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Covid-19 face masks: A potential source of microplastic fibers in the environment
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... The present COVID-19 pandemic situation created a problematic environment for every person including the education and employment sectors and finally the global economy (Kutralam-Muniasamy and Shruti 2022). Although several vaccines and drugs are developed to stop the corona virus infection (Fadare and Okoffo 2020), still the use of face masks is considered as the best personal protective measure to stop COVID-19 infection all around the world (Prata et al. 2021). This is mainly because of the higher filtration potential of disposable face masks than other reusable materials (Prata et al. 2021). ...
... According to World Health Organization (WHO), about 89 million medical masks are needed to fight against COVID-19 pandemic in the USA alone (Roberts et al. 2022). In the UK, the masks requirement is around 24.37 billion per year (60,000 t plastic masks/day); in Japan, the figure is around 600 million per month (Fadare and Okoffo 2020;Selvaranjan et al. 2021). It has been estimated that the mask requirement in India is around 13,000 metric tons per day for meeting the demand of 1380 million populations (Mallick et al. 2021). ...
... Limited studies have been conducted to assess the environmental sustainability of face masks, with a focus on comparisons between reusable and disposable medical masks. These studies primarily address the issue of solid waste generated by masks, while providing minimal information on the life cycle environmental impacts of medical masks (Fadare and Okoffo 2020;Lee et al. 2021;Akarsu et al. 2021;van Straten et al. 2021). Another study by Atılgan Türkmen (2022) assesses the life cycle environmental implications of disposable medical masks in order to determine which phases of life cycle pose the largest environmental impact. ...
Face masks, a prime component of personal protective equipment (PPE) items, have become an integral part of human beings to survive under the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic situation. The global population requires an estimated 130 billion face masks and 64 billion gloves/month, while the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the daily disposal of approximately 3.5 billion single-use face masks, resulting in a staggering 14,245,230.63 kg of face mask waste. The improper disposal of face mask wastes followed by its mismanagement is a challenge to the scientists as the wastes create pollution leading to environmental degradation, especially plastic pollution (macro/meso/micro/nano). Each year, an estimated 0.15–0.39 million tons of COVID-19 face mask waste, along with 173,000 microfibers released daily from discarded surgical masks, could enter the marine environment, while used masks have a significantly higher microplastic release capacity (1246.62 ± 403.50 particles/piece) compared to new masks (183.00 ± 78.42 particles/piece). Surgical face masks emit around 59 g CO2-eq greenhouse gas emissions per single use, cloth face masks emit approximately 60 g CO2-eq/single mask, and inhaling or ingesting microplastics (MPs) caused adverse health problems including chronic inflammation, granulomas or fibrosis, DNA damage, cellular damage, oxidative stress, and cytokine secretion. The present review critically addresses the role of face masks in reducing COVID-19 infections, their distribution pattern in diverse environments, the volume of waste produced, degradation in the natural environment, and adverse impacts on different environmental segments, and proposes sustainable remediation options to tackle environmental challenges posed by disposable COVID-19 face masks.
... In recent months, there has been a massive increase in the usage of single-use plastic, which has wreaked havoc on the environment (Prata et al., 2020; Saadat et al., 2020; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020) [9,23,29] . Microplasticfibres have been found in plastic-based safety devices in the environment (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020) [20] . Polypropylene is commonly used in N-95 masks, whereas Tyvek is commonly used in gloves, medical face shields, and protective suits, all of which can endure a long time and leak dioxin and other dangerous compounds into the environment (Singh et al., 2020b) [19] . ...
... The careless dumping of these wastes clogs waterways and worsens pollution in the environment (Singh et al., 2020; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020) [29] . Face masks and other plastic-based protection equipment have been identified as a potential source of microplastic fibres in the environment (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020) [20] . N-95 masks are usually made of Polypropylene, while Tyvek is used for protective suits, gloves, and medical face shields, both of which can last a long time and leak dioxin and harmful substances into the environment (Singh et al., 2020). ...
... Microplasticfibres have been discovered in the ecosystem from face masks as well as other plastic-based protective devices (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020) [20] . Polypropylene is commonly used in N-95 masks, while Tyvek is frequently used in protective suits, gloves, and medical face shields. ...
... Thus, the COVID-19 global disruption affected the global ecology and climate in both positive and harmful ways. [21] [22] [23]. ...
... Worldwide manufacture and use of PPE made of plastic has expanded since the COVID-19 outbreak [23]. As of February 2020, China produced 14.8 million medical masks every day, a significant rise over the previous level [21]. Due to lack of knowledge and lack of awareness in handling infectious waste people were found to discard the masks, gloves etc. along with the household waste. ...
... The masks under consideration comprise plastic materials, specifically polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyester. It is worth noting that these materials are currently recognized as significant contributors to the issue of plastic contamination [2]. The composition of these entities consists of three distinct layers: an inside layer comprising pliable fibers, an intermediate layer consisting of a melt-blown filter, and an external layer composed of rigid fibers that possess water-resistant properties and are typically dyed [2]. ...
... It is worth noting that these materials are currently recognized as significant contributors to the issue of plastic contamination [2]. The composition of these entities consists of three distinct layers: an inside layer comprising pliable fibers, an intermediate layer consisting of a melt-blown filter, and an external layer composed of rigid fibers that possess water-resistant properties and are typically dyed [2]. During the COVID-19 pandemic period, it is reported that daily over 4 billion facial masks were used worldwide [3]. ...
Citation: Paul, S.C.; Santo, M.A.H.; Nahid, S.A.; Majumder, A.R.; Al Mamun, M.F.; Basit, M.A.; Babafemi, A.J. Potential Use of COVID-19 Surgical Masks and Polyethylene Plastics in Developing Sustainable Concrete. J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 402. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/jcs7090402 Academic Editors: Xiangfa Wu and Oksana Zholobko Abstract: Managing disposable waste surgical face masks and plastic made from polyethylene (PE) resin is a real challenge. Thus, these are considered a great threat to the environment. Generally, surgical face masks are made of microplastic made of polypropylene materials. Both polypropylene and PE are not easily decomposable in the soil. Consequently, the presence of these waste materials can have detrimental effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, exacerbating the ongoing crisis faced by the animal kingdom and the broader biosphere. Hence, it is imperative to identify alternate and efficient methods for waste management. Given its significant economic importance, the construction industry holds a prominent position among many industries globally. Consequently, waste masks within the construction sector might assume a crucial role in mitigating plastic pollution. Concrete, one of the most widely used construction materials, is being adapted with various waste materials as the partial or complete substitutes for natural constituents, such as cement and aggregates. This study focused on using different percentages of used COVID-19 surgical masks in fiber form and PE as partial replacements of natural coarse aggregates in producing sustainable concrete. Mask fibers were used in concrete production at percentages of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% of the total volume of concrete. Similarly, PE aggregates replaced the coarse aggregates by volume at 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% in concrete. The results showed that the strength of concrete reduced as the percentages of mask fiber and PE aggregates increased. However, the strength and crack-bridging capability of mask concrete are still acceptable for some structural and non-structural applications. The results obtained from this research could also help engineers to design sustainable concrete materials with mask fibers.
... Various world countries declared a state of emergency, placing a ban on all forms of social gathering by instituting the stay-at-home policy, travel restriction, self-isolation, social distancing, and proper personal hygiene practice by frequently washing hands with clean water and applying hand sanitizers. Also, wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) such as face masks is highly emphasized [2,3,4]. Such practice remained the best shield against the spread of Covid-19 until a vaccine was developed. ...
... Researchers advocate using face masks and other PPEs by the general public until the transmission mode of Covid-19 is clearly understood [8]. It has been argued that such precautionary measures could help reduce the number of times one touches the face/mouth/nose with unwashed hands, which could greatly lower the chance of infection [2]. Previous studies have shown the effectiveness of face masks in protecting against respiratory disease during religious activities [6,9]. ...
... Se estima que durante los primeros meses del 2020 se utilizaron al mes 129,000 millones de cubrebocas y 65,000 millones de guantes desechables en todo el mundo (Prata et al., 2020). Las mascarillas desechables están compuestas de distintos polímeros plásticos, como polipropileno, poliuretano, poliacrilonitrilo, poliesterino, policarbonato y poliéster (Fadare y Okoffo, 2020), y los guantes protectores están hechos principalmente de polietileno, látex y nitrilo (Benson et al., 2021). Todos estos materiales generan contaminación por plásticos y partículas plásticas (Fadare y Okoffo, 2020). ...
... Las mascarillas desechables están compuestas de distintos polímeros plásticos, como polipropileno, poliuretano, poliacrilonitrilo, poliesterino, policarbonato y poliéster (Fadare y Okoffo, 2020), y los guantes protectores están hechos principalmente de polietileno, látex y nitrilo (Benson et al., 2021). Todos estos materiales generan contaminación por plásticos y partículas plásticas (Fadare y Okoffo, 2020). ...
