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TEMPLES AND CULT PLACES
FROM THE SECOND IRON AGE
IN EUROPE
Edited by
Valeriu SÎRBU and Aurora PEŢAN
COMMISSION:
PREHISTORIC AND PROTOHISTORIC
MORTUARY PRACTICES
STUDY CENTRE
DACICAOF FOUNDATION
2ND INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM
Alun(Romania)
May9th-12th 2019
EDITURA
2020
TEMPLES AND CULT PLACES
FROM THE SECOND IRON AGE
IN EUROPE
© Editura Dacica 2020. All rights reserved.
337096, Jud. Hunedoara
Tel. 0757-322422
E-mail: contact@dacica.ro
www.editura.dacica.ro
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României
Temples and cult places from the second Iron Age in Europe :
proceedings of the 2nd International Colloquium "Iron Age
Sanctuaries and Cult Places at the Thracians and their Neighbours" :
Alun (Romania), 7th-9th May 2019 / ed. by Valeriu Sîrbu and Aurora
ISBN 978-606-8538-02-0
I. Iron Age Sanctuaries and Cult Places at the Thracians and their Neighbours.
International Colloquium (2019 ; Alun)
II. Sîrbu, Valeriu (ed.)
902
Cover design: arch. Marian Coman
Cover I: Sarmizegetusa Regia, the sacred area. Photo by arch. Marian Coman
This book was published with the financial support of Dacica Foundation.
TEMPLES AND CULT PLACES FROM
THE SECOND IRON AGE
IN EUROPE
Proceedings of the 2nd International Colloquium “Iron Age Sanctuaries
and Cult Places at the Thracians and their Neighbours”
Alun (Romania), 7th-9th May 2019
Edited by
Valeriu SÎRBU and Aurora PEȚAN
DACICA
Alun
2020
Chien de garde, chien guide, chien-casse-croute ? –
un état de la recherche sur les vestiges canins dans la culture de Przeworsk en Pologne
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ................................................................................................... 9
CUVÂNT ÎNAINTE ..........................................................................................11
Xeni ARAPOGIANNI (Greece)
The Asklepieion at ancient Thouria and the cult of Asklepius .............................13
Tomasz BOCHNAK (Pologne)
Chien de garde, chien guide, chien-casse-croute ? – un état de la
recherche sur les vestiges canins dans la culture de Przeworsk en Pologne ..... 35
Viviana CARBONARA, Davide DELFINO (Italy)
The cult of Hercules between 6th and 2th century in the bronze statuary
of the Samnite museum of Campobasso (Molise, Italy) ...................................... 65
Marko DIZDAR, Slavica FILIPOVIĆ (Croatia)
A Late La Tène Scordiscan Sanctuary from Osijek (Eastern Slavonia, Croatia)? ..... 87
Alexey GOTSEV, Vassil MARKOV (Bulgaria)
Mountain sanctuaries and megalithic rock monuments from the region
of Southwestern Bulgaria .......................................................................................111
Ion NICULIŢĂ, Andrei COROBCEAN (Republic of Moldova)
Religious places and constructions of the Iron Age in the Prut-Dniester
................................................................................................................. 127
Aurora PEȚAN, Valeriu SÎRBU (Romania)
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie and
Fețele Albe .............................................................................145
Horea POP (Romania)
...............................................................165
Valeriu SÎRBU, † Niculae CONOVICI, Ioan CERNĂU (Romania)
Piscul Crăsani
...................................................................................................179
6
Tomasz BOCHNAK
Valeriu SÎRBU, Diana DĂVÎNCĂ (Romania)
Dog skeletons/remains found in the Getae-Dacian settlements
(3rd c. BC- 1st c. AD): Ritual inhumation, corpse riddance, and consumption .....209
Valeriu SÎRBU, Aurora PEȚAN (Romania)
Who destroyed the Dacian temples? Some considerations about
Sarmizegetusa Regia, the capital of the Dacian Kingdom ................................. 237
Katarzyna SKOWRON (Poland)
Ornamented hearths or altars from the territory of Poland. Review ..............267
Done ŞERBĂNESCU, Cristian SCHUSTER (Romania)
.........283
Aris TSARAVOPOULOS, Gelly FRAGOU (Greece)
Sanctuary of Poseidon Gaieochos on the Islet of Mikri Dragonara,
Kythera, Greece .......................................................................................................321
VARIA
Colloquium Programme .......................................................................................343
Abstracts (without papers) ................................................................................... 347
The participants to the 2nd International Colloquium “Temples and cult Places
from the Second Iron Age in Europe”, Alun (Romania), 9-12 May 2019 (from left):
Markov, Andrei Corobcean, Horea Pop;
Chien de garde, chien guide, chien-casse-croute ? –
un état de la recherche sur les vestiges canins dans la culture de Przeworsk en Pologne
9
FOREWORD
After over a decade, we finally managed to organize the 2nd International
Colloquium on sanctuaries and cult places in Europe...
