Content uploaded by Rahul Adhikary
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Rahul Adhikary on Jun 17, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: E-mail: rahul.adhikary@cutm.ac.in;
Asian Plant Research Journal
5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
ISSN: 2581-9992
Clay Pot Irrigation- A Review Study
Rahul Adhikary
1*
and Arunabha Pal
1
1
Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Author RA designed the study, wrote
the first draft of the manuscript and managed the other parts of the study. Author AP managed the
literature searches. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/APRJ/2020/v5i130099
Editor(s):
(1)
Dr. Msafiri Yusuph Mkonda, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania.
Reviewers:
(1) Nitin Mishra, Graphic Era University, India.
(2)
Fadhil AL-Mohammed, Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University, Iraq.
Complete Peer review History:
http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/57137
Received 26 March 2020
Accepted 04 June 2020
Published 17 June 2020
ABSTRACT
Water is the primary input for crop production and increasingly becomes scarce due to its high
demand in agricultural sector. Quality of water is assuming great importance with the increasing
demand in industries, agriculture and rise in standard of living. Agriculture is the major user (89%) of
India’s water resources. However, dwindling of freshwater resources and deterioration of irrigation
water quality due to its overuse to meet up the high demands in agriculture sector becomes the
serious concern in sustainable crop production. Clay pot irrigation in its simplest form consists of
unglazed baked clay pots, which are buried up to the neck in the soil and filled with water. This
method is one of the most efficient systems of irrigation known and is ideal for many small farmers.
Clay pot irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation alternative to drip method is the latest
advancement and effective innovation of localized methods of irrigation and found suitable where
water scarcity becomes major stress for crop production. It also helps to improve soil physical
properties particularly the structural status in soil and also enhances the water use efficiency of the
crop, soil organic carbon and builds up soil fertility.
Keywords: Clay pot; irrigation; soil properties.
1. INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is the most important input for growing
crops that require high water supply in
agriculture. Clay pot irrigation, a traditional
system of irrigation alternative to drip method is
the latest advancement and effective
innovation of localized methods of irrigation and
Review Article
Fig
. 1. Schematic diagram of buried clay pot (Setiawan, 1998)
found
suitable where water scarcity becomes
major stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation
is a self-
regulative, low cost and eco
technique of irrigation having a high potential of
energy saving, water saving and very much
efficiency in orchard planting [1]
. In this method,
unglazed backed earthen pitchers buried up to
neck into the soil, filled with water which slowly
seeps out through their pores wall into the root
zone by the action of static and soil suction
pressure. The seepage rate is direct
proportional to the pitchers’ conductance and
potential evapo-
transpiration of crops and is
controlled by the moisture content in the soil
matrix or its environments, namely the soil,
climate and plan
ts and the pitcher
efficiency of irrigation
depends on many factors
including soil type, plant species, soil structure
and soil fertility, weed competition, and site
microclimate. Only a few scientific studies are
available on pitcher irrigation relating to various
controlling factors. There is stil
sufficient understanding of the system, which is
necessary for evolving design criteria. Because
of this studies have been conducted by the
authors on the rate of water flow through buried
pitchers under different climatic conditions. The
first
step is obtaining or making suitable clay
pots. The size of buried clay pot will depend on
the type of crop, the density of planting, and the
time desired between refills. Five to ten liter (5
ltr) sizes are a convenient size for field purposes.
Larger
pots may be more suitable for trees or for
long refill intervals. The hole can be sealed with
silicone caulk, a rubber cork, or a wood plug. It is
easiest to use caulk, simply put some masking
tape over
the outside bottom of the pot
turn the pot
over and use a caulking gun to fill the
hole (Fig
. 1). Let dry for two days, then use. One
pitcher (10 liter capacity) was surrounded by 4
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020
; Article no.
38
. 1. Schematic diagram of buried clay pot (Setiawan, 1998)
suitable where water scarcity becomes
major stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation
regulative, low cost and eco
-friendly
technique of irrigation having a high potential of
energy saving, water saving and very much
. In this method,
unglazed backed earthen pitchers buried up to
neck into the soil, filled with water which slowly
seeps out through their pores wall into the root
zone by the action of static and soil suction
pressure. The seepage rate is direct
ly
proportional to the pitchers’ conductance and
transpiration of crops and is
controlled by the moisture content in the soil
matrix or its environments, namely the soil,
ts and the pitcher
[2]. The
depends on many factors
including soil type, plant species, soil structure
and soil fertility, weed competition, and site
microclimate. Only a few scientific studies are
available on pitcher irrigation relating to various
controlling factors. There is stil
l a lack of
sufficient understanding of the system, which is
necessary for evolving design criteria. Because
of this studies have been conducted by the
authors on the rate of water flow through buried
pitchers under different climatic conditions. The
step is obtaining or making suitable clay
pots. The size of buried clay pot will depend on
the type of crop, the density of planting, and the
time desired between refills. Five to ten liter (5
-10
ltr) sizes are a convenient size for field purposes.
