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Evaluating what Mind, Brain, and
Education has taught us about
teaching and learning:
2020 International Survey
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Harvard University, Extension School
Ali Nouri, Malayer University, Education
David Daniel, James Madison University, Psychology
June 2020
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Authors
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. is an alumna of the Harvard Graduate School of
Education, and currently a professor at the Harvard University Extension School in a course
called Neuroscience of Learning: An Introduction to Mind, Brain, Health and Education. She
serves as Associate Editor of the Nature Partner Journal Science of Learning and is
affiliated with the Faculty of Social Science Research (FLACSO) in Quito, Ecuador. She has
published eight academic books with W.W. Norton, Teachers College Press, and Praeger,
five on the field of Mind, Brain, and Education Science and three titles on language and
multilingualism, as well as dozens of peer-reviewed articles. Her most recent work include
“The Learning Sciences Framework in Educational Leadership” (Frontiers in Education, Dec
2019), and the “Neuromyths” entry in Elsevier’s Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience
(2021).
Ali Nouri, Ph.D. is a curriculum specialist and educational neuroscientist who studies the
neurocognitive bases of learning and cognition, and their implications for curriculum design
and development. He works as associate professor in the department of educational studies
at Malayer University, Iran and is a part time professor in the Department of Mind, Brain and
Education at the Institute for Cognitive Studies and teaches courses on Educational
Neuroscience and Foundations of Mind, Brain and Education Science (MBES). He received
his Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction in from Tarbiat Modares University, Iran and
completed a sabbatical in cognitive science with Peter Gärdenfors, professor of cognitive
science at the Lund University, Sweden. Since 2012, his research focuses on issues
interfacing neuroscience and education to make meaningful connections across mind, brain,
and education.
David B. Daniel is an award-winning teacher with over 25 years of classroom experience.
He is a highly sought international speaker and scholar focused on developing evidence
demonstrated useable knowledge for educational practice and policy. A Fellow of the
Association for Psychological Science, David has been honored numerous times for his
teaching and translational efforts. In additional to earning many university/college level
teaching awards, his national honors include the Society for the Teaching of Psychology’s
Teaching Excellence Award, the Transforming Education through Neuroscience Award, and
being recognized as one of the top 1% of educational researchers influencing public debate
in the US. He was recently appointed to a select panel of the National Academy of Sciences
to update and extend the influential NRC report How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience,
and School and featured in the Princeton Review’s 300 Best Professors.
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This report is dedicated to the memory of Kurt W. Fischer (1943-2020),
transdisciplinary thinker, and inspirational mentor.
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Table of Contents
Preface ....................................................................................................................... 7
Summary .................................................................................................................... 9
Why ........................................................................................................................ 9
What ....................................................................................................................... 9
When .................................................................................................................... 10
Who ...................................................................................................................... 10
Where ................................................................................................................... 12
How ...................................................................................................................... 12
Key Findings ............................................................................................................ 13
Part 1 What principles of learning are supported by MBE research? ....................... 14
Principle 1. Uniqueness ........................................................................................ 15
Principle 2. Different Potentials ............................................................................. 17
Principle 3. Prior Experiences ............................................................................... 20
Principle 4. Constant Changes ............................................................................. 22
Principle 5. Plasticity ............................................................................................. 24
Principle 6. Memory + Attention = Learning .......................................................... 25
Additional Principles? ........................................................................................... 27
Part 2 What tenets of learning are supported by MBE research? ............................ 29
Tenets 1: Motivation ............................................................................................. 31
Tenets 2: Emotions and Cognition ........................................................................ 32
Tenets 3: Stress.................................................................................................... 33
Tenets 4: Anxiety .................................................................................................. 35
Tenets 5: Depression ............................................................................................ 36
Tenets 6: Challenge and Threat ........................................................................... 37
Tenets 7: Facial Expressions ................................................................................ 38
Tenets 8: Tones of Voice ...................................................................................... 40