La pandemia ocasionada por el virus sars-cov-2 que se detectó por primera vez en Wuhan, China en 2019, trajo cambios indudables en nuestro modo de vida. Para controlar la transmisión de la enfermedad de covid-19, en muchos países se utilizaron medidas como el confinamiento y el aislamiento social, el cierre de industrias, la detención de actividades no esenciales, la utilización de cubrebocas o mascarillas faciales para la población en general y el personal médico, y la utilización de otros tipos de equipos de protección como guantes y caretas de plástico. Además, al no tener un medicamento específico para detener la propagación del nuevo virus, se recetaron tratamientos con medicamentos existentes, ya fuera para tratar síntomas como fiebre, dolor e inflamación o para intentar desactivar el virus en el organismo y tratar infecciones secundarias. Sin embargo, más allá del efecto de estas medidas en el control del contagio del virus y en la disminución de casos graves y de decesos, es importante analizar los efectos ambientales a corto y largo plazo que podrían tener nuestras acciones durante el periodo de esta pandemia. Para este capítulo investigamos, con base en diversas publicaciones científicas, los datos reportados sobre estos impactos ambientales, específicamente los relacionados con la contaminación ambiental, los efectos del confinamiento y el cierre de industrias en la calidad del aire, los riesgos ambientales potenciales por el aumento de desechos plásticos provenientes del uso de equipo de protección médica, y la potencial contaminación del agua debido al aumento en el empleo de algunos medicamentos.
... Challenges to municipal waste management practices and procedures have arisen, including updating health and safety measures for employees, waste treatment requirements, and general procedures for the waste sector [8,12]. The situation tends to be more critical in developing countries as waste management workers are often not adequately equipped with Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) [8]. ...
... Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic can give rise to significant environmental pollution issues due to the production and generation of microplastics (MPs), as highlighted by Fadare and Okoffo (2020) [12]. MPs are categorized into primary and secondary types. ...
The period from 2019 to 2022 has been defined by the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in an unprecedented demand for and use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). However, the disposal of PPE without considering its environmental impact and proper waste management practices has become a growing concern. The increased demand for PPE during the pandemic and associated waste management practices have been analyzed. Additionally, the discussion around treating these residues and exploring more environmentally friendly alternatives, such as biodegradable or reusable PPE, is crucial. The extensive use of predominantly non-degradable plastics in PPE has led to their accumulation in landfills, with potential consequences for marine environments through the formation of microplastics. Therefore, this article seeks to establish a connection between these issues and the Sustainable Development Goals, emphasizing the importance of efficient management aligned with sustainable development objectives to address these emerging challenges and ensure a more sustainable future.
... 2,6 Furthermore, during the pandemic, other types of single-use plastic items, such as wet wipes, takeaway plastics, plastic containers for gels and disinfectants, and medical testing kits, were also manufactured and used to a large extent, adding large amounts of plastic pollution to environment. 7,8 According to UNICEF, the demand for PPE, mainly surgical masks, may have exceeded 400 million from January 2020 to the present year (https://www.unicef.org/supply/stories/world-mask-week-during-covid-19pandemic). It has been estimated that around 129 and 65 billion face masks and gloves, respectively, are used globally each month, 9 while other researchers have estimated that between 3.3 and 8.7 billion surgical masks could end up in the oceans within a year. ...
... 15,33,34 In general, surgical masks are composed of three layers of polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), or polystyrene (PS), where the outer and inner layers are non-woven fibers and a middle layer of melt-blown filter. 7,35,36 In comparison, other face masks can comprise two or three layers depending on their functionality and materials. 12 For instance, cloth masks and face masks impregnated with metal nanoparticles are manufactured with textiles such as cotton-polyester blends, chiffon, or cotton-nylon blends, among others. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic induced an unprecedented flow of single-use plastics, mostly in the form of face masks. As significant amounts of face masks reached coastal environments, concerns regarding the impacts were raised. The present chapter deals with the release of microplastics and nanoplastics (MPs/PNPs), including the amount, characteristics, and analytical approaches, associated with face masks. Additionally, the current understanding of their ecotoxicological implications was summarized and discussed. Overall, face masks have been demonstrated to be a significant source of MPs/PNPs, with estimations reaching millions of particles released per mask, as well as growth-related sublethal effects on aquatic organisms. Nevertheless, some various uncertainties and questions remain unanswered.
... Disposable masks generally consist of three layers, namely the outer layer (spun-bond polypropylene) made of non-absorbent material as protection from splashing liquids, the middle layer (melt-blow polypropylene) which functions to prevent droplets and aerosols through electrostatic effects, and the inner layer (spun-bond polypropylene) made of an absorbent material such as cotton to absorb steam ( Figure 2) (Prata et al., 2020;Fadare & Okoffo, 2020;Xu & Ren, 2021). Disposable masks are primarily made of polypropylene and high-density polyethylene, and may contain other polymeric materials such as polyester, polyurethane, polystyrene and polyacrylonitrile (Fitria et al., 2022). ...
At present, disposable masks have become a necessity and habit for the general public. This causes an increase in the volume of single-use mask waste generation. If disposable mask waste is not managed properly and correctly it can harm living things such as fauna and contains micro plastics which have the potential to be a source of pollution in the environment. This study aims to analyze the potential impact of household-scale disposable mask waste pollution in Cinere District. The method used in this research is statistics and literature study. The results showed that the average use of disposable face masks in Cinere District was 2 pieces/day with a weight of 3.54 grams and it was estimated that the people of Cinere District produced 76,494 disposable masks waste/day with an extrapolation of the potential impact of micro plastic pollution reaching 67.31 billion/day which will be released into the environment. This will be a heavy burden on the environment, therefore good cooperation is needed between the community and the government in managing disposable mask waste on a household scale in order to reduce and prevent pollution of disposable mask waste in the environment.
... The composition of disposable masks primarily consists of polypropylene (PP) fibers, which are arranged in three layers. The outer layer is treated for waterproofing, the inner layer is treated for hydrophilicity to absorb the wearer's moisture, and the middle layer is made of melt blown nonwoven fabric designed for filtering droplets, particles, or bacteria [27]. ...
In recent years, with the heightened of public health protection awareness, masks have become an important protective equipment. The accumulation of discarded masks (DM) poses an impact to environment and resource. Recycling DM has become a prime focus of sustainable development research. This investigation introduces a review of the recycling of DM in civil engineering and presents a novel modification of discarded mask fibers (DMF) to enhance the mechanical property of cement paste. In the review section: (1) The masks are divided into three classes by integrating relevant standards and considering mask protective characteristics; (2) Various disposal techniques for recycling DM are categorized in shredding, hot processing, paper shredding, and crushing; (3) The impact of incorporating DMF in concrete, mortar, asphalt, road subbases and base courses are discussed. The enhancement of applying DMF into composite materials varies depending on the specific application. In the experimental research section, the silane coupling agent (SCA) is introduced as a modification to improve the weak bonding between DMF and composite materials. The SCA-modified polypropylene (PP) fibers were conducted as a control group. The results indicate that the compressive strength of cement paste with both SCA-modified DMF and PP fibers increased by 12.29 % and 26.10 %, respectively. Finally, several future opportunities in recycling of DM in Civil Engineering were drawn.
... Tourism usually exerts intense pressure on natural resources and directly or indirectly contributes to pollution (Navarro, 2019). The microbiological load, plastics, organic matter, and nutrients, among other contaminant loads, have an impact on coastal zones due to sun-and-beach tourism (Ardusso et al., 2020;De-la-Torre et al., 2021;Fadare and Okoffo, 2020;NRDC, 2014), and this new scenario poses additional challenges. To effectively minimize the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19, extreme hygiene measures were recommended during the summer season and still are (WHO, 2020). ...
... Aunque existe poca información sobre su potencial real de neurotoxicidad, la presencia de estos tóxicos induce estrés oxidativo, inhibición de la erasa y alteración de los niveles de neurotransmisores, factores que resultan en daño celular y aumento de la vulnerabilidad a desarrollar desórdenes neuronales, lo la situación, dado que el uso masivo de mascarillas construidas de polímeros plásticos (polipropileno) ha significado la generación mundial más residuos plásticos, que por las deficientes estrategias de control en cuanto a su Desde finales de 2019, millones de mascarillas desechables se consumen a diario en todo el mundo. (24) Si bien son de los equipos de protección más eficientes para mitigar el contagio de la COVID-19, junto con el distanciamiento social y las prevenciones de trasmisión por contacto como el lavado de manos, las mascarillas están constituidas por polímeros plásticos y son en su mayoría productos desechables y ueva fuente de desechos masiva y recurrente. millones de partículas de fueron detectados en el moco nasal de los portadores de mascarillas, los estos equipos de protección. ...
Introducción:
Los productos plásticos han transformado la era moderna de tal manera que la vida sin plásticos sería irreconocible, a la par de este desarrollo la contaminación plástica es omnipresente convirtiéndose en uno de los problemas ambientales modernos más importantes.
Objetivo:
Compilar la información publicada en los últimos cinco años sobre la contaminación ambiental por microplásticos en Ecuador para reforzar el interés local sobre estos contaminantes.
Desarrollo:
Se realizó una revisión no estructurada de la literatura. Se utilizaron como bases de datos PubMed y Google Scholar. Los criterios de inclusión fueron: artículos publicados en los últimos 5 años, en idiomas inglés y español, se excluyeron otros idiomas; la selección de estudios fue de tipo a conveniencia. Se organizó y analizó cronológicamente la evidencia publicada en PubMed y Google Scholar en los últimos 5 años sobre microplásticos en Ecuador.
Consideraciones finales:
La información recopilada muestra cronológicamente el avance de la contaminación por microplásticos tanto a nivel mundial como en Ecuador, además, se evidencia la presencia de microplásticos en océanos, agua dulce, ecosistemas terrestres, aire, alimentos y dentro del cuerpo humano. Por lo cual la contaminación por microplásticos es un tema de gran relevancia actual, que requiere acciones de control inmediatas.
... Neglecting the seriousness of this issue may lead to the release of large tonnes of micro-and nano-plastics at dumpsites as well as to the marine environment, affecting fauna and flora populations greatly. Face masks that are produced by electrospinning could easily release polyethene and polypropylene micro-and nano-fibres into the environment (Aragaw, 2020;Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). These polymers could accumulate in food chains since just one mask can produce millions of particles, each with the potential to also carry chemicals and bacteria up the food chain and potentially even into humans (Amuah et al., 2022). ...