Iron Age Sanctuaries and Cult Places in the
Thracian World
We owe the resuming of these colloquia, which will be held every two years, as
given by the Study Center of Dacica Foundation. The Colloquium took place in the
lies the very capital of pre-Roman Dacia - Sarmizegetusa Regia, the zone being at the
same time one of the most picturesque mountainous regions in Romania.
of the Prehistoric and Protohistoric Mortuary Practices Commission of International
Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences (UISPP). The religious beliefs and the
funerary practices are known to be an important part of humans’ spiritual life and
royal tombs, the Thracian ones included, display numerous sacred scenes with gods
and mythical heroes.
The program of the colloquium, with the topic Temples and Cult Places from
the Second Iron Age in Europe
countries: Romania, The Republic of Moldova, Bulgaria, Greece, North Macedonia,
Croatia, Poland, Italy and Portugal. Unfortunately, not all the participants enlisted
managed to attend, but some of them sent their papers over, in order to be published.
As it can be noticed from the program of the colloquium as well as from the summary
of the volume, the participants were prestigious researchers from universities,
research institutes and museums or even independent researchers, which granted
The various subjects presented and debated were related to diverse periods and
civilizations, from the Greek-Roman world and outside it (for instance those related to
the Samnites, Etruscans, Phoenicians, Geto-Dacians, Southern Thracians, Germanics,
etc.). It is worth mentioning among others, the subjects related to the megalithic
monuments, the types of temples and the sacred areas in residential centers, or to
the cult of some gods and heroes such as Hercules, Poseidon or Asclepios, as well as
the ritual dog burials in the “barbarian” world.
10
Tomasz BOCHNAK
Cetățuie and Alun-Piatra Roșie
of the most impressive Dacian fortresses and temples. At the same time, they visited
other remarkable sites and monuments from the area, such as Colonia Ulpia Traiana
The volume includes 14 valuable studies and articles and their publication in
English and French, under outstanding graphical conditions, shall grant a wide
circulation and notoriety to the manifestation.
organization, and also to the colleagues from all corners of Europe who prepared,
Prof. Dr. Valeriu Sîrbu,
President of the Commission 30 UISPP
Chien de garde, chien guide, chien-casse-croute ? –
un état de la recherche sur les vestiges canins dans la culture de Przeworsk en Pologne
11
CUVÂNT ÎNAINTE
Primul colocviu, cu tema Sanctuare și locuri de cult din Epoca Fierului în
lumea tracică
Dacica. Colocviul a avut loc în zona impresionantelor centre
din România.
egida Comisiei Practici Mortuare în Preistorie și Protoistorie
ştie
Programul colocviului, cu tema Temple și locuri de cult din A Doua Epocă a
Fierului în Europa
fenicieni, geto-daci, tracii sudici, germani etc.) Amintim, între altele, problemele
Cetățuie
Alun-Piatra Roșie
12
Tomasz BOCHNAK
publicare studii valoroase.
Prof. Dr. Valeriu Sîrbu,
President of the Commission 30 UISPP
145
AURORA PEȚAN (ROMANIA)
VALERIU SÎRBU (ROMANIA)
TEMPLES AND CULT ARTEFACTS
PIATRA ROȘIE
FEȚELE ALBE
KEYWORDS: Dacian Kingdom, Piatra Roșie, Fețele Albe, temples, cult
artefacts
ABSTRACT. The Dacian sites from Alun-Piatra Roșie and Grădiștea de
Munte-Feţele Albe have in common the fact that they are little known,
because they have been investigated many decades ago, on a not very
large scale, and the research has not yet been resumed. However, the
published data show that both had cult structures and present features
that individualize them in relation to other sites in the area. In this paper
we aim to review the structures and cult pieces identied in these sites and
to formulate some questions or points of view.
Alun-Piatra Roșie
The Dacian fortress Alun-Piatra Roșie is one of the fortresses in the vicinity of
Sarmizegetusa Regia, the capital of the Dacian Kingdom, and it is located south-west
of it, on an 832m high hill (Fig. 1). The hill is surrounded by precipices on three sides
and the fortress was accessible only from the east, along a saddle connecting Piatra
(Fig. 2 and 3).