pots may be more suitable for trees or for
long refill intervals. The hole can be sealed with
silicone caulk, a rubber cork, or a wood plug. It is
easiest to use caulk, simply put some masking
the outside bottom of the pot
[3]. Then
over and use a caulking gun to fill the
. 1). Let dry for two days, then use. One
pitcher (10 liter capacity) was surrounded by 4
plants. The soil surface was covered with plastic
mulches to prevent evaporation. Water and
fertilizers were given
through the water supplier.
The only irrigation operation was to open or close
the main water tap at the
water supplier
Root of the plants was accumulating in the region
and tended to intensify as closer to the body of
the pitcher. In morning, lea
ves of the plants were
seen very fresh but as coming to afternoon they
changed as usually indicated when evapo
transpiration was higher than the rate of the
water being consumed.
2. PITCHER IRRIGATION: AN OVERVIEW
Quality of water is assuming great impor
with the increasing demand in industries,
agriculture and rise in standard of living.
Agriculture is the major user (89%) of India’s
water resources. Indiscriminate use of saline
irrigation water in absence of proper
management of water – crop-
soil
risk of endangering the development of salt
effected soils accompanied by serious crop
damage. Saline water is to be irrigated in such
amount and quality that it meets the evapo
transpiration demands of the crop minimizes root
zone salinity a
nd selecting suitable crop and
varieties tolerant to water and salinity stress
Pitcher irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation
alternative to drip method is the latest
advancement and effective innovation of
localized methods of irrigation and
suitable where water scarcity becomes major
stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation in
(Fig
. 2) in its simplest form consists of unglazed
baked clay pots, which are buried up to the neck
in the soil and filled with water [6].
In the alternative, under such circumstances,
some dryland countries have adopted certain
; Article no.
APRJ.57137
plants. The soil surface was covered with plastic
mulches to prevent evaporation. Water and
through the water supplier.
The only irrigation operation was to open or close
water supplier
[4]. The
Root of the plants was accumulating in the region
and tended to intensify as closer to the body of
ves of the plants were
seen very fresh but as coming to afternoon they
changed as usually indicated when evapo
-
transpiration was higher than the rate of the
2. PITCHER IRRIGATION: AN OVERVIEW
Quality of water is assuming great impor
tance
with the increasing demand in industries,
agriculture and rise in standard of living.
Agriculture is the major user (89%) of India’s
water resources. Indiscriminate use of saline
irrigation water in absence of proper
soil
poses a grave
risk of endangering the development of salt
effected soils accompanied by serious crop
damage. Saline water is to be irrigated in such
amount and quality that it meets the evapo
-
transpiration demands of the crop minimizes root
nd selecting suitable crop and
varieties tolerant to water and salinity stress
[5].
Pitcher irrigation, a traditional system of irrigation
alternative to drip method is the latest
advancement and effective innovation of
localized methods of irrigation and
is found
suitable where water scarcity becomes major
stress for crop production. Pitcher irrigation in
. 2) in its simplest form consists of unglazed
baked clay pots, which are buried up to the neck
In the alternative, under such circumstances,
some dryland countries have adopted certain
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
39
water-saving technologies like drip and sprinkler
systems to irrigate their crops so that their
scarcely available water resources will not be
deleted. Here again, although such irrigation
methods are known to save about half of the
water presently used for surface or furrow
irrigation, their technical, economical (high
investment and operational costs), and socio-
cultural factors have remained a serious
hindrance from adoption, especially by small-
scale farmers [7]. The use of such techniques
has thus been limited to commercial farms and to
those areas with relatively plain landscapes or
topographies that are relatively located in closer
proximity to water points. As such, the large
majority of smallholder farmers in those areas
are still by and large deprived of irrigated farming
and so much exposed to food and nutrition
insecurity.
Fig. 2. Buried clay pot with crops
Conservation and use of water are very
important, especially for farmers in developing
countries like India where water is often a major
limiting aspect of agricultural production and
development. To take benefit of the prospective
year-around growing seasons of the tropics and
the resulting increased production, well-
developed irrigation systems are often essential.