Tenets 9: Social Interactions ................................................................................ 42
Tenets 10: Attention .............................................................................................. 43
Tenets 11: Learning is Not Linear ......................................................................... 45
Tenets 12: Conscious and Unconscious Processes ............................................. 47
Tenets 13: Learning is Developmental as well as Experiential ............................. 48
Tenets 14: Body and Brain ................................................................................... 49
Tenets 15: Sleep and Dreaming ........................................................................... 50
Tenets 16: Nutrition .............................................................................................. 52
Tenets 17: Physical Activity .................................................................................. 53
Tenets 18: Use It Or Lose It .................................................................................. 54
Tenets 19: Feedback ............................................................................................ 56
Tenets 20: Relevant and Meaningful Contexts ..................................................... 58
Tenets 21: Novelty and Patterns .......................................................................... 59
Part 3 What key concepts should be included in basic teacher knowledge? ............ 62
Part 4 What are the lasting contributions of Mind, Brain, and Education science? ... 70
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Part 5 What is the main aim of education based on Mind, Brain, and Education
science? ................................................................................................................... 74
Part 6 What changes are needed in Education from a Mind, Brain, and Education
perspective? ............................................................................................................. 79
Part 7 What, if anything, should children be taught about the brain and learning? ... 84
Part 8 How do you distinguish the field of Mind, Brain, and Education science from
Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation? .................................................... 88
Part 9 What are some possible careers for Mind, Brain, and Education science,
Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation graduates? .................................... 94
Contact Information ................................................................................................ 105
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Figures and Tables
Figure 1. Participants’ Fields (detailed) ................................................................................................. 11
Figure 2. Participants’ Fields (Neuroscience, Psychology and Education) .......................................... 11
Figure 3. Participants’ Countries of Origin ............................................................................................ 12
Figure 4. How Do You Distinguish MBE, Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation? ............... 93
Figure 5. Possible Careers for MBE and Educational Neuroscience Graduates ............................... 100
Table 1. Mind, Brain, and Education Principles 2020 Results .............................................................. 14
Table 2. Comments on the Principle of Uniqueness ............................................................................. 15
Table 3. Comments on the Principle of Different Potentials ................................................................. 18
Table 4. Comments on the Principle of Prior Experiences ................................................................... 20
Table 5. Comments on the Principle of Constant Changes .................................................................. 22
Table 6. Comments on the Principle of Plasticity.................................................................................. 24
Table 7. Comments on the Principle of Memory Systems and Attention Systems ............................... 25
Table 8. Mind, Brain, and Education Tenets 2020 Results ................................................................... 29
Table 9. Comments on the Principle of Motivation ............................................................................... 31
Table 10. Comments on the Tenet of Emotions and Cognition ............................................................ 32
Table 11. Comments on the Tenet of Stress ........................................................................................ 34
Table 12. Comments on the Tenet of Anxiety....................................................................................... 35
Table 13. Comments on the Tenet of Depression ................................................................................ 36
Table 14. Comments on the Tenet of Challenge and Threat ................................................................ 37
Table 15. Comments on the Tenet of Facial Expressions .................................................................... 38
Table 16. Comments on the Tenet of Tones of Voice .......................................................................... 40
Table 17. Comments on the Tenet of Social Interactions ..................................................................... 42
Table 18. Comments on the Tenet of Attention .................................................................................... 43
Table 19. Comments on the Tenet of Learning is Not Linear ............................................................... 45
Table 20. Comments on the Tenet of Conscious and Unconscious Processes ................................... 47
Table 21. Comments on the Tenet of Learning is Developmental as well as Experiential ................... 48
Table 22. Comments on the Tenet of Body and Brain .......................................................................... 49
Table 23. Comments on the Tenet of Sleep and Dreaming ................................................................. 51
Table 24. Comments on the Tenet of Nutrition ..................................................................................... 52
Table 25. Comments on the Tenet of Physical Activity ........................................................................ 53
Table 26. Comments on the Tenet of Use It Or Lose It ........................................................................ 55