... Food is another important pathway of human exposure to MP, representing a health hazard through the ingestion of contaminated food (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020;Ma et al., 2021;Morgana et al., 2021). Most studies report MP in seafood, and there is no data on other types of food as vegetables, fruits or meat, and therefore a diet based on fish consumption has been considered to assess dietary exposure. ...
Background:
Microplastics (MP) are plastic particles with dimension up to 5 mm. Due to their persistence, global spread across different ecosystems and potential human health effects, they have gained increasing attention during the last decade. However, the extent of human exposure to MP through different pathways and their intake have not been elucidated.
Objectives:
The objective of this review is to provide an overview on the pathways of exposure to MP through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact considering data from the open bibliography on MP in air, dust, food, water and drinks.
Methods:
A bibliographic search on Scopus and PubMed was conducted using keywords on MP in outdoor and indoor air, indoor dust, food including beverages and water and human intake (n = 521). Articles were sorted by their title and abstract (n = 213), and only studies reporting MP identification and quantification techniques were further considered (n = 168). A total of 115 articles that include quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) procedures are finally discussed in the present review. Based on MP concentration data available in literature, we estimated the potential inhaled dose (ID), dust intake (DI), the estimated daily intake (EDI) via food and beverages. Finally, the total daily intake (TDI) considering both inhalation and ingestion routes are provided for adults, infants and newborns.
Results:
The concentrations of MP in outdoor and indoor air, dust, and in food and water are provided according to the bibliography. Human exposure to MP through dust ingestion, inhalation of air and food/drinks consumption revealed that indoor air and drinking waters were the main sources of MP.
Conclusions:
This study reveals that humans are constantly exposed to MP, and that the indoor environment and the food and water we ingest decisively contribute to MP intake. Additionally, we highlight that infants and newborns are exposed to high MP concentrations and further studies are needed to evaluate the presence and risk of MP in this vulnerable age-population.
... The most common masks used are surgical, reusable (e.g., cloth masks), and respirators (e.g., N95, FFP1, FFP2, FFP3), whose filtration efficiency depends on the type of material, manufacturing method, and mechanical and electrostatic charge of the layers [38]. Surgical face masks are composed of multiple layers (mostly three) of PP, have elastic ear straps, and are made of non-woven fabric created using a spun-bond and melt-blowing process [39], where the outer and inner layers are hydrophobic or have a hydrophilic surfactant treatment [40]. In contrast, reusable masks are made of two or three layers of different synthetic or semisynthetic materials, such as cotton-polyester blends, polyester/polyamide, and flannel, among others [2,3,41]. ...
The excessive use and incorrect disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) during the COVID-19 pandemic have aggravated the problem of plastic and microplastic (MPs) pollution in the environment. In particular, disposable face masks (DFMs) are subject to increasing concern due to their effects on marine biota and the release of MPs, as well as other pollutants such as heavy metals and phthalates esters. The present review discusses different existing characterization techniques, such as Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) coupled with an energy-dispersive X-ray analyzer (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), to evaluate the topographical, morphological, structural, and compositional characteristics as well as the surface of littered DFM and MPs released. The combined use of characterization techniques has been crucial to understanding how and to which extent the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of DFMs contribute to MPs and plastic pollution in the world.
... Effects of masks on the environment have been summarized in several general articles and treatises [45,[73][74][75], hence only brief details are given here. A study by Sullivan et al has highlighted the potential pollution by micro-and nano-sized particles, mainly plastic fibers and silicate grains, but also heavy metals (Pb, Cd and Sb) and organic pollutants, being released from disposable plastic face masks that are exposed to water, as is the case when these enter our waterways, seas and oceans [66]. ...
In this perspective, we review the evidence for the efficacy of face masks to reduce the transmission of respiratory viruses, specifically severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and consider the value of mandating universal mask wearing against the widespread negative impacts that have been associated with such measures. Before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, it was considered that there was little to no benefit in healthy people wearing masks as prophylaxis against becoming infected or as unwitting vectors of viral transmission. This accepted policy was hastily reversed early on in the pandemic, when districts and countries throughout the world imposed stringent masking mandates. Now, more than three years since the start of the pandemic, the amassed studies that have investigated the use of masks to reduce transmission of SARS-CoV-2 (or other pathogens) have led to conclusions that are largely inconsistent and contradictory. There is no statistically significant or unambiguous scientific evidence to justify mandatory masking for general, healthy populations with the intention of lessening the viral spread. Even if mask wearing could potentially reduce the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in individual cases, this needs to be balanced against the physical, psychological and social harms associated with forced mask wearing, not to mention the negative impact of innumerable disposed masks entering our fragile environment. Given the lack of unequivocal scientific proof that masks have any effect on reducing transmission, together with the evident harms to people and the environment through the use of masks, it is our opinion that the mandatory use of face masks in the general population is unjustifiable and must be abandoned in future pandemic countermeasures policies.
... The detection of MPs in the fetal placenta in Italy (Ragusa et al., 2021) has raised significant concerns, as it remains unclear how these microplastics entered the women's bloodstream, which is directly connected to the gastrointestinal system. Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to a surge in plastic waste generation due to the widespread use of face masks by the public (Agamuthu and Barasarathi, 2020;Akber Abbasi et al., 2020;Aragaw, 2020;Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). Moreover, the healthcare sector generates a substantial amount of single-use plastic waste from clinical facilities. ...
Microplastics (MPs) have become a prevalent environmental concern, exerting detrimental effects on marine and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as human health. Addressing this urgent issue necessitates the implementation of coordinated waste management policies and strategies. In this study, we present a comprehensive review focus-ing on key results and the underlying mechanisms associated with microplastics. We examine their sources and pathways, elucidate their ecological and human health impacts, and evaluate the current state of waste management policies. By drawing upon recent research and pertinent case studies, we propose a range of practical solutions , encompassing enhanced recycling and waste reduction measures, product redesign, and innovative technological interventions. Moreover, we emphasize the imperative for collaboration and cooperation across sectors and jurisdictions to effectively tackle this pressing environmental challenge. The findings of this study contribute to the broader understanding of microplastics and provide valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders alike.
... Examples of actions and interventions range from improvements of waste management processes and facilities, tax incentives, and habitat restoration, to outreach and education encouraging positive behavioural and lifestyle changes (Mugilarasan et al., 2023). In a related issue, during the COVID-19 pandemic in India, as in many other countries, there was a sharp increase in biomedical waste and personal protective equipment items made of polymeric material Schnurr et al., 2018;Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). In Tamil Nadu's state capital, Chennai, the pandemic is estimated to have generated 47 t of biomedical waste daily (The Hindu, 2020). ...
Climate change and marine litter are inextricably linked, and their interaction manifests differently depending on the specific environmental and biological characteristics, and other human activities taking place. The negative impacts resulting from those synergistic interactions are threatening coastal and marine ecosystems and the many goods and services they provide. This is particularly pervasive in the coastal zone of the Indian subcontinent. India is already experiencing severe climate change impacts, which are projected to worsen in the future. At the same time, the country is gripped by a litter crisis that is overwhelming authorities and communities and hindering the country's sustainable development goals. The coastal environment and communities of the southern states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. While these state governments and authorities are stepping up efforts to improve the management of their coastal zones, the scale and severity of these issues are mounting. Here we review the combined effects of climate change and marine litter pollution in Southern India, focusing on the Gulf of Mannar Reserve in Tamil Nadu and the Malabar Coast in Kerala. Finally, we discuss effective management options that could help improve resilience and sustainability.
... Similarly, in Malaysia, the estimated daily use of face masks exceeded seven million [2], worsening the environmental impact. The accumulation of discarded masks, particularly those made of polypropylene and other plastics, not only contributes to environmental pollution but also raises concerns about the release of potentially harmful substances as these masks degrade [3]. Moreover, the improper disposal of masks results in their transformation into microplastics, further polluting our oceans and posing a potential threat to marine life [4]. ...
The widespread use of disposable surgical masks and N95 respirators has led to concerning environmental pollutions. As a result, there has been a growing demand for fabric face masks that are not only reusable and environmentally friendly, but also effective in preventing virus transmission. However, traditional fabric masks have a drawback: their hydrophilic nature increases the risk of virus transmission. To address this challenge, an innovative solution for achieving superhydrophobic surface on cotton, microfiber, and microfiber blend materials was investigated. The key focus of this investigation revolvesaround the impact of varying concentration of hexadecyltrimethoxysilane (HDTMS) on the hydrophobicity of different fabrics. Consequently, all cotton fabric samples treated with 5%, 10% and 20% HDTMS concentration exhibit water contact angles (WCA) surpassing 150o, effortlessly achieving a state of superhydrophobicity. The modified cotton and microfiber materials proudly display not only enhanced water repellency but also boast exceptional self-cleaning and stain resistant properties.
... For instance, China increased the daily production of medical masks to 14.8 million since from February 2020, which is much higher than before (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020 ...
The global outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is affecting every partof human lives, including the physical world. The measures taken to control thespread of the virus and the slowdown of economic activities have significant effectson the environment. Therefore, this study intends to explore the positive andnegative environmental impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, by reviewing theavailable scientific literatures. This study indicates that, the pandemic situationsignificantly improves air quality in different cities across the world, reduces GHGsemission, lessens water pollution and noise, and reduces the pressure on the touristdestinations, which may assist with the restoration of the ecological system. Inaddition, there are also some negative consequences of COVID-19, such as increaseof medical waste, haphazard use and disposal of disinfectants, mask, and gloves; andburden of untreated wastes continuously endangering the environment. It seems that,economic activities will return soon after the pandemic, and the situation mightchange. Hence, this study also outlines possible ways to achieve long-termenvironmental benefits. It is expected that the proper implementation of the proposedstrategies might be helpful for the global environmental sustainability.