A reliable supply of water is critical to intensive
for crop production. When the farmer has an
irrigation system, even though he may seem to
have an unlimited amount of water, it should be
used with care. Too much water, besides being a
waste of energy and water will leach down
through the soil and carry nutrients out of the
reach of the roots of plants. Water run-off on that
soil which absorbs water slowly will also wash
away topsoil and nutrients.
In India, a water resource is reducing slowly and
continues increased pressure due to uncertain
rainfall, a rising population, old and ineffective
irrigation techniques, and dependence on water-
intensive crop varieties. To get maximum crop
productivity from each drop of water is observed
as vital for the sustainability of the agriculture
sector and food security. But achieving this goal
will be difficult unless farmers switch to new
methods such as pitcher and drip irrigation. State
like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh receives sparse
and erratic rainfall, per year average rainfall is
also less, with the temperature hovering above
49 degrees centigrade from May to July. In this
harsh climate, which could become even more
extreme as the planet warms, villagers have had
no access to canal water, ruling out crop
cultivation in the past. Pitcher irrigation has made
agriculture potential; helping in a new era for
local farmers. The clay pot irrigation system is
one of the most efficient systems of irrigation
known and is ideal for many small scale farmers
[8,9]. Pitcher irrigation is an ancient technique
that has been practiced in many parts of the arid
world including India, Iran, African and South
American countries [10]. Developed countries
advanced micro-irrigation techniques such as
sprinkler and drip irrigation are used
progressively; many farmers in developing
countries are unwilling to adopt these methods
due to their high early cost of installation and
costly maintenance. Traditional irrigation
methods such as subsurface pitcher and porous
clay pipe irrigation [11,12,13] are often preferred
by poor farmers in small scale irrigation projects
because of their low cost and high irrigation
efficiency [14].
The clay pot irrigation technology is a
conservation irrigation system, which saves
between 50% and 70% of water when compared
to conventional watering can irrigation system
[15]. The clay pot system is therefore important
when water conservation is crucial [16]. The
buried clay pot irrigation maintains stable soil
moisture, enables crops to grow in both soil or
saline soils and is suitable for using saline waters
not applicable with conventional irrigation [10].
By using this pitcher irrigation system and
unusual water, the salt accumulates in the
surface of the soil and the moisture in the soil
around the roots, the concentration of salts in the
soil around the roots is reduced [17].
Clay pot pores allow the water to spread into the
soil and making the availability of moisture for
crop growth. Water filled on the pot by weekly
checkup and when required, thus maintaining a
continuous supply of water to the plants. While
burying the pitcher in the soil, farmers should
take care to see that the neck region of the pot is
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
40
positioned in such a manner that rainwater runoff
does not enter into the pitcher. Otherwise, small
sand particles will block the pores of the pitcher.
The main advantage of the wick which is
attached at the bottom of the pot is to increase
the water penetration into the soil and to deliver
the water directly to the plant roots. The rate of
water seepage from a pitcher depends on the
type of plant and soil, and climatic conditions.
When water level in soil is increased and soil
becomes saturated water will soak back into the
pot, filling it again. The system is self-regulating
and water losses are negligible.
The number of clay pot required per hectare
differs with the sort of crop. Creeping vegetables
like cucumber, okra, eggplant, and bitter gourd
need 2,000 to 2,500 pitchers per hectare,
whereas upright and canopy crops like beans,
tomatoes, leeks, and melons, need up to 4,000
to 5,000 pots per hectare. The amount of water
seepage from a pitcher depends on the age of
plant and soil, and climate. Once the
encompassing soil becomes saturated, water will
soak back to the pot, filling it again this method of
irrigation is ideal for sandy to loamy soil with
good porosity. For small farmers, the system
costs around Rs. 4,500 (nearly $48) per acre –
about 80 percent cheaper than drip and sprinkler
irrigation. The yield per acre is around 60 percent
higher than with furrow and flood irrigation, which
many farmers continue to use. A farmer can save
90 percent of water as compared to flood
irrigation. Fertilizers can also be mixed along with
the water and poured into the pot. Weed growth
is very minimal because water delivery is limited
to the roots. Many farmers in the coastal districts
are following this method.
2.1 Advantages of Pitcher Irrigation
Pitcher irrigation is still used on a limited basis
in the dry-lands of India.
It has been successfully used for a wide
range of annual and perennial plants including
many vegetables and fruits.
It is especially useful in difficult conditions of
high salinity, extreme aridity, limited water
supply and limited resources.
The water use efficiency of irrigation systems
depends on many factors including soil type,
crop type, weed competition and
microclimate.
The experimental test has been suggested of
pitcher irrigation may use as little as 10% of
the water used in conventional surface
irrigation.