Table 27. Comments on the Tenet of Feedback................................................................................... 56
Table 28. Comments on the Tenet of Relevant and Meaningful Contexts ........................................... 58
Table 29. Comments on the Tenet of Novelty and Patterns ................................................................. 59
Table 30. The Original and Modified Basic Conceptual Knowledge Areas in Mind, Brain, and
Education .............................................................................................................................................. 62
Table 31. New Areas of Teachers’ Basic Conceptual Knowledge based on Comments ..................... 65
Table 32. New Areas of Teachers’ Basic Conceptual Knowledge based on Open-Ended Questions . 65
Table 33. Key Concepts in MBE Teacher Knowledge .......................................................................... 67
Table 34. Lasting Contributions of Mind, Brain, and Education ............................................................ 70
Table 35. The Aim of Education ............................................................................................................ 74
Table 36. Changes needed in education .............................................................................................. 79
Table 37. What, if anything, should children be taught about the brain and learning? ......................... 84
Table 38. The Relationships between the fields of Mind, Brain, and Education science, Educational
Neuroscience and Neuroeducation ....................................................................................................... 88
Table 39. Careers options in Mind, Brain, and Education, Educational Neuroscience, and
Neuroeducation. .................................................................................................................................... 94
Table 40. Additional comments from participants ............................................................................... 102
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Preface
Some questioned the need for more research on teacher knowledge related to Mind, Brain,
and Education science. A few participants actually said that this seems a little “ridiculous” as
“everyone already knows” this information. While we agree there is robust evidence, as seen
in the more than 4,200+ documents which are embedded in the descriptions of the principle,
tenets and guidelines in this report, it is precisely because this information is not yet
common knowledge for teachers that we decided to embark on this study.
Several initiatives are underway right now that promote the conscientious understanding,
research and application of evidence-based practices about human learning, including
knowledge about the brain and body in classroom settings and beyond. However, there
remain close to a hundred neuromyths that are commonly sprinkled throughout teacher
professional development, which are promoted by unknowing or unscrupulous teacher
trainers. We hope that the information here will serve as a broad, internationally accepted
parameter to guide educators’ professional development.
There were four important themes which were echoed throughout participant comments.
The first is that most experts in the fields of Mind, Brain, and Education science know many,
or even most, of the ideas presented in this report. While knowledgeable, however, most
have not spent a lot of time considering the classroom applications of this information in real
student-teacher learning dynamics. That is, the researcher-practitioner model remains
relatively rare. Few teachers research well; few researchers teach well. This suggests more
work is needed to nurture a new type of professional at the crossroads not only of mind
(psychology), brain (neuroscience) and education, but also at the intersection of research
and teacher practice.
Second, some participants in this study either over- or underestimated the impact of
certain scientific findings on learning. It was not uncommon to find a participant
acknowledge something as being true, but then labeling it as “unimportant in education”. For
example, one scientist said that it was true that facial expressions conveyed emotions, but
then commented that it was unclear how this had any role in education. Similar comments
were made about the ways that sleep and dreaming, physical activity, and challenges and
threat are related to learning. Such comments suggest many people remain unware of how
the teaching-learning dynamic can potentially be shaped by this information.
Third, several participants commented on the need to balance attention for the unique
aspects of human learning with the globally similar aspects of human learning. This
means that teachers should be taught both that humans as a species are remarkably similar
in how we learn to read or do math problems, while at the same time appreciate how and
why we also differ in learning these skills. Both the similarities of human minds and brains,
as well as the differences, should play a role in teacher education. Indeed, most of the
remarkable imaging research over the past decade calls attention to how amazingly similar
neural pathways are for estimating non-symbolic magnitude, common nutritional needs to
fuel thinking, or learning how to read, for example. Similar is not identical, however. This
means that while the differences between human brains must be acknowledged to tailor
learning experience to the individual, so should teachers be taught about the ways brains
are the same so that they can take advantage of “typical” learning trajectories.
Fourth, there was a sincere concern by many that short, abbreviated statements can
never capture the complexity of the science behind them. Several people agreed that
helping teachers have better access to information was important, but that this should not be
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done through “edible science,” as one put it. One neuroscientist suggested that writing for a
general audience always puts the integrity of the science at risk. Several initiatives can help
here, including more and better researcher-practitioners in the field, improved scientific
literacy by all teachers, and a change in attitude that embraces complexity over quick fixes in
teacher education. This places a very important role on the translators and teacher trainers
that use this information, who must do so responsibly and based solely on the evidence.