... This could enhance anaerobic communities and increase soil respiration, i.e., by CO 2 fluxes and CH 4 emission, consequently impacting climate (Ng et al. 2021). Plastic particulates present in the atmosphere and ocean result in carbon emissions, which directly impact carbon sequestration and climate change (Shen et al. 2020;Fadare and Okoffo 2020). The biota of these undisturbed remote areas may be primarily endemic, native, or considered representative of vulnerable ecosystems (Horton and Barnes 2020). ...
Microplastic (MP) pollution has aroused a tremendous amount of public and scientific interest worldwide. MPs are found widely ranging from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems primarily due to the over-exploitation of plastic products and unscientific disposal of plastic waste. There is a large availability of scientific literature on MP pollution in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, especially the marine environments; however, only recently has greater scientific attention been focused on the presence of MPs in the air and its retrospective health implications. Besides, atmospheric transport has been reported to be an important pathway of transport of MPs to the pristine regions of the world. From a health perspective, existing studies suggest that airborne MPs are priority pollutant vectors, that may penetrate deep into the body through inhalation leading to adverse health impacts such as neurotoxicity, cancer, respiratory problems, cytotoxicity, and many more. However, their effects on indoor and outdoor air quality, and on human health are not yet clearly understood due to the lack of enough research studies on that and the non-availability of established scientific protocols for their characterization. This scientific review entails important information concerning the abundance of atmospheric MPs worldwide within the existing literature. A thorough comparison of existing sampling and analytical protocols has been presented. Besides, this review has unveiled the areas of scientific concern especially air quality monitoring which requires immediate attention, with the information gaps to be filled have been addressed.
... Sustainable Environment Research (2023) 33:20 with the pandemic [4]. Also, the Japanese Ministry for Finance, Trade, and Industry noted that almost 600 million face masks would be required in April 2020 [5]. The figures seem consistent compared to China's production capacities, which make it a significant supplier of masks globally. ...
The unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic has caused socioeconomic, physical, mental, and environmental upheaval. Personal protective equipment, such as face masks, was mandatory to curb the spread of the virus. The unexpected increase in demand for face masks resulted in an alarming increase in plastic waste globally. The non-biodegradable nature of the raw materials and the potential threat of microplastic pollution amplify the problem. This puts a lot of pressure on policymakers and the global supply chain to develop long-term plans to make face masks less harmful. By reviewing existing life cycle assessment studies, this study aims to provide an overview on how sustainable face masks are. Various challenges in the facemask industry such as microplastic pollution and waste management are discussed. A critical analysis on the various process hotspots is also conducted. Recommendations from this study can motivate focused research into an important field and enable the transitions towards a sustainable facemask industry.
... Given that masks, gloves, and wipes are not typically reused, combined with concerns about their post-use contamination, large numbers of these items began to proliferate on the streets and beaches of populated areas. Proliferation of discarded PPE following the onset of the pandemic have been documented in many countries including, but not limited to: Canada (Ammendolia et al., 2021); Peru and Argentina (Dela-Torre et al., 2021, Chile (Ardusso et al., 2021;Thiel et al., 2021), Mexico (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2022, Colombia and Argentina (Ardusso et al., 2021), Brazil (Ardusso et al., 2021;Ribeiro et al., 2022), Poland (Nowakowski et al., 2020), Italy (Binda et al., 2021), Turkey (Akarsu et al., 2021), Greece (Kouvara et al., 2022), Egypt and Saudi Arabia (Hassan et al., 2022), Nigeria (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020), Ethiopia (Aragaw et al., 2022), Persian Gulf (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2021;Mohamadi et al., 2023), Caspian Sea (Hatami et al., 2022;Mohamadi et al., 2023), Africa (Benson et al., 2021), Kenya (Okuku et al., 2021), Morocco (Haddad et al., 2021;Mghili et al., 2022), Bangladesh Abedin et al., 2022;Monolina et al., 2022), India (Gunasekaran et al., 2022), Indonesia (Cordova et al., 2021), Hong Kong (Dybas, 2021), Philippines (Sajorne et al., 2022) and Fiji (Chand et al., 2021). ...
This study examines trends in PPE (masks, gloves) and disinfecting wipes over three years of the pandemic. The densities of discarded masks, wet wipes, and gloves (personal protective equipment: PPE), were quantified on the streets of Canakkale, Turkey during similar time periods in 2020, 2021 and 2022. Geotagged images of PPE on the streets and sidewalks were documented with a smartphone, while the track of an observer was recorded using a fitness tracker app along a 7.768 km long survey route in the city center, parallel to the Dardanelles Strait. A total of 18 surveys were conducted over three years, and the survey route was subdivided into three zones based on utilization patterns: pedestrian zone, traffic zone and a recreational park zone. The combined densities of all types of PPE density were high in 2020, lower in 2021 and highest in 2022. The within year trend showed an increase over the three study years. The average density of gloves declined from an initially high level in 2020, when the SARS-CoV-2 virus was thought to be transmitted by contact, to near zero in 2021 and to zero in 2022. Densities of wipes were similar in 2020 and 2021 and higher in 2022. Masks were initially difficult to procure in 2020, and their densities progressively increased during that year reaching a plateau in 2021 with similar densities in 2022. PPE densities were significantly lower in the pedestrian route relative to the traffic and park routes, which were not different from each other. The partial curfews implemented by the Turkish government and the effects of prevention measures taken on the PPE concentration in the streets are discussed along with the importance of waste management practices.
... Rác thải từ khẩu trang thường được xử lý bằng các phương pháp đốt hoặc chôn lấp, tuy nhiên, lựa chọn này không hiệu quả với số lượng lớn khẩu trang được sử dụng và còn thải khí CO 2 làm ô nhiễm môi trường [2,5]. Khi chôn lấp, khẩu trang sử dụng một lần được làm từ các sợi vải không dệt polypropylene phân rã và phân hủy thành các hạt vi nhựa, chúng dễ dàng xâm nhập vào môi trường đất, nước gây ảnh hưởng nghiêm trọng đến môi trường, hệ sinh thái và con người [6,7]. Vì thế, giải pháp thay thế bền vững được đưa ra là khẩu trang phân hủy sinh học từ các loại sợi tự nhiên, nhằm giúp giảm thiểu rác thải nhựa từ khẩu trang sử dụng một lần tác động đến môi trường và sức khỏe con người [8]. ...
Medical face masks based on polypropylene non-woven fi-bres have been commonly used to prevent coronavirus and other types of viruses. However, the waste from medical masks causes pollution problems and negatively impacts the environment and human health. Biodegradable masks based on banana leaves are a potential solution for reduc-ing the amount of disposal of medical face masks because of their high cellulose content and abundant source in South-east Asia. This research used the thermal compression method to fabricate the cellulose film after banana leaves were treated with NaOH and H2O2. These cellulose films were designed into the biodegradable mask product for use. The properties of the banana-fibre film, such as me-chanical property, water absorption, biodegradability, and pH, were analysed and evaluated. The results showed that the cellulose film obtained a tensile strength and modulus of 2.55 and 119.18 MPa, respectively; a water absorption rate of 14.62% and the surface of cellulose film was hydropho-bic as shown by the contact angle of 92.5o. The banana-fi-bre film was biodegradable; the film’s mass decreased by 93.86% after 9 weeks and completely decomposed after 13 weeks. The banana-fibre mask achieved a pH of 6.96, which was in the pH range that is safe and suitable for humans.
... Aunque existe poca información sobre su potencial real de neurotoxicidad, la presencia de estos tóxicos induce estrés oxidativo, inhibición de la erasa y alteración de los niveles de neurotransmisores, factores que resultan en daño celular y aumento de la vulnerabilidad a desarrollar desórdenes neuronales, lo la situación, dado que el uso masivo de mascarillas construidas de polímeros plásticos (polipropileno) ha significado la generación mundial más residuos plásticos, que por las deficientes estrategias de control en cuanto a su Desde finales de 2019, millones de mascarillas desechables se consumen a diario en todo el mundo. (24) Si bien son de los equipos de protección más eficientes para mitigar el contagio de la COVID-19, junto con el distanciamiento social y las prevenciones de trasmisión por contacto como el lavado de manos, las mascarillas están constituidas por polímeros plásticos y son en su mayoría productos desechables y ueva fuente de desechos masiva y recurrente. millones de partículas de fueron detectados en el moco nasal de los portadores de mascarillas, los estos equipos de protección. ...
Introduction: commercial plastic products has transformed the modern era in such a way that current life without plastic would not be possible, so at the same time with this development, plastics contamination is present, becoming one of the most urgent environmental problems nowadays.
Objective: to gather available information published on the last five years concerning the microplastics as a source of environmental contamination in Ecuador and in order to reinforce the local interest on plastic pollution.
Development: an unstructured review of the literature was performed. Databases used, PubMed and Google Scholar. The inclusion criteria used were as follow: articles in English and Spanish published on the last 5 years, no other language; study selections have been done by convenience. It was chronologically organized and analyzed the evidence published in PubMed and Google Scholar on the last five years concerning the microplastics behavior in Ecuador.
Final considerations: the information collected chronologically shows the advancing pollution caused by microplastics both globally and in Ecuador, in addition, the presence of microplastics in oceans, fresh water, terrestrial ecosystems, air, foods and even in the human body is evident. Therefore, contamination caused by microplastics is a topic of a great importance today, which requires a speedy control action.