19th century, when a series of treasures were discovered in the vicinity of the ruins
from Sarmizegetusa Regia, and the local people started to search the ruins of other
146
Aurora PEȚAN, Valeriu SÎRBU
just a survey, meant to initiate a comprehensive program of diggings. The beginning
only!) vast archaeological research campaign was initiated under the coordination
of Constantin Daicoviciu. The campaign lasted for two months and a half and its
results were published in a micro-monography (C. Daicoviciu 1954). There was just
one attempt at resuming the investigations, in 2003-2004, which was not continued
(Glodariu et al. 2005).
it on the eastern slope of the hill.
was rectangular and used to cover only two thirds of the plateau surface (Fig. 4).
murus dacicus, Greek inspired
technique, with limestone blocks brought from a quarry located about 40km away.
today, the south-western corner of the plateau is completely crumbled down. Inside
the enclosure there was just one rectangular wooden building, with two rooms and
an apsidal porch, which most probably belonged to the nobleman commander of the
with several rooms each, but whose functionality is unknown, as well as several stone
plinths from a temple with wooden columns.
Dacica. The
shape; its western side was oblique and did not meet the southern one (Fig. 5). This
plan suggests that the south-western corner collapsed as early as antique times and
p. 321-323).
The fortress could be entered through a stone staircase (Fig. 6), continued by
an alley that led to an apsidal plan building, located on a terrace below the plateau.
Four isolated towers were overlooking the fortress from the north and east.
A second fortification line, with a vallum and palisade, whose sides were
isolated towers (towers A and B).
The fortress was surrounded by several large artificial terraces, still
uninvestigated, on which, probably, households and workshops were located. Other
clusters of dwellings were spread on the nearby hills.
Constantin Daicoviciu considers that the fortress was built in the times of
Burebista, around the middle of the 1st century BC, and it was conquered and
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie
and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
147
the last one during Decebal’s reign (C. Daicoviciu 1954, p. 124-125). However, this
phasing is rather vague and it is not based on clear archaeological data: there are
serious criticisms on it (Strobel 1998, p. 208). The presence of mortar on a segment
some researchers to claim that the fortress was reused in the Early Middle Ages
(Popa 1977, p. 280-282).
were focused on unearthing the walls. As a result, the possibilities of interpretations
and phase succession can be cleared up.
Within the fortress area there were at least three spots having a probable cult-related
role: a wide cavity, a temple with columns and an apsidal plan building.
(Fig. 7). Local tradition has it that there used to be a well at its bottom, which now is
cavity right in front of the fortress entrance, suggests it must have had an important
role. It is interesting to notice that it was bordered both by the monumental stone
staircase climbing onto the plateau and by the alley that was leading to the apsidal
building, which were, in fact, the most important buildings in the fortress. It therefore
results that this cavity was located in a central point of the fortress.
The 1949 investigations revealed several outstanding pieces from this sinkhole,
some of which in good condition. Among these, stand out a Celtic-type sword –
a possible trophy looted during Burebista’s battles against the Celts, according
chandelier (lychnus trimixus) alongside its suspending chain – a late Hellenistic
p. 66) claimed that in this cavity people used to dump useless objects. Yet, the sword
and the chandelier are in very good condition, which determined Karl Strobel (1998,
p. 210) to say that the pieces were placed there for votive reasons, and not discarded.
According to him, the pit was a cult place and it must have functioned as early as
the 2nd
was a temple with wooden columns, supported by cylindrical limestone plinths.
in situ (poorly visible today), arranged in two rows. The
dismantled as early as the antique days, most probably when the two buildings were
erected in the northern sector of the plateau, their layout being partially overlapping
148
Aurora PEȚAN, Valeriu SÎRBU
One proof of this temple being dismantled by the Dacians is the fact that one of
the plinths was reused in a later construction, which collapsed, at a certain moment,
down the western slope of the hill, where it still lies. It must have been used to
p. 332) (Fig. 8).
The third probable cult place is represented by the apsidal plan building, located
on terrace I (Fig. 9). This was made of wood and adobe, with a stone block basement,
and it had two rooms – a rectangular one and a horseshoe shaped one. Its special
role is proven by the stone slate alley leading to it (Fig. 10) and by the absence of a
common inventory (Florea, Ferencz 1997, p. 57). The latest interpretations do not
hesitate to consider it a cult building (Florea, Cristescu
the apsidal plan is oriented NNW-SSE, a typical orientation for this kind of Dacian
buildings in the area, a position that indicated the sunrising on winter solstice.
