigation efficiency and exploring innovative clay-based subsurface irrigation systems. These systems use clay materials as porous emitters and operate on the principle of capillary water movement from the pottery to the root zone, effectively reducing water evaporation and demonstrating significant water-saving potential. This article presents the results of a systematic literature review, with a specific focus on identifying recent developments and innovations in clay-based subsurface irrigation technologies, describing cases of applicability and indicating directions for future research. This review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and involved the screening of 233 articles that were found through searches on the databases Web of Science and Science Direct combined with searches of Google Scholar and citation searches. As a result, 58 research articles were investigated. The webtool Rayyan was used for the screening of the articles and the synthesis of the results. The spectrum of clay-based irrigation systems identified in the investigated articles includes traditional methods such as clay pot and clay pipe irrigation as well as more recent advancements in the field such as Subsurface Irrigation with Ceramic Emitters (SICE), Self-regulating Low-Energy Clay-based Irrigation (SLECI), and Ceramic Patch Subsurface Drip Irrigation Line (CP-SDIL) and pottery dripper technologies. This paper offers a comprehensive analysis of each irrigation system, highlighting their main characteristics, advantages, and limitations. Particular attention is paid to the reported outcomes related to yield responses, water use efficiency, and suitability for various agricultural applications. This review indicates as a primary benefit of these systems their potential to allow water conservation, which is especially advantageous in regions with a restricted irrigation water supply. However, a major drawback is the challenge of scaling these systems effectively. Hence, the recommended areas for future research centre on the necessity of substantial economic assessments of and discussion on the potential social impact to promote the scalability of clay-based irrigation systems.
... The process of selecting an efficient irrigation technique has become important as water scarcity occurs during the dry season, specifically on marginal land. Irrigation provides and regulates water by using surface and groundwater in fulfilling agricultural interests (Adhikary & Pal, 2020). In contrast to other inputs such as pesticides, which play a limited role in the production process, water is very important in agriculture as it fulfills plants' needs (Ariyanto et al., 2019). ...
... The pottery pot irrigation method is an alternative to the drip method and advancement and effective innovation of localized irrigation methods. It has been shown to be suitable for crop production in areas of water scarcity (Adhikary & Pal, 2020). ...
... The basic concept underlying drip irrigation is to keep a bulb of moist soil, thus, roots can absorb water adequately (Wang et al., 2011). Clay pot irrigation can improve soil structure by enhancing the efficiency of plant water use and soil organic carbon and improving soil fertility (Adhikary & Pal, 2020). However, the pottery irrigation has various effects on the irrigated soil, and crop yield depends on the size of the pot. ...
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p>Investing in irrigation is very important and strategic in the context of water supply for agriculture. Therefore, this study aims to identify the most efficient irrigation technique and type of fertilizer to maximize the yield of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) in Alfisols. This study was a greenhouse pot experiment with a factorial completely randomized design with two factors consisting of four irrigation techniques (pottery, drip, 75% ETc manual, and 100% ETc manual) and types of fertilizers (without, organic, inorganic, mixed fertilizer). The results showed that pottery irrigation had the highest Nitrogen content in the soil and saved up to 50% water compared to 100% ETc. On the other hand, drip irrigation uses water of 75% ETc with similar plant yield results. The pottery irrigation was the most efficient irrigation method for growing tomato than 75% ETc manual irrigation, and 100% ETc manual irrigation with mixed fertilizers (I4P3) was the highest on tomato yield.</p
... Pitcher irrigation is generally used in vegetable crop like tomato and okra in Zimbabwe (Batchelor et al., 1997) [5] . Pitcher irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation is an alternative to drip method which is the latest advancement and effective innovation of localized methods of irrigation and found suitable where water scarcity becomes a major stress for crop production (Adhikary el al, 2020) [3] . Pitcher irrigation is a self-regulative, low cost and eco-friendly technique of irrigation having high potential of energy saving, water saving and very much efficient in orchard planting. ...