... Also, in this study, the second sampling (Sep 30, 2020) was carried out during the Covid-19 pandemic. Recent studies identified disposable face masks as a potential source of synthetic fibers in the environment (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020;Shen et al., 2021). Thus, an increase in fiber levels may be due to changing habits such as frequent cleaning and laundry and the use of single-use face masks during the Covid-19 pandemic. ...
Rivers are major transport pathways for microplastics to reach the oceans. Although gained much attention over the last few years, there is still a relatively lack of knowledge on microplastics in rivers. This study aims to investigate (i) spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics in an industrially polluted river, (ii) the relationship of microplastic abundance with river's morphological and hydrodynamic characteristics (iii) the potential sources of microplastics inferred from the particle characteristics including shape, size, color and type. To achieve these aims, water and sediment samples were collected from six sites upstream of the Ergene River in May 2019 and Sep 2020. According to the results, surface water had an average concentration of 4.65 ± 2.06 and 6.90 ± 5.16 items L-1 (mean ± standard deviation, n = 12), respectively for the May 2019 and September 2020 periods, whereas 97.90 ± 71.72 and 277.76 ± 207.21 items kg-1 (n = 18) were observed for the sediment compartment, respectively. Microplastic levels in water correlated positively with stream depth but negatively with channel width. Fibers were the dominating shape both in water (88%) and sediment (70%) and majority of the particles were black (49% in water and 39% in sediment) and blue (25% in water and 18% in sediment). According to Raman spectroscopic analysis, polyethylene terephthalate (PET, 28%) and polyamide (PA, 27%) were dominating polymers in water, while polystyrene (PS, 56%) were dominant in sediment. Compared to many other rivers, the Ergene River had excessive levels of microplastics. The research indicated that textile industries and effluents from organized industrial zones were the foremost contributor of microplastics in the river.
... These face masks are made of plastic polymers such as PP, PS, PE, PES, polyurethane (PUR), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and polycarbonate (PC) which are getting into the environment as a new emerging source of MP fibers. These face masks are also degrade/fragment or physically break down into MP particles (size less than 5 mm) and find their way into municipal WWTP (Aragaw, 2020;Fadare & Okoffo, 2020). ...
The threat of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic systems is almost a new challenge in environmental management. The municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) act both as collectors of MPs from anthropic use and as a source to natural environments. This study is aimed to determine the abundance, characteristics, and removal of MPs in a municipal WWTP with conventional activated sludge process. Particle size/type, influent loads, and removal rate of MPs in bar screen, grit chamber, primary sedimentation, returned activated sludge, and secondary clarification units of this WWTP were studied by collecting composite samples from wastewater and sludge over a 3-month sampling campaign. Suspected MP particles were counted by light microscopy and characterized using SEM, EDS, FTIR, and TGA–DSC techniques. The mean total MPs, fibers, and fragment concentration after the grit chamber were 6608, 3594, and 3014 which were reduced to 1855, 802, and 1053 particles/L in the effluent, respectively. The sludge retention of total MPs, fibers, and fragments were 8001, 3277, and 4719 particles/L, respectively. The overall efficiency of WWTP with an activated sludge process to remove MPs was 64% and it removed 66.6% and 60% of fibers and fragments, respectively. Fibers were the dominant shape for the collected samples after the grit chamber and fragments were prevalent in the effluent. Polyethylene polymer was detected in most wastewater samples. Existing treatment processes are effective in the removal of MP particles but still act as a potential source to the aquatic ecosystem.
Latar Belakang: Sejumlah besar studi telah difokuskan pada polusi mikroplastik. Mikroplastik adalah kontaminan yang telah mendapat perhatian besar, karena berdampak pada terhadap ekologi, sosial, ekonomi dan kesehatan. Pada lingkungan akuatik, mikroplastik terdapat didalam air dan sedimen. Sebanyak 30% mikroplastik mengendap di air permukaan dan di kolom air dan hampir keseluruhan yakni 70% mengendap di
sedimen.
Metode: Pencarian sumber literatur dari database jurnal online yakni Science direct dan Springer Link. Pencarian literatur merupakan artikel terbitan tahun 2010-2020.
Hasil: Kelimpahan mikroplastik didalam air dapat dipengaruhi berbagai faktor fisik seperti suhu, salinitas, pH, musim dan angin. Studi tentang mikroplastik dalam air dan sedimen yang berasal dari pesisir, laut, danau, sungai, muara, aliran air perkotaan dan teluk. Fragmen dan serat adalah bentuk dan jenis plastik yang paling sering dilaporkan.
Kesimpulan: Fragmen dan serat adalah bentuk dan jenis plastik yang paling sering dilaporkan yang umumnya sejalan dengan permintaan plastik dunia. Rekomendasi yang diberikan adalah informasi kepada pembuat kebijakan dalam mengelola plastik khususnya yang mengandung fragmen dan serat yang berkontribusi terhadap komposisi mikroplastik dengan demikian dapat mengurangi pencemaran dilingkungan akuatik.
The current study aims to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics (MPs) in the Miri coast, targeting their occurrences, characterisation, and potential sources. For a periodical study, coastal sediments were collected from three different time intervals (monsoon, post-monsoon, and post-COVID) and subjected to stereomicroscope, ATR-FTIR, and SEM-EDX analyses. These results show a significant increase of MPs in post-COVID samples by approximately 218% and 148% comparatively with monsoon and post-monsoon samples, respectively. The highest concentration of MPs was detected near the river mouths and industrial areas where the waste discharge rate and anthropogenic activities dominate. Fibre-type MPs are the most abundant, with an average of nearly 64%, followed by fragments, films, microbeads, and foams. The most dominant polymer types were polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyester (PET). Overall, the current study shows a better understanding of MPs occurrence and potential sources in the Miri coastal area.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the usage and production of face masks considerably increased, resulting in large quantities of mask waste accumulating in the natural environment. To investigate whether masks of polypropylene (PP) material could be ingested and degraded by insect worms like PP foam plastic, yellow mealworms were provided with different layers of disposable surgical masks as sole diets to for 30 d. Although mask layers, especially the middle layer of melt-blown filter, could be ingested by yellow mealworms, sole mask layer diets had adverse effects on the larval survival and growth. Analyses of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimeter and thermogravimetric, and gel permeation chromatography demonstrated the changes of functional groups, thermostability and molecular weights in frass compared to original masks, indicating the partial oxidation and degradation of masks. And the depolymerization of the middle layer of masks by yellow mealworms was different from that of other layers. The larval gut bacterial and fungal microbiomes were assessed by Illumina MiSeq, indicating that both of them shifted upon sole layer mask diets. Changes in relative abundances of dominant bacterial and fungal genera demonstrated the strong association between gut microbiome and mask degradation. For instance, unclassified Enterobacteriaceae was closely associated with outer layers degradation. Lactococcus and unclassified Ascomycota were responsible for middle layers degradation, while Lactococcus and Morganella for inner layers degradation. In conclusion, disposable surgical masks of PP material could be ingested and biodegraded by yellow mealworms. The diversities of gut bacterial and fungal microbiomes were associated with the differences in rigid crystalline structures of the layer masks.
Over the past 50 years, the emergence of plastic waste as one of the most urgent environmental problems in the world has given rise to several proposals to address the rising levels of contaminants associated with plastic debris. Worldwide plastic production has increased significantly over the last 70 years, reaching a record high of 359 million tonnes in 2020. China is currently the world's largest plastic producer, with a share of 17.5%. Of the total marine waste, microplastics account for 75%, while land-based pollution accounts for responsible for 80-90%, and ocean-based pollution 10-20% only in overall pollution problems. Even at small dosages (10 μg/mL), microplastics have been found to cause toxic effects on human and animal health. This review examines the sources of microplastic contamination, the prevalent reaches of microplastics, their impacts, and the remediation methods for microplastic contamination. This review explains the relationship between the community composition and the presence of microplastic particulate matter in aquatic ecosystems. The interaction between microplastics and emerging pollutants, including heavy metals, has been linked to enhanced toxicity. The review article provided a comprehensive overview of microplastic, including its fate, environmental toxicity, and possible remediation strategies. The results of our study are of great value as they illustrate a current perspective and provide an in-depth analysis of the current status of microplastics in development, their test requirements, and remediation technologies suitable for various environments.