Constantin Daicoviciu (1954, p. 125) thinks that this building was erected after the
Inside the apsidal building were found fragments from an iron piece considered
object. The piece was reconstructed as an oval shield, with a central zoomorphic
representation and vegetal decorations (Fig. 11). It seems, however, that the fragments
come from at least two pieces.
archaeologists in 2003, in a pit dug by the treasure hunters (Florea, Ferencz 2007).
As it became clear later, the poachers had found a “parcel” with such pieces and they
about 12m NW from the apsidal building and it had been dug and prepared to hide
several such pieces. Some of the pieces stolen by the poachers were well preserved
and they proved to be round, not oval, with a diameter of 42cm (Fig. 12). They have
been sold abroad and two of them were recovered by the Romanian state in 2012
(Trohani 2011-2012, p. 173-175; Sechelariu et al. 2015, p. 82-89) (Fig. 13). Fragments
of another piece have been donated by an antiquity dealer to the National Museum
of Transylvania from Cluj-Napoca. The pieces hidden close to the apsidal building
and uncovered by poachers form a treasure of great value (Purdea 2019, p. 188-190).
All these discs have a central medallion showing the image of a real or a fantastic
vegetal decorations and sometimes other animals (geese, snakes). The metallographic
analyses performed on the two pieces recovered from the black market showed
central area (animal and plant motifs) was covered with brass (golden appearance)
(Constantinescu 2011).
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie
and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
149
Each disc was set on a support (probably on the wall of the building) by means of
12 ornamental studs. The discs were made locally; they are unique and are considered
masterpieces of the Dacian art (Florea, Cristescu 2016, p. 146) (Fig. 14 and 15).
wall and hidden close to the building. In front of the danger, the building was emptied,
as it had happened with the temples of Sarmizegetusa Regia, and the valuable cult
pieces were hidden underground (Sîrbu 2006, p. 81). A few pieces were left inside
(the ones discovered in 1949) and, therefore, they were not preserved as well as the
are very likely to have set fire to the building, as it happened in their capital –
Sarmizegetusa Regia1.
so far. Most researchers agree today that they cannot be shields, but they are most
probably cult objects, decorating the walls of the apsidal building, making up a sort
of frieze (Florea, Ferencz 2007, p. 50). They were probably involved in ritual activities
(offerings or images associated with worship) (Florea, Cristescu 2016, p. 146).
An isolated (and unsupported) hypothesis is that of B. Constantinescu, who thinks
they are parmae of Roman signiferi (Constantinescu 2011).
inside the tower B. The piece is 14,7cm tall and it has three handles (Fig. 16). The
manner of representation is inspired from the Celtic art. C. Daicoviciu (1954, p. 117-119,
taste and fashion and dated the piece in the 1st century AD. On the contrary, G. Florea
spoil (Florea, Suciu 1997, p. 59, n. 50). K. Strobel dates the mask in the 2nd-1st century
BC (Strobel 1998, p. 209). V. Sîrbu and G. Florea (2000, p. 67) are more reserved
and state that, while the use of the piece can be attributed to the period around the
destruction of the fortress, the time of its manufacture cannot be determined because
is purely hypothetical, but the sacred character of the representation it is accepted
this period. Its discovery inside one of the towers raises questions, though.
In the same area of the fortress have been found deposits of iron objects, and
we need to mention the most representative, found by a local around 1995: “First of
all, the large number of items saved – 75, with a weight of over 40 kg, is important,
as is their typological variety; weapons, tools for farming, joinery, smith craft and
silverwork, door and gate accessories, varia – and all this despite the fact that only a
1 For the destruction of temples in Sarmizegetusa Regia, see the paper dedicated to it in this volume.
150
Aurora PEȚAN, Valeriu SÎRBU
part of the deposit was collected” (Sîrbu et al.
for an intense manufacturing and commercial activity in this fortress.
The analysis of the archaeological material published by Constantin Daicoviciu led
Karl Strobel to the conclusion that the chronology he had proposed is not sustainable.
at least since the 2nd
early stage that the column temple and the sinkhole would have belonged, as well
fortress and the military constructions are likely to have appeared later, only in the
1st century AD (Strobel 1998, p. 210-212).
Unfortunately, we have too few archaeological data allowing us to put forth
credible scenarios. Until further investigations, we are still on a speculative ground.
However, we can say that there are several elements making this fortress a special
one: 1. the multitude and variety of cult places (column temple, apsidal building, cult
sinkhole); and 2. the unique character of the pieces discovered here (the bronze mask
and the decorative iron discs).
Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
2 is located on the southern slope of the
homonymous hill, in the vicinity of the royal capital Sarmizegetusa Regia (Fig. 1).
and wild valley (Fig. 17).
th
who thought that there was a fortress, because the remains of walls (C. Daicoviciu,
the archaeologists to the conclusion that it is not a fortress, but a settlement organized
on several anthropic terraces. The investigation was discontinued in 1973 due to the
lack of conservation solutions and has not been resumed since. Unfortunately, little
information has been published following the research (H. Daicoviciu, Glodariu 1966;
H. Daicoviciu, Glodariu 1969; H. Daicoviciu 1971; H. Daicoviciu et al. 1973).
The core of the site is located in the place called Șesul cu brânză, about 100m
stone walls, built in murus dacicus technique (Fig. 18). On these terraces several
circular constructions have been investigated and interpreted as houses, and also a
circular temple with limestone pilasters. There was at least one more temple, of which
The circular temple is located on terrace III, has a diameter of 10.80m and is
delimited by limestone pillars, of two dimensions: some tall and narrow, others short
2
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie
and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
151
and wide (Fig. 20). Not all the pillars were found in their place, but only 36 high and
9 wide. It was not possible to determine how they were grouped. All the pillars were
found beheaded, like those from the temples in Sarmizegetusa Regia. The temple
limestone pilasters (many of which became reddish or grey), but also of the retaining
wall of the terrace V, located a short distance from the temple. The inventory of
A section cut in the southern part of the temple showed that on this terrace there was
only one level, that of the temple (H. Daicoviciu 1971, p. 261).
The second temple had andesite pieces and was probably similar to the two small
andesite temples on the terrace XI in Sarmizegetusa Regia. Its original location could
in shape and size to the pieces from Sarmizegetusa (Fig. 21). The pieces were found
Therefore, they could only be reused after the destruction of the two temples from
Albe was conquered by the Romans twice, once in 102 and the second time in 106. The
circular building was thus built in the interval between the two wars (H. Daicoviciu,
Glodariu 1969, p. 470-471).
found (or at least this role has not yet been assigned to any of the discovered pieces).
The situation is similar to that of Sarmizegetusa Regia, where such pieces are
out of goods these temples before the arrival of the Romans, as we believe happened
in Sarmizegetusa Regia, Alun-Piatra Roșie or elsewhere (Sîrbu 2006, p. 81).
The information published following the archaeological research refers only to this
west of Șesul cu brânză
terraces without stone walls, housing dwelling, workshops and other types of buildings.
Although almost half of them have been researched (H. Daicoviciu et al. 1989, p. 172),
the results have not yet been published, so we cannot refer to the relationship between
these terraces and the group of buildings on Șesul cu brânză.
The setup of Șesul cu brânză
on terrace IV, while on terrace III, where the circular temple is located, there is only
one level, as said before. It is reasonable to admit that the settlement appeared and
152
Aurora PEȚAN, Valeriu SÎRBU
of the 1st century BC. Hadrian Daicoviciu and Ioan Glodariu (1976, p. 79) push this
st century BC.
but it has temples. In the area of the capital of the Dacian Kingdom, the temples were
always found in the immediate vicinity of the fortresses (Sarmizegetusa Regia, Alun-
Piatra RoșieCetățuie
Blidaru). Some circular constructions or groups of such buildings
Rudele, Meleia,
Tâmpu, Pustiosu
around them. Therefore, we can say that Fețele Albe has a unique character, and its
relationship with the capital still remains incompletely decoded. If this site was a
district of Sarmizegetusa Regia, it was probably a special one, with religious functions.
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Fig. 1. Location of the sites Alun-Piatra RoșieFețele Albe
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie
and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
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Fig. 4. Constantin Daicoviciu’s plan (C. Daicoviciu 1954, plate II)
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Daicovicius’ plan
Fig. 6. The staircase
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie
and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
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Fig. 7. The sinkhole
Fig. 8. Reused plinth
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Fig. 9. The apsidal building. Partial view
Fig. 10. The alley leading to the apsidal building
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie
and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
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Fig. 11. Reconstruction of the piece discovered in 1949.
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Fig. 12. Pieces not yet recovered from the black market. https://zhd.ro/eveniment/
reportaj/secretele-scuturilor-antice-descoperite-in-cetatea-piatra-rosie/
Temples and cult artefacts from the Dacian sites Alun-Piatra Roșie
and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
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pictures/piatra-rosie/f10.jpg
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and Grădiștea de Munte-Fețele Albe
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Fig. 19. The plan of Șesul cu Brânză (Fețele Albe) (H. Daicoviciu et al.
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location is unknown