... Pitcher irrigation is a self-regulative, low cost and eco-friendly technique of irrigation having high potential of energy saving, water saving and very much efficient in orchard planting. In this method, unglazed backed earthen pitchers buried up to neck into the soil, filled with water which slowly seeps out through their pores wall into the root zone by the action of static and soil suction pressure (Adhikary and Pal 2020 and Thingujam et al., 2017) [3,18] . The seepage rate is directly proportional to the pitchers conductance and potential evapo-transpiration of crops and is controlled by the moisture content in the soil matrix or its environments, namely the soil, climate and plants and the pitcher (Mondal et al., 1992) [8] . ...
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Pitcher irrigation is a self-regulative, low cost and eco-friendly technique of irrigation having high potential of energy saving, water saving and very much efficient in vegetable and orchard planting. In order to assess the effectiveness of vegetable crop production by pitcher pot irrigation with mulching in different season and conserving water towards increasing of crop productivity in Red & Lateritic Zones of West Bengal. The experiment was conducted with five treatments combinations viz. T 1-Pitcher irrigation + live mulch (black gram),T 2-Pitcher irrigation + coco coir mulch,T 3-Pitcher pot irrigation + jute fibre mulch,T 4-Pitcher pot irrigation + babui grass mulch and T 5-Pitcher pot irrigation + no mulch (i.e. control). One pitcher pot placed between four plants and each pitcher pot having capacity of 10 litter's water. All mulching materials @ 5 ton /ha were spread on the soil after transplanting of vegetables seedling. The result reveals that the application of each of treatments increased yield of vegetables.
... Literature proved that these practices by farmers are in place, and they have been very helpful in sustaining harvest. There was also evidence of farmers using pots in irrigation of their crops, providing continuous supply of water to the plans while buried in the grounds (Hatungimana, et al., 2023;Adhikary and Pal, 2020). ...
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The research article sets out to unveil the challenge of preserving traditional design concepts within contemporary spaces. Its objectives are to examine how Acholi material culture items inspire functional and aesthetic concepts in modern interiors, explore methods to incorporate traditional pottery in contemporary spaces, and create prototype pots that integrate Acholi design elements. It sets out on the premise that blending traditional artefacts with modern interiors fosters cultural identity and pride among space owners and enhances visitors' appreciation. Its methodological considerations are qualitative, using a parallel prototyping design, with two potters and five culturally knowledgeable elders selected for insights. The research is theoretically informed by the concepts of cultural identity and preservation within modern aesthetics. Its key findings reveal that traditional material culture enriches product design, creates a sense of ownership, and fosters community pride, while also generating income for artisans. Furthermore, the use of traditional designs supports cultural continuity by exposing younger generations to their heritage. It recommends incorporating indigenous knowledge and practices to create spaces that are distinctive and culturally communicative, enhancing modern living while celebrating traditional values.
... Clay pots in this study were commonly found in different parts of the Eastern Cape and are commonly known as Nkgo in Sotho tribe (one of the ethnic groups in South Africa) in Matatiele and Ingqayi in Xhosa communities (an ethnic group in South Africa). The results of this study may suggest that clay pots are used for drinking water; however, similar studies discovered that clay pots have been used as a traditional system of irrigation alternative to drip method (Adhikary & Pal, 2020). Although this has been an efficient technology to keep drinking water fresh and cold for the indigenous communities, evidence from this study show that the technology is no longer used in parts of the King Sabata Dalindyebo Local Municipality. ...
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Water scarcity remains a major threat to most rural areas in Africa due to heavy reliance on rainfed agriculture. This prompts the need to document and understand the determinants of traditional knowledge of water conservation practices. Our aim here is to document and identify the determinants of people’s knowledge of traditional knowledge of water conservation in the South Africa’s Eastern Cape province. A mixed research method was used. Purposive approach was used to collect data, i.e., elderly people were targeted during the face-to-face pre-COVID-19 pandemic interviews on the basis that traditional knowledge increases with age. However, people of different age groups were also included in the study especially when we employed only online questionnaire during the pandemic. We used questionnaire to collect all the data, and 93 people responded in total to our questions. We documented 10 traditional water conservation technologies. We identified rainfall variation, water quality issues, and increased water demand as the major challenges linked to these technologies, while easy access and the amount of water harvested are reported as benefits of these technologies. We found that traditional knowledge is not influenced by age (β = −0.006 ± 0.01, P = 0.64) or gender (β = −0.16 ± 0.25, P = 0.64) but rather correlates positively with geographic location, irrespective of the starting point of the distance measurement (distance from Port Elizabeth city: β = 0.002 ± 0.0008, P = 0.004; distance from Ngqushwa village: β = 0.0024 ± 0.0009, P = 0.008). Counterintuitively, formally educated people tend to have more traditional knowledge, but this is likely linked to the modern technologies (online survey and social media platforms) used to collect data during the COVID-19 pandemic. We suggest that traditional knowledge that has sustained life for centuries in rural communities must be integrated into water resource management to address water scarcity issues in rural Africa.