The COVID-19 pandemic had an enormous impact in terms of lives lost and socio-economic decline but also highlighted issues regarding environmental sustainability. However, few studies have investigated COVID-19-related environmental perceptions. We thus assessed (i) people's concerns about the pandemic's adverse global environmental impacts and (ii) their aspirations for a greener, pandemic-proof, post-COVID future in a representative survey in New Zealand using two specifically designed measures. We found moderate to high COVID-related environmental concern (mean rating = 6.79 on a 10-point scale) and greener post-COVID world aspirations (mean rating = 7.01 on a 10-point scale). Concern and aspirations were unexpectedly evident even among those with low pro-environmental predispositions (e.g. those with low general environmental concern, low recycling frequency, and zero past-5-year environmental actions) – suggesting a pandemic-induced change among the previously unconcerned. Pre-existing pro-environmental dispositions and behaviours were not consistently associated with higher ratings in our measures as hypothesised. Demographic variables had limited influence, while experiences of financial and mental health impacts due to COVID-19 did not affect our measures – suggesting that the pandemic gave rise to new dimensions of environmental concern and aspirations for change that were experienced by most in society. While these concerns and aspirations offer a platform for society-led change, meaningful change can only occur with political will among governments to minimise the present pandemic's environmental impacts, sustain environmentally beneficial practices that occurred during lockdowns, and prevent future zoonotic epidemics and pandemics by steering and supporting environmental investments that lead to changes to travel behaviour, diet, farming practices, and treatment of animals.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2023.100907
Rapid spread of COVID-19 disease worldwide resulted in a dramatic increase in face mask consumption. Single-used surgical face masks are manufactured using plastic fibres such as polypropylene (PP) or polyester, which cause severe environmental concerns when accumulated in landfills, primarily due to their non-degradability. Furthermore, plastic fibres are derived from petroleum, a depleting resource at an alarming rate, due to which preserving is highly recommended. Massive consumption and subsequent disposal of single-use surgical face masks urge seeking alternative solutions to conserve resources and manage the ever-growing waste issue. This study investigates the feasibility of recycling surgical facemasks. Single-use surgical face masks were subjected to mechanical recycling through melt extrusion. FTIR and TGA tests were conducted to establish the raw material’s chemical composition and thermolytic properties. Facemasks were initially shredded and melt-extruded to obtain filaments, which were subsequently pelletised. The pellets were hot-pressed using the compression moulding technique to make sheet-like panels. Tensile testing of the recycled sheet-like material exhibited failure stress of ~23 MPa and a failure strain of ~2.2%. While the failure stress was similar to the virgin PP material, the failure strain reduced significantly upon recycling. The material’s thermal conductivity was measured to be 0.404 W m−1 K−1 using Lee’s Disc Method. Thermal conductivity was increased significantly than the virgin PP material. The recycled material can be used in sheet form for applications such as thermal insulation and partition boards with further improved strength and thickness. Additionally, recycled pellets have the potential to be used as 3D printing feedstock, thereby enabling utilisation in bulk quantities.KeywordsFace mask wasteCOVID-19Waste managementRecyclingEnvironmental pollutionPolypropylene
Disposable surgical face masks extensively used during the COVID-19 outbreak would release microplastics into the aquatic environment. The increasing usage of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nTiO2) in various consumer items has led to its ubiquitous presence in freshwater systems. This study determined the quantity and kind of microplastics discharged from disposable surgical face masks. The mask-leached microplastics were identified to be polypropylene of varying shapes and sizes, spanning from 1 μm to 15 μm. In addition, heavy metals like Cd, Cr, and Hg leached from the face masks were quantified. Four concentrations of nTiO2, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 mg L-1, were mixed with leached solution from the face masks to perform the combined toxicity test on freshwater algae, Scenedesmus obliquus. A dose-dependent decrease in algal cell viability was observed upon treatment with various concentrations of nTiO2 individually. The mixtures of nTiO2 and the leached solution from the face masks exhibited significantly more toxicity in the algal cells than in their pristine forms. nTiO2 promoted increased production of oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme activities resulting in cellular damage and decreased photosynthesis. These impacts were elevated when the algal cells were treated with the binary mixture. Furthermore, the heavy metal ions leached from face masks also contributed to the toxic effects. Our study shows that the leachates from disposable surgical face masks, combined with nTiO2, may pose a severe environmental threat.
Contamination of disposable medical masks has become a growing problem globally in the wake of Covid-19 due to their widespread use and improper disposal. Three different mask layers, namely the outer layer, the meltblown (MB) filler layer and the inner layers release three different types of microplastics, whose physical and chemical properties change after prolonged environmental weathering. In this study, physical and chemical changes of mask microplastics before and after aging were characterized by different characterization techniques. The toxic effect and mechanism of aged mask microplastics on Escherichia coli (E. coli) were studied by measuring the growth inhibition of mask microplastics, the change in ATPase activity, the change in malondialdehyde content and reactive oxygen species production, and the release of the chemical composition of exopolymeric substances (EPS). The microplastics of the aged MB filter layer had the most significant inhibitory effect on E. coli growth, reaching 19.2 % after 36 h. Also, under the influence of mask microplastics, ATPase activity of E. coli was inhibited and a large amount of EPS was released. The chemical composition of EPS has also changed. This study proposed the possible toxicity mechanism of mask microplastics and the self-protection mechanism of E. coli, and provided a reference for future research on the toxic effects of mask microplastics on environmental organisms.
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has amplified the presence of single-use plastic pollutants in the ocean. Africa, for instance, used personal protective equipment (PPE) that is disposed of indiscriminately into the environment, which is usually washed into the ocean. This pollutes the ocean and consequently lowers fishery yields. Aside from improper disposal practices, single-use personal protective equipment’s accumulation in the aquatic environment is caused by the absence or inadequate recycling and the lack of alternative uses for these wastes. It is estimated that globally, about 129 billion facemasks and 65 billion gloves are used each month contributing to widespread environmental pollution. This study analyzed and discussed the effects of plastic waste on the biodiversity of aquatic environments (ocean) vis a vis the management of personal protective equipments across the globe. Results from the review conducted showed that single-use personal protective equipments have the potential to release harmful chemicals, toxic substances, pathogenic microorganisms, and heavy metals into the environment and thus can hurt biodiversity and seafood security. To limit the identified negative effects, there is a need to regulate the use of single-use personal protective equipments and also promote the use of reusable masks. Educating and empowering especially coastal communities to act collectively to minimize plastic pollution (PPE) is a recommended measure for the protection of ocean resources.
During COVID-19, personal protective equipment such as face masks was in urgent demand in the daily life. As the pandemic may have withdrawn from public attention, the disposal of face masks is a significant issue, especially plastic pollution. To address the degradation of the polymers in the marine environment, seven commercial masks were investigated via artificial weathering procedures in substitute ocean water. A suite of structural and chemical characterization techniques was employed, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and contact angle goniometry, to probe the treatment impact on commercially available N95, surgical, polyurethane, polyester, nylon, silk, and cotton masks. This work provides insights into the comprehensive analysis of material degradation in nature and raises public awareness of environmental issues post-pandemic.
Disposable masks associated with COVID-19 pandemic are one of the most thrown plastic garbage items in the environment, even three years later, and they need more than 450 years to completely decompose. Given their harm to the environment and the absence of monitoring efforts to quantify the consumption and improper disposal of disposable masks in China, we carried out a survey to assess the consumption and littering of disposable masks nationwide. Our objectives were to quantify the consumption and littering of disposable masks and estimate the plastic pollution caused by disposable masks in China. According to the national survey, which combined online and offline results performed in March 2023, about 69% Chinese people still wear masks, and among of them, more than 93% used disposable masks, with more than 70% using more than one piece each day. Therefore, at least 20.3 billion disposable masks were consumed by Chinese people in March 2023 and 238.5 billion will be consumed in 2023 if there are no significant changes in circumstances. Meanwhile, more than 67% of the mask-wearing public disposed of the disposable masks into the household waste bin, and 7% of them discarded them at will. This means about 1.4 billion disposable masks, amounting to at least 350 tons of plastic pollution, were casually discharged into the environment during March 2023. The finding shed light on the inadequate management and disposal of disposable masks and highlight the urgency of preventing plastic pollution from disposable masks in China. It is recommended to raise public awareness of proper handling of disposable masks, institute strict management guidelines, and support innovations and research for nontoxic, biodegradable, reusable and easily recyclable masks.
Indiscriminate use of natural resources has adversely affected Iran's environment over the past few decades. Cities have developed irregularly and non-normatively, and project management has been weak, mainly in big cities, causing many problems. Even more of the engineering rules and environmental aspects for projects do not apply. For this reason, projects must undergo an environmental impact assessment (EIA) to determine their environmental impact. One way it can be used for EIA is by using the rapid impact assessment matrix (RIAM). Transparency and objectivity are introduced by minimizing subjectivity. A detailed EIA was conducted in the Tehran project using the RIAM and different options during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is the first study combining the method described during the disaster.
Disposable surgical masks emerged as a solution to the increasing protection demands against fine/ultrafine particulate matter. It was prompted by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and the escalating levels of air pollution...
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging contaminants, and there are only limited studies reporting the impacts of some MPs on liver lipid metabolism in animals. In this study, we investigated the accumulation of polypropylene-MPs in mouse liver and unraveled the change in lipid metabolic profiles by both lipidomics and Raman spectroscopy. Polypropylene-MP exposure did not cause obvious health symptoms, but hematoxylin-eosin staining showed pathological changes that polypropylene-MPs induced lipid droplet accumulation in liver. Lipidomics results showed a significant change in lipid metabolic profiles and the most influenced categories were triglycerides, fatty acids, free fatty acids and lysophosphatidylcholine, implying the effects of polypropylene-MPs on the hemostasis of lipid droplet biogenesis and catabolism. Most altered lipids contained unsaturated bonds and polyunsaturated phospholipids, possibly affecting the fluidity and curvature of membrane surfaces. Raman spectroscopy confirmed that the major spectral alterations of liver tissues were related to lipids, evidencing the altered lipid metabolism and cell membrane components in the presence of polypropylene-MPs. Our findings firstly disclosed the impacts of polypropylene-MPs on lipid metabolisms in mouse liver and hinted at their detrimental disturbance on membrane properties, cellular lipid storage and oxidation regulation, helping our deeper understanding on the toxicities and corresponding risks of polypropylene-MPs to mammals.