Mind, Brain, and Education science, along with Educational Neuroscience and
Neuroeducation, are growing up and into their own potentials. As with any emerging entity,
there are many rough edges to refine, and many traits to define. The authors hope that this
report contributes to the discussions, debates and decisions about who we hope to become
as learning scientists in these exciting times.
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ali Nouri and David Daniel
June 15, 2020
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Summary
Why
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the current initiatives in the field of Mind, Brain,
and Education (MBE) science that have potentially impacted the teaching-learning dynamic.
Previous research, including a 2007-2008 International Delphi Panel on Mind, Brain, and
Education, and a 2017 International Delphi Panel 10-year follow-up (Tokuhama-Espinosa)1
served as the primary source of review.2 The 2019-2020 survey sought to confirm the
validity of the 2017 findings as well as to address additional components of teacher
practices.
The organizers hope that the results of this survey will further advance understanding of the
teaching-learning dynamic by determining what credible information should be shared with
teachers from Mind, Brain, and Education science.
What
This study sought to identify what, if anything, Mind, Brain, and Education science has
taught us about teaching and learning. Further, one of the goals of this study was to
determine if there was international agreement on what should be part of teachers’
pedagogical knowledge from a Mind, Brain, and Education science perspective.
The survey was divided into six parts: (a) Principles; (b) Tenets; (c) MBE Teacher
Knowledge; (d) Education Grounded in MBE; (e) the Scope of MBE; and (f) Demographics
of participants. The current study sought answers to nine questions:
1. What principles of learning are supported by Mind, Brain, and Education research?
2. What tenets of learning are supported by Mind, Brain, and Education research?
3. What concepts or domains of current Mind, Brain, and Education knowledge are
important for teachers to know?
4. What, if any, are the lasting contributions of Mind, Brain, and Education science to
educational practice, policy and/or research?
5. What is the main aim of education based on Mind, Brain, and Education science?
6. What changes should be made in the current education system?
7. What should children be taught about the brain and learning?
8. How do experts distinguish the field of Mind, Brain, and Education science from
Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation?
9. What are some possible careers for Mind, Brain, and Education science?
1 The 2017 International Delphi Panel on Mind, Brain, and Education can be found here.
2 This 100-page summary is meant to identify the highlights of the report. The full compiled report and raw data
are available from the authors. Contact tracey.tokuhama@gmail.com.
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When
Data gathering took place between September and November 2019. The data download,
cleaning, and analysis occurred between December 2019 and April 2020. The bundle (mini-
libraries on topics) literature update took place in May 2020. The final report was compiled in
June 2020.
June 2020 marks 16 years after the birth of the Mind, Brain, and Education degree program
at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, 13 years after the launching of the
International Mind, Brain, and Education Society and the Mind, Brain, and Education journal,
and three years after the 2017 International Delphi panel on Mind, Brain, and Education.
Who
Participants were selected using a criterion-based sampling technique. The final list of
people invited to participate in the survey included 358 people who were identified as
influential in shaping MBE policy, practice and research. Of the 358 invitations sent, 112
people from 29 different countries completed the survey.
Invitation criteria
Inclusion Criteria
People were included in the survey if they met at least one of the following criteria:
• Participant in the 2008 or 2017 Delphi panel of experts on Mind, Brain, and Education.
• Influential in shaping MBE as evidenced by multiple citations of research in the field.
• Contributor to the MBE framework as evidenced by seminal publications.
• Contributor to a specific theory, activity, methodology, technique or other pedagogical tool
that was grounded in neuroscience.
The list of people invited to participate3 was amended for balance between people who had
self-identified as being from neuroscience, psychology, education, MBE, educational
neuroscience, neuroeducation and other learning science sub-fields. This meant, in effect,
adding more Educators to the list, which extended inclusion criteria to:
• MBE Practitioners
3 As this survey was conducted anonymously, the list of people who actually replied from this list of invitations
cannot be determined. Therefore, all invitees are listed here. This does not imply that they all agree with the
results.