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To meet the challenges of climate change and water scarcity, more efficient and affordable irrigation systems need to be developed. The objective of this study was to evaluate the quality of cowpea (Cajanus cajan) seed from agroforestry systems with and without irrigation. The work was carried out in Santarém, Pará, Brazil, evaluating variables related to the germination test, such as germination percentage, average germination time, germination speed index, germination speed coefficient and moisture percentage. The results showed that underground irrigation using clay pots had a positive effect on seed vigour and germination. On the other hand, storage time had a negative effect on seed viability. In conclusion, there are differences in seed vigour and germination influenced by irrigation during cultivation and storage time. The finding that subsurface irrigation by capillarity through clay pots influences germination potential and that storage time has a negative effect on seed viability, supports the need for optimised agricultural practices and conservation strategies that prolong the useful life of seeds and ensure production efficiency.
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Introduction Today, water security is one of the important limitations of development, especially in dry and desert areas. Because these areas not only have low rainfall, but also this low rainfall is not properly distributed. Despite the increase in irrigation efficiency in some agricultural methods, the limitation of freshwater resources in some areas makes it necessary to use salt water in agriculture. However, the use of these water sources has negative effects on the soil and the environment. So the salinity of soil and irrigation water reduces crop yield and puts soil resources at serious risk. It is possible to increase the crop yield and control soil erosion by using the appropriate irrigation method. The problem of salinity in plants is due to the accumulation of excessive amounts of sodium chloride, which is widely spread in coastal areas, soils of dry areas, and fertile lands. Studies have shown that the use of saline water, especially in conditions of equal fertilization between treatments, often reduces the absorption of important nutrients such as nitrogen due to the existence of a significant relationship between the absorption of water and nutrients. Research in the north of Golestan province showed that salinity causes a significant decrease in plant biomass. The effect of salinity stress on the accumulation of sodium, potassium, and chlorine in the plant was significant and the highest amount of ions was accumulated in the leaves. The plant's root system is selective in absorbing and transferring sodium to its aerial parts. Materials and Methods To do this research, first, by selecting 36 experimental units, holes with a diameter of 50 cm and a depth of 60 cm were dug in the center of each one, and then the treatments were prepared. This research is in the form of treatments consisting of irrigation factor (clay and drip irrigation method), salinity level (salinity up to 1200, salinity up to 2200, and salinity up to 3200 μmhos cm-2), and plant (Rose and Hibiscus sabdariffa) in three repetitions and it was done factorial randomized complete blocks design. Three water sources each with a capacity of 200 liters were placed at a height of less than two meters from the ground. Rose plant was prepared in the form of potted seedlings and Hibiscus sabdariffa seeds were planted in the greenhouse and after about two weeks in March, it was transferred to the field. The growth height of the plants, as well as the crown, the diameter of the plant stem, and the number of their branches in the growing season were measured. Also, three soil samples were collected and their characteristics of salinity, acidity, and texture were measured. In order to analyze the data, the statistical method of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the least significant difference (LSD) test were used to compare the average of the studied indicators using MSTAT-C software and SPSS software. Results and Discussion The results of variance analysis of some growth traits of the studied species showed that seedling height and stem diameter were affected by different levels of salinity and the values of this plant characteristic showed a statistically significant difference. The reason for the decrease in plant growth in a plant that is irrigated with more salinity is that the presence of salt in the soil exceeds the tolerance threshold of the plant, and as a result, the accumulation of excess salt in the root zone is a limiting factor for plant growth. According to the results of the effect of irrigation methods, as well as the interaction effect of salinity and irrigation method on the aforementioned indicators, there was no statistically significant difference. The interaction effect of plant and water salinity levels on the values of these variables was significant. The comparison of the average data showed that the height