With the upsurge in the use of disposable masks during the coronavirus disease pandemic, improper disposal of discarded masks and their negative impact on the environment have emerged as major issues. Improperly disposed of masks release various pollutants, particularly microplastic (MP) fibers, which can harm both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by interfering with the nutrient cycling, plant growth, and the health and reproductive success of organisms. This study assesses the environmental distribution of polypropylene (PP)-containing MPs, generated from disposable masks, using material flow analysis (MFA). The system flowchart is designed based on the processing efficiency of various compartments in the MFA model. The highest amount of MPs (99.7 %) is found in the landfill and soil compartments. A scenario analysis reveals that waste incineration significantly reduces the amount of MP transferred to landfills. Therefore, considering cogeneration and gradually increasing the incineration treatment rate are crucial to manage the processing load of waste incineration plants and minimize the negative impact of MPs on the environment. The findings provide insights into the potential environmental exposure associated with the improper disposal of waste masks and indicate strategies for sustainable mask disposal and management.
Orchids are the integral part of wonderful natural heritage of Northeastern
region. Mining severely alters the landscape, eliminates existing
vegetation, destroys the genetic soil profile, displaces the habitat and to
some extent permanently changes the general topography of the area
mined. Presently many spectacular and economically important orchid
species of Assam are facing danger of extinction owing to destruction
of habitat due to mining. Present study was conducted taxonomic
exploration of orchid, evaluation of habitat ecology for reorganization
of their occurrence and impact of open cast mining in North Eastern
Coalfields (NEC) covers forest areas. Soil moisture and organic carbon
percentage were comparatively low in the forest sites proximity to the
mining areas with high acidic value. Presently 96 numbers of orchid
species were recorded, among them eighteen epiphytic orchids were
found in entire forests and fifteen species in terrestrial habit. Maximum
number of species was found in Upper Dihing RF, which the part of
rain forest Dihing Patkai National Park. Status of orchid flora revealed
that 19 species were under rare, 15 vulnerable, 11 endangered and 4 in critically endangered category those reflect the area as an disturbing
indication orchid habitat.
Background
Up to 31 March 2020, 105,792 COVID-19 cases were confirmed in Italy including 15,726 deaths which explains how worst the epidemic has affected the country. After announcing lockdown in Italy on the 9 March 2020, situation is becoming stable since last days of March. In view of this, it is important to forecast the evolution of the Italy situation and the possible effects if this lock down would continue for another two months.
Methods
Patient statistics were extracted from Italian Health Ministry website where the COVID-19 outbreak of reproductive cases and recovered cases based on last 45 days are reported. Adoption of seasonal ARIMA encompasses the forecast package in R to predict.
Results
Predictions were done with 93.75% of accuracy for registered case models and 84.4% of accuracy for recovered case models. The forecasting of positive cases might reach the value of 182,757 and forecasting of recovered cases might reach the value of 81,635 at end of May if the lock down is continuous.
Conclusions
This study highlights the necessity of country lock down and self isolation to control disease transmissibility among Italian population through data driven model analysis. Our findings suggest that nearly 35% of decay in positive cases and 66% of growth in recovered cases could be possible.
Background
A novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak due to the severe respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection occurred in China in late December 2019. Facemask wearing with proper hand hygiene is considered an effective measure to prevent SARS-CoV-2 transmission, but facemask wearing has become a social concern due to the global facemask shortage. China is the major facemask producer in the world, contributing to 50% of global production. However, a universal facemask wearing policy would put an enormous burden on the facemask supply.
Methods
We performed a policy review concerning facemasks using government websites and mathematical modelling shortage analyses based on data obtained from the National Health Commission (NHC), the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT), the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and General Administration of Customs (GAC) of the People's Republic of China. Three scenarios with respect to wearing facemasks were considered: (1) a universal facemask wearing policy implementation in all regions of mainland China; (2) a universal facemask wearing policy implementation only in the epicentre (Hubei province, China); and (3) no implementation of a universal facemask wearing policy.
Findings
Regardless of different universal facemask wearing policy scenarios, facemask shortage would occur but eventually end during our prediction period (from 20 Jan 2020 to 30 Jun 2020). The duration of the facemask shortage described in the scenarios of a country-wide universal facemask wearing policy, a universal facemask wearing policy in the epicentre, and no universal facemask wearing policy were 132, seven, and four days, respectively. During the prediction period, the largest daily facemask shortages were predicted to be 589·5, 49·3, and 37·5 million in each of the three scenarios, respectively. In any scenario, an N95 mask shortage was predicted to occur on 24 January 2020 with a daily facemask shortage of 2·2 million.
Interpretation
Implementing a universal facemask wearing policy in the whole of China could lead to severe facemask shortage. Without effective public communication, a universal facemask wearing policy could result in societal panic and subsequently, increase the nationwide and worldwide demand for facemasks. These increased demands could cause a facemask shortage for healthcare workers and reduce the effectiveness of outbreak control in the affected regions, eventually leading to a pandemic. To fight novel infectious disease outbreaks, such as COVID-19, governments should monitor domestic facemask supplies and give priority to healthcare workers. The risk of asymptomatic transmission and facemask shortages should be carefully evaluated before introducing a universal facemask wearing policy in high-risk regions. Public health measures aimed at improving hand hygiene and effective public communication should be considered along with the facemask policy.
Single-use plastics, or SUPs (plastic bags, microbeads, cutlery, straws and polystyrene) are substantial sources of plastic marine pollution, yet preventable via legislative and non-legislative interventions. Various international legislative strategies have been reported to address plastic marine pollution from plastic bags and microbeads, but these have since been accompanied by recent increasing public awareness triggered by international agencies and organizations. The Sixth International Marine Debris Conference highlighted increasing intervention strategies to mitigate SUP pollution. This study presents new multi-jurisdictional legislative interventions to reduce SUPs since 2017 and incorporates emergence of new non-legislative interventions to mitigate other types of SUPs at individual and private-sector levels that complement or influence legislative interventions. Further, effectiveness of SUP bag interventions (e.g., bans vs. levies) to help reduce SUP marine pollution are presented and range between 33-96% reduction in bag use.
Objectives: The risk of acquisition and transmission of respiratory infections is high among attendees of mass gatherings (MGs). Currently used interventions have limitations yet the role of facemask in preventing those infections at MG has not been systematically reviewed. We have conducted a systematic review to synthesise evidence about the uptake and effectiveness of facemask against respiratory infections in MGs.
Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted according to the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines using major electronic databases such as, Medline, EMBASE, SCOPUS and CINAHL.
Results: Of 25 studies included, the pooled sample size was 12710 participants from 55 countries aged 11 to 89 years, 37% were female. The overall uptake of facemask ranged from 0.02% to 92.8% with an average of about 50%. Only 13 studies examined the effectiveness of facemask, and their pooled estimate revealed significant protectiveness against respiratory infections (relative risk [RR] = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.84-0.94, p
Electrospinning is a versatile technique that has gained popularity for various biomedical applications in recent years. Electrospinning is being used for fabricating nanofibers for various biomedical and dental applications such as tooth regeneration, wound healing and prevention of dental caries. Electrospun materials have the benefits of unique properties for instance, high surface area to volume ratio, enhanced cellular interactions, protein absorption to facilitate binding sites for cell receptors. Extensive research has been conducted to explore the potential of electrospun nanofibers for repair and regeneration of various dental and oral tissues including dental pulp, dentin, periodontal tissues, oral mucosa and skeletal tissues. However, there are a few limitations of electrospinning hindering the progress of these materials to practical or clinical applications. In terms of biomaterials aspects, the better understanding of controlled fabrication, properties and functioning of electrospun materials is required to overcome the limitations. More in vivo studies are definitely required to evaluate the biocompatibility of electrospun scaffolds. Furthermore, mechanical properties of such scaffolds should be enhanced so that they resist mechanical stresses during tissue regeneration applications. The objective of this article is to review the current progress of electrospun nanofibers for biomedical and dental applications. In addition, various aspects of electrospun materials in relation to potential dental applications have been discussed.
Surgical face masks are an important component of surgical apparel. The masks are expected to perform as barriers and provide increased protection to the patients and health care workers. In this study, the Bacterial Filtration Efficiency (BFE) of six commercially available surgical face masks was determined for two microorganisms. Fabric characteristics (weight, thickness, pore size, and resistance to synthetic blood strike through) thought to influence the barrier effectiveness were measured and the relationship between these characteristics and BFE was examined. Two challenge microorganisms, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were evaluated in this study. For five of the six masks evaluated, the BFE against the challenge microorganism S. aureus was higher than when the challenge microorganism was E. coli. The mask with the lowest mean pore size and lowest maximum pore size had the highest BFE for both microorganisms evaluated, indicating that a relationship exists between pore size and BFE.
The aim of the study was to determine rates of mask-wearing, of respiratory infection and the factors associated with mask-wearing and of respiratory infection in healthcare workers (HCWs) in Beijing during the winter of 2007/2008.
We conducted a survey of 400 HCWs working in eight hospitals in Beijing by face to face interview using a standardized questionnaire.
We found that 280/400 (70.0%) of HCWs were compliant with mask-wearing while in contact with patients. Respiratory infection occurred in 238/400 (59.5%) subjects from November, 2007 through February, 2008. Respiratory infection was higher among females (odds ratio [OR], 2.00 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.16-3.49]) and staff working in larger hospitals (OR, 1.72 [95% CI, 1.092.72]), but was lower among subjects with seasonal influenza vaccination (OR, 0.46 [95% CI, 0.280.76]), wearing medical masks (reference: cotton-yarn; OR, 0.60 [95% CI, 0.39-0.91]) or with good mask-wearing adherence (OR, 0.60 [95% CI, 0.37-0.98]). The risk of respiratory infection of HCWs working in low risk areas was similar to that of HCWs in high risk area.