Pitcher irrigation facilitated rapid
establishment and faster growth of plants.
3. EFFECT OF CLAY POT IRRIGATION
ON CROPS AND SOIL
Bhingardeve [18] studied the influence of saline,
canal water and N-fertilizer level through pitcher
irrigation on pH, EC of soil and plant height at
different growth stages of brinjal and observed
that pH and EC of soil increased in both depths
of soil (0-15 and 15-30 cm) at harvesting stage of
plant for saline and canal water treatments.
Regarding fertility levels, 100% recommended
dose of urea (150 kg urea ha-1) level recorded
the highest values of pH and EC of soil. Similar
experiment was conducted with pumpkin (C.
moschata) involving three methods of irrigation
(drip irrigation by a direct pitcher, drip irrigation
by pipe from pitcher and basin system of
irrigation) [19]. The direct pitcher method
recorded significantly higher values for vine
length, a number of nodes per vine, stem girth
and significantly lower values for inter node
length compared to the other two methods of
irrigation at all stages of plant growth. Pachpute
[20] also concluded that the increase in total yield
due to a package of water management
practices including pitcher irrigation method is
203 percent and water use efficiency obtained is
12.06 kg m-
3
. than 30 cm and 40 cm,
respectively for both tested soils. The
surrounding soil moisture was in a range
available for plant growth. Different depths of
pitcher placement in the soil produced different
reaching distances of the wetting front but
showed insignificant differences in water
availability. Researcher described the salt
tolerance of five cultivars of Capsicum annuum L
and the variety NMCA 10652 had the highest
survival percentage at 100% in the 4.1 dS m-1
treatment, followed by ‘Early Jalapeno’, ‘Nu-Mex
Sweet’, Pimienta De Chiera’, ‘Santa Fe Grande’,
‘Golden Treasure’, and ‘Nu-Mex Joe E [21].
Scientist found that the highest dry chili yields of
8.12 and 20.78 q ha-
1
were obtained from non-
saline canal water followed by two applications of
non-saline water alternating with one saline
water with 7.30 and 20.38 q ha-
1
respectively
[22]. Saline (well) water irrigated plants yielded
3.99 and 11.72 q ha-
1
respectively, which
represented yield reductions of 50.8% and
43.6%, respectively as compared with non-
saline. The effect of saline water and fertigation
on the yield contributing parameters of brinjal
and found that the highest dry matter
accumulation in plant and fruit (112.66 g and
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
41
87.4 g, respectively) was obtained under best
available canal water. The dry matter
accumulation with saline water under different
fertilizer levels i.e. 100, 75 and 50%
recommended urea applied through drip
irrigation was 103.72, 101.66 and 86.38 g plant-1
respectively [23]. Similar results showed the
infiltration rates decreased linearly rather than
exponentially even though the soil was initially
dry. The advancement of the wetting front was
very slow and somewhat limited to a radius and
depth of no more canal water only [24].
4. CONCLUSION
Effective irrigation, water controlling and its
suspicious use, by encouraging water-saving
irrigation techniques – such as clay pot, drip and
sprinkler irrigations – will help sustain food-
production structures in our water-stressed
country. Clay pot irrigation as a substitute to drip
or sprinkler irrigation can be a feasible option for
water-scarce area mainly for farmers those are
looking to living out of their small holdings of
land. Irrigation water saving by clay pot irrigation
can be further enhanced by altering the porosity
of pots and hence, appropriate clay: sand
composition, wall thickness and firing
temperature for various vegetables should be
further investigated.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.
REFERENCES
1. Gupta SK. Use pitchers when water for
irrigation is saline. Indian- Horticulture.
1999;36(4):13-15.
2. Stein TM. Erarbeitung undÜberprüfung
von. Development and evaluation of
design criteriafor pitcher irrigation systems,
Der Tropenlandwirt, Beiheft No. 66.
Selbstverlag des Verbandes der
Tropenlandwirte. 1998;66: 174
3. Bainbridge DA, Steen A, Steen B. Super-
efficient irrigation with buried clay pots.
USIU Environmental Studies Program/
Canelo Project, San Diego, CA/Elgin;
2006.
4. Setiawan BI, Saleh E, Nurhidayat Y.
Pitcher irrigation system for horticulture in
drylands. Water-and-Land-Resources-
Development and Management for
Sustainable Use Vol II A. The Tenth ICID-
Afro Asian Regional Conference on
Irrigation and Drainage, Denpasar, Bali,
Indonesia. 1998;(A-33):9.