of the studied species was significantly increased by using the clay irrigation method. The maximum diameter of the stem was also measured in the clay irrigation method, which was associated with an increase of 1.7\% compared to the drip irrigation method. Also, the results show that the highest values of the studied variables are related to the rose flower plant, which is 1.7 and 3 times more than the sour tea plant, respectively. Clay irrigation causes water to be transferred to the root area of the plant, which improves the performance and growth of the plant by providing the required moisture around the root. In other words, the way to distribution soil moisture in clay irrigation takes place in the form of percolation and uniformly around the root of the plant, which causes the moisture to be placed directly around the root area and thus affects the growth of the plant. In addition, the canopy data and the number of branches showed that there is no significant difference between them. Conclusion This research tested the effect of different levels of water salinity and clay and drip irrigation on the establishment of plants in the Sistan plain, considering the existence of a water shortage crisis in the region, in order to use saline water on two plants, rose and Hibiscus sabdariffa. The results showed that clay irrigation performance was better than drip irrigation at all salinity levels. Because in the drip irrigation method, with the occurrence of drought stress, it reduces plant growth compared to the clay irrigation method. In addition, in the drip irrigation method, water is placed on the soil surface and deep penetration is limited, and as a result, the increase in humidity in the subsurface layers is less. In the clay irrigation method, due to deep penetration and uniform distribution of moisture in the soil profile, the amount of moisture stored in the soil increases.
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Water is the primary input for crop production and increasingly becomes scarce due to its high demand in agricultural sector. Quality of water is assuming great importance with the increasing demand in industries, agriculture and rise in standard of living. Agriculture is the major user (89%) of India's water resources. Pitcher irrigation is an ancient and very effectual irrigation system employed in many arid and semiarid counties. Among traditional irrigation systems, pitcher irrigation is one among the foremost efficient and compatible for little farmers in many areas of the planet. Pitcher irrigation entails burying an unglazed, porous clay pot with in soil before seedling. Water poured into pot seeps slowly into the soil, feeding the seedling's roots with a gentle supply of moisture.
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Advances in the traditional method of subsurface porous clay pipe irrigation rely on knowledge of the distribution of water in the soil. Knowing the relationships among the hydraulic and physical parameters in the system is important for both the design and management of the system. To simulate the infiltration from the porous clay pipe and predict the wetted zone geometry in the soil, a computer model is developed herein. Laboratory experiments were conducted on soil samples repre­ senting two different soil textures in a specially designed bin to understand the flow phenomenon and to validate the developed model. In a given soil texture, the installation depth of the pipe and the volume of water applied in the soil are the major factors affecting the wetted zone. The relationships among various parameters, namely lateral spacing, installation depth, irrigation run time, hydraulic conductivity of the body of the pipe, and hydraulic head in the system, were established using the developed model.
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A package of water management practices including pitcher irrigation method and water conserving techniques of manure application and mulching is experimented for sustainable growth and improved production of cucumber crop in Makanya village in North Eastern Tanzania. The increase in total yield due to package of water management practices is 203 per cent and water use efficiency obtained is 12.06 kg m−3. The seasonal water requirement of cucumber crop under package of water management practices ranges from 146.30 to 198.10 mm, which is on an average 4.19 times less as compared to control treatment of can irrigation. The irrigation interval in package of water management practices is 4.9 times higher than the can irrigation method. The water and labour uses are reduced by 75.9 and 73 per cent, respectively in package of water management practices. The results showed that the self-regulative nature of pitchers and moisture retention by water conserving techniques is helpful in mitigating water stress in crop root zone. The moisture retention period in soil is increased assisting reduction of labour hours required in irrigation. In local context, the water management practices included in the package are easy to understand, adopt, operate and maintain.