358 invitations 10 incorrect
emails (348) 17 polite
declines
(331)
2 not
qualified
(329)
7 engaged in
alternate
format (322) 210 no reply
(112) 112
Participants
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Participants’ fields
Most people who answered the survey self-identified as being from Education (23%), and
the second largest group was self-identified as Mind, Brain, and Education (19%) (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Participants’ Fields (detailed)
This was followed by Cognitive Neuroscience (10.00%), Educational Psychology (9%),
Educational Neuroscience (8.18%), Developmental Psychology (6%), Cognitive Psychology
(5%) and Neuroscience (5%). This created an imperfect, but relatively balanced input from
people from in different learning sciences. Figure 2 shows what the same people look like if
only the primary fields of MBE, Neuroscience, Psychology, and Education were used.
Figure 2. Participants’ Fields (Neuroscience, Psychology and Education)
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Where
This survey cast a broad net in hopes of gathering an international perspective on the topic.
The final list of people who participated came from 29 different countries: Argentina,
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Finland, France,
Germany, Holland, Hungarian, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Portugal,
Russia, Slovenia, South Korean, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, and USA.
The three primary investigators were North American and Iranian, and were in the USA,
Ecuador and Iran at the time of the survey. They did not participate in the survey.
Figure 3. Participants’ Countries of Origin
• Argentina
• Australia
• Austria
• Belgium
• Brazil
• Canada
• Chile
• China
• Costa Rica
• Finland
• France
• Germany
• Holland
• Hungary
• Iran
• Israel
• Italy
• Japan
• Mexico
• New Zealand
• Portugal
• Russia
• Slovenia
• South Korea
• Spain
• Sweden
• Switzerland
• UK
• USA
How
The present study employed a deductive qualitative online survey. Invitations were set
through email. Responses were gathered through SurveyMonkey© and only one response
was accepted per invitation. The survey had 42 questions and took an average of 22
minutes to complete. The wording of the survey questions on principles and tenets was
based on the consensus of the 2017 Delphi findings.
The key findings from the survey follow.
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Key Findings
Findings indicate a growing, though not universal, consensus of what should be included in
teachers’ basic pedagogical knowledge as related to contributions from MBE.
The findings from the nine parts of the survey are summarized below.
• Part 1 Principles
• Part 2 Tenets
• Part 3 Teacher Knowledge
• Part 4 Lasting Contributions of Mind, Brain, and Education
• Part 5 The Main Aim of Education
• Part 6 Recommended Changes in Education
• Part 7 Should Children Be Taught About the Brain?
• Part 8 Relationships between MBE, Educational Neuroscience, and Neuroeducation
• Part 9 Possible Careers for MBE Professionals
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Part 1 What principles of learning
are supported by MBE research?
In this survey, the term principle is referred to as a concept which is “universal” and has
robust evidence for human brains independent of age, gender, or culture. Participants were
asked to review six statements that are listed as the principles of learning (Tokuhama-
Espinosa, 2017) (Table 1) and to answer if they agreed, disagreed or had no basis to reply.
They were also invited to comment after each statement, if they chose.
Table 1. Mind, Brain, and Education Principles 2020 Results
Principle Agree Disagree No basis
to answer
Principle 1. UNIQUENESS: Human brains are unique as human
faces. While the basic structure of most humans’ brains is the same
(similar parts in similar regions), no two brains are identical. The
genetic makeup unique to each person combines with life experiences
and free will to shape neural pathways.
94.64% 4.46% 0.89%
Principle 2. DIFFERENT POTENTIALS: Each individual’s brain is
differently prepared to learn different tasks. Learning capacities are
shaped by the context of the learning, prior learning experiences,
personal choice, an individual’s biology and genetic makeup, pre-and
peri-natal events, and environmental exposures.
90.18% 8.04% 0.89%
Principle 3. PRIOR EXPERIENCE: New learning is influenced by
prior experience. The efficiency of the brain economizes effort and
energy by ensuring that external stimuli are first decoded, compared,
both passively and actively, with existing memories.
84.68% 7.21% 7.21%
Principle 4. CONSTANT CHANGES IN THE BRAIN: The brain
changes constantly with experience. The brain is a complex, dynamic,
integrated system that is constantly changed by individual
experiences. These changes occur at a molecular level either
simultaneously, in parallel, or even before they are visible in
behavior.