Our data suggest that female HCWs and staffs working in larger hospitals are the focus of prevention and control of respiratory infection in Beijing hospitals. Mask-wearing and seasonal influenza vaccination are protective for respiratory infection in HCWs; the protective efficacy of medical masks is better than that of cotton yarn ones; respiratory infection of HCWs working in low risk areas should also be given attention.
Plastics debris is accumulating in the environment and is fragmenting into smaller pieces; as it does, the potential for ingestion by animals increases. The consequences of macroplastic debris for wildlife are well documented, however the impacts of microplastic (< 1 mm) are poorly understood. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, was used to investigate ingestion, translocation, and accumulation of this debris. Initial experiments showed that upon ingestion, microplastic accumulated in the gut. Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments containing seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 microm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. The short-term pulse exposure used here did not result in significant biological effects. However, plastics are exceedingly durable and so further work using a wider range of organisms, polymers, and periods of exposure will be required to establish the biological consequences of this debris.
This study hypothesized that national population health literacy might reflect on their keywords searching. We applied Google searches for “wash hands” and “face mask” during January 19 to February 18 as a surrogate of national population health literacy among 21 countries, and examine whether google searches for “wash hands” and “face masks” would protect from increased numbers of confirmed cases of among 21 countries We found the increased google searches for “wash hands” from January 19 to February 18, 2020, correlated with a lower spreading speed of COVID-19 from February 19 to March 10, 2020 among 21 countries (Pearson's correlation coefficient of -0.70, P < 0.001). The result highlights the importance of public awareness of hand washing in preventing COVID-19 disease spreading.
Public health measures were decisive in controlling the SARS epidemic in 2003. Isolation is the separation of ill persons from non-infected persons. Quarantine is movement restriction, often with fever surveillance, of contacts when it is not evident whether they have been infected but are not yet symptomatic or have not been infected. Community containment includes measures that range from increasing social distancing to community-wide quarantine. Whether these measures will be sufficient to control 2019-nCoV depends on addressing some unanswered questions.
The reliance on plastic for a vast number of consumer products, many of them single-use, results in their continuous entry into aquatic environments. Plastic waste can fragment into smaller debris, some with a diameter < 5 mm (microplastics). Microplastics are of growing concern especially since 2014, however to date research on microplastic pollution has mainly focused on marine environments, partly because it has been mistakenly thought that sewage treatment plants could remove all plastic debris. To understand the impact of microplastic pollution in freshwater environments, an assessment of research on the sources, distribution and effects of microplastics, and trends in their analysis and policy has been carried out. Main sources of microplastic found in freshwater environments include synthetic textiles, personal care products, industrial raw materials and the improper disposal of plastic waste. Microplastic pollution is a global issue that presents with a broad range of concentration: for example, 3.5 × 10^3 microplastic units·L−1 were reported in sediment of Lake Huron, in the US and as low as 1.2×10−4 units·L−1 in countries with sparse population such as Mongolia. The main polymer constituents of microplastics found in freshwaters have been identified as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), accounting for 70% of the total, each with a very similar frequency of occurrence. Despite microplastics being relatively inert, they are found to cause some effects in aquatic organisms. Future work should focus on monitoring microplastic pollution in regions from where there is currently scarce published data (e.g. South America, Africa and North Asia) and the study of their sources, stability, transport and effects to freshwater ecosystems. The establishment of standardized monitoring methods will allow for the comparison of data from different geographic areas. This information will inform measures to reduce the release and occurrence of microplastics in aquatic environments.
Global climate change has attracted worldwide attention. The ocean is the largest active carbon pool on the planet and plays an important role in global climate change. However, marine plastic pollution is getting increasingly serious due to the large consumption and mismanagement of global plastics. The impact of marine plastics on ecosystem responsible for the gas exchange and circulation of marine CO2 may cause more greenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, in this paper, threats of marine microplastics to ocean carbon sequestration are discussed. Marine microplastics can 1) affect phytoplankton photosynthesis and growth; 2) have toxic effects on zooplankton and affect their development and reproduction; 3) affect marine biological pump; and 4) affect ocean carbon stock. Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the most important producer and consumer of the ocean. As such, clearly, further research should be needed to explore the potential scale and scope of this impact, and its underlying mechanisms.
In the 12 years since Dudgeon et al. (2006) reviewed major pressures on freshwater ecosystems, the biodiversity crisis in the world's lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams and wetlands has deepened. While lakes, reservoirs and rivers cover only 2.3% of the Earth's surface, these ecosystems host at least 9.5% of the Earth's described animal species. Furthermore, using the World Wide Fund for Nature's Living Planet Index, freshwater population declines (83% between 1970 and 2014) continue to outpace contemporaneous declines in marine or terrestrial systems. The Anthropocene has brought multiple new and varied threats that disproportionately impact freshwater systems. We document 12 emerging threats to freshwater biodiversity that are either entirely new since 2006 or have since intensified: (i) changing climates; (ii) e‐commerce and invasions; (iii) infectious diseases; (iv) harmful algal blooms; (v) expanding hydropower; (vi) emerging contaminants; (vii) engineered nanomaterials; (viii) microplastic pollution; (ix) light and noise; (x) freshwater salinisation; (xi) declining calcium; and (xii) cumulative stressors. Effects are evidenced for amphibians, fishes, invertebrates, microbes, plants, turtles and waterbirds, with potential for ecosystem‐level changes through bottom‐up and top‐down processes. In our highly uncertain future, the net effects of these threats raise serious concerns for freshwater ecosystems. However, we also highlight opportunities for conservation gains as a result of novel management tools (e.g. environmental flows, environmental DNA) and specific conservation‐oriented actions (e.g. dam removal, habitat protection policies, managed relocation of species) that have been met with varying levels of success. Moving forward, we advocate hybrid approaches that manage fresh waters as crucial ecosystems for human life support as well as essential hotspots of biodiversity and ecological function. Efforts to reverse global trends in freshwater degradation now depend on bridging an immense gap between the aspirations of conservation biologists and the accelerating rate of species endangerment.
Microplastic research in recent years has shown that small plastic particles are found almost everywhere we look. Besides aquatic and terrestrial environments, this also includes aquatic species intended for human consumption and several studies have reported their prevalence in other food products and beverages. The scientific as well as public debate has therefore increasingly focused on human health implications of microplastic exposure. However, there is a big discrepancy between the magnitude of this debate and actual scientific findings, which have merely shown the presence of microplastics in certain products. While plastics can undoubtedly be hazardous to human health due to toxicity of associated chemicals or as a consequence of particle toxicity, the extent to which microplastics in individual food products and beverages contribute to this is debatable. Considering the enormous use of plastic materials in our everyday lives, microplastics from food products and beverages likely only constitute a minor exposure pathway for plastic particles and associated chemicals to humans. But as this is rarely put into perspective, the recent debate has created a skewed picture of human plastic exposure. We risk pulling the focus away from the root of the problem: the way in which we consume, use and dispose of plastics leading to their widespread presence in our everyday life and in the environment. Therefore we urge for a more careful and balanced discussion which includes these aspects.
Marine microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a modern societal issue, illustrating the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic in daily life with the prospect of causing ecological harm by careless disposal. Here we develop the concept of microplastic as a complex, dynamic mixture of polymers and additives, to which organic material and contaminants can successively bind to form an ‘ecocorona’, increasing the density and surface charge of particles and changing their bioavailability and toxicity. Chronic exposure to microplastic is rarely lethal, but can adversely affect individual animals, reducing feeding and depleting energy stores, with knock-on effects for fecundity and growth. We explore the extent to which ecological processes could be impacted, including altered behaviours, bioturbation and impacts on carbon flux to the deep ocean. We discuss how microplastic compares with other anthropogenic pollutants in terms of ecological risk, and consider the role of science and society in tackling this global issue in the future.
Microplastic litter is a pervasive pollutant present in aquatic systems across the globe. A range of marine organisms have the capacity to ingest microplastics, resulting in adverse health effects. Developing methods to accurately quantify microplastics in productive marine waters, and those internalized by marine organisms, is of growing importance. Here we investigate the efficacy of using acid, alkaline and enzymatic digestion techniques in mineralizing biological material from marine surface trawls to reveal any microplastics present. Our optimized enzymatic protocol can digest >97% (by weight) of the material present in plankton-rich seawater samples without destroying any microplastic debris present. In applying the method to replicate marine samples from the western English Channel, we identified 0.27 microplastics m(-3). The protocol was further used to extract microplastics ingested by marine zooplankton under laboratory conditions. Our findings illustrate that enzymatic digestion can aid the detection of microplastic debris within seawater samples and marine biota.
This paper is a comprehensive review of the meltblown process and parameters. The meltblown process is complex because of the many parameters and interrelationships between those parameters. Due to the competitiveness of the industry, process settings and polymers used are secretive, but there are several key researchers that have published studies on the interactions of meltblown variables. A majority of the research conducted has been on the relationship of process parameters and mean fiber diameter in order to understand how to produce smaller and higher quality fibers. This paper offers suggestions for future research on specific meltblown parameters.
- C C Leung
- T H Lam
- K K Cheng
Leung, C.C., Lam, T.H., Cheng, K.K., 2020. Correspondence. Lancet 395, 945.
- H Elachola
- A M Assiri
- Z A Memish
Elachola, H., Assiri, A.M., Memish, Z.A., 2014. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 20, 77-78.
COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic
- Worldometer
Worldometer, 2020. COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic. May, 07. https://www.
worldometers.info/coronavirus/ (Retrieved May 7, 2020).
China focus: mask makers go all out in fight against novel coronavirus
- Xinhuanet
Xinhuanet, 2020. China focus: mask makers go all out in fight against novel coronavirus.
February, 06. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-02/06/c_138760527.htm.