5. Katerji N., van Hoorn J. W., Hamdy A. and
Mastrorilli M. Salinity effect on crop
development and yield, analysis of salt
tolerance according to several classification
methods. Agric. Water Manage. 2003;62:
37-66
6. Gischler C, Jauregui CF. Low-cost
techniques for water conservation and
management in Latin America. Nature and
Resources. 1984;203:11-18.
7. Theib O, Ahmed H. Water harvesting and
supplemental irrigation for improved water
productivity of dry farming systems in West
Asia and North Africa, .New directions for a
diverse planet. Proceedings of the 4th
International Crop Science Congress,
September 26 to October 1, Brisbane,
Australia; 2004.
8. Bainbridge DA. Buried clay pot irrigation: A
little known but very efficient traditional
method of Irrigation. Agricultural Water
Management Journal. 2001;48:79-88.
9. Mahajan S, Pednekar P, Patel S. Pot drip:
an efficient low cost watering system.
Waterlines. 2001;19(4):26-28.
10. Mondal RC, Dubey SK, Gupta SK. Use
pitchers, when water for irrigation is saline.
Indian Horticulture. 1992;36(4): 13–15.
11. Ashrafi S, Gupta A, Singh MB, Izumi N,
Loof R. Simulation of infiltration from
porous clay pipe in subsurface irrigation.
Hydrological Sciences Journal. 2002;47(2):
253–268.
12. Qiaosheng S, Zuoxin L, Zhenying W,
Haijun L. Simulation of the soil wetting
shape under porous pipe sub-irrigation
using dimensional analysis, Irrigation and
Drainage. 2007;56:389–398.
13. Siyal AA, Skaggs TH. Measured and
simulated wetting patterns under porous
clay pipe subsurface irrigation. Agricultural
Water Management. 2009;96(6):893–
904.
14. Siyal AA, Van Genuchten M, Skaggs TH.
Solute transport in a loamy soil under
subsurface porous clay pipe irrigation.
Journal of Agricultural Water Management.
2013;121:73– 80.
15. Okalebo JA, Mome PG, Lenga KK. Pitcher
irrigation: A new irrigation technique to
curb the effects of salinization. In
Proceedings of the 7th Conference of the
Society of Agricultural Engineers on
Engineering the Economy, Jomo Kenyatta
Adhikary and Pal; APRJ, 5(1): 37-42, 2020; Article no.APRJ.57137
42
University of Agriculture and Technology,
Nairobi, Kenya. 1995;15–21.
16. Kefa C, Kipkorir E, Kwonyike J, Kubowon
P, Ndambiri K. Comparison of water use
savings and crop yields for clay pot and
furrow irrigation methods in Lake Bogoria,
Kenya. Journal of Natural Sciences
Research. 2013;3(8):34-39.
17. Abu-Zreig MM, Atom MF. Hydraulic
characteristics and seepage modeling of
clay pitchers produced in Jordan Canadian
Biosystem Engeering. 2004;46:115-
120.
18. Bhingardeve SD, Karade VM, Patil PR.
Influence of saline, canal water and n-
fertilizer level through drip irrigation on pH,
ECe of soil and plant height at different
growth stages of brinjal. Journal of Soils
and Crops. 2006;16(1):100-103
19. Saha AK, Chakraborty R, Thapa U, Ghanti
P. Growth and yield of pumpkin [Cucurbita
moschata (Duch.) Poir] as influenced by
different methods of irrigation. Journal of
Interacademicia. 2005;9(1):28-32.
20. Pachpute JS. A package of water
management practices for sustainable
growth and improved production of
vegetable crop in labour and water scarce
Sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Water
Management. 2010;97(9):1251-1258.
21. Niu G, Rodriguez DS, Call E, Bosland PW,
Ulery A, Acosta E. Responses of eight
chilli peppers to saline water irrigation.
Scientia Horticulturae. 2010;126(2):215-
222
22. Usman H, Yakubu H, Tekwa IJ. An
infiltration model development and
evaluation for pitcher irrigation system.
Agriculture and Biology Journal of North
America. 2011;2(6):880-886.
23. Kadam JR, Bhingardeve SD, Wattamwar
MJ. Nutrient concentration, plant height
and dry matter yield of brinjal as influenced
by saline water and urea-N-fertilizer
through drip irrigation. Journal of
Maharashtra Agricultural Universities.
2007;32(1):4-6.
24. Saleh E, Setiawan BI. Numerical modeling
of soil moisture profiles under pitcher
irrigation application. Agricultural
Engineering International. 2010;12(2):14-
20.
_________________________________________________________________________________
© 2020 Adhikary and Pal; This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Peer-review history:
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/57137