93.69% 1.80% 3.60%
Principle 5. PLASTICITY: The brain is plastic. Neuroplasticity
exists throughout the lifespan though there are notable developmental
differences by age. 96.40% 3.60% 0.00%
Principle 6. MEMORY+ATTENTION=LEARNING: There is no
new learning without some form of memory and some form of
attention. Most school learning requires well-functioning short,
working and long-term memory systems and conscious attention.
However, procedural learning, habituation, sensitization and even
episodic memory can occur without conscious attention.
74.55% 15.45% 9.09%
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The participants agreed with all six tenets, but to differing degrees, as seen in Table 1. The
sixth principle received less that 75% agreement (74.55%), suggesting it should not be
included as a principle.
Having said that, both memory and attention systems were brought up by participants and
were included as recommendations for inclusion in teachers’ conceptual knowledge (see
Part 3). This suggests both memory systems and attention systems are important teacher
knowledge, but that they should likely be treated as separate concepts rather than a single
principle. As a consequence, possible re-wording of this principle is suggested below based
on the participants’ comments.
The evidence supporting the principles supplied by the 2017 Delphi panel and updated by
the authors in June 2020 can be found here.
Principle 1. Uniqueness
Principle 1. UNIQUENESS: Human brains are unique as human faces. While the basic
structure of most humans’ brains is the same (similar parts in similar regions), no two
brains are identical. The genetic makeup unique to each person combines with life
experiences and free will to shape neural pathways.
Table 2. Comments on the Principle of Uniqueness
A1. Brain plasticity supports this principle, while the question of causal efficacy
remains open
A2. Need to add in last sentence: the genetic makeup "and random developmental
factors", unique to each person
A3. One small thing: “experiences” has the connotation of an event/happening
consciously for the individual. Does it adequately encompass thing like the effects
of gut microbiome?
A4. too many different ideas to agree with. Some are blatantly incorrect whereas
the "life experiences' does lead to different knowledge that will impact learning.
A5. It would be important to mention the relevance of both variables
(internal/genes and external/environment) in specific fields of cognition and
behavior.
A6. From a Developmental Relational System (RDS) meta-theoretical perspective,
it is not possible to conceive universal statements such as "... human brains
independent of age, gender, or culture". The ontosystemic [sic] aspects of
development (e.g., individual brain development) is always embedded in other
developmental contexts which include social and cultural moderators and
mediators.
A7. I selected agree, but I really think we don't know enough yet to make this claim
with authority.
1.
Scope
B1. I would question the use of the term free will. Both because some evidence
brings the extent of free will into question and secondly because much learning can
take place without conscious awareness.
B2. I agree with most of it, but n to. the free will part/ In fact I cannot see how
genetic makeup and free will combine?
B3. I would delete 'and free will' as this falls under 'life experiences'
2.
Free will
16
B4. I think the phrase "and free will" is unnecessary and potentially distracting
B5. "free will" means our conscious and deliberate choices of connecting life
experiences into constructed clusters of ideas, thoughts, and inferences.
B6. The general intent of this statement is clear, however of course the use of the
term "free will" can be controversial from a psychological and philosophical
perspective. However, I agree the CNS is a feedback system and our actions and
instantaneous internal representations feedback into the complexity of network
systems that contribute to our further neurocognitive responses to the environment
and our internal state at any point in time.
B7. I'm not sure about the "free will" part. I tend to think that way but others see a
kind of predetermination in the way the brain and body's structure interacts with its
environment, and I can't discount that.
B8. Not sure what is meant by free will but I interpreted it as self-generated action.
B9. I question whether free will can directly shape neural pathways although it may
be important to doing so through specific exercises.
C1. The brain is unique even if twins have practically the same experiences during
their lives!
C2. I am [in] agree[ment] based on the "elastic ribbon" principle. We have all a
genetic material with a myriad of possibilities, but the environment, the experience
and so forth will increase the probability to use the maximal potential our genes
have.
C3. The brain changes constantly in response to stimuli, so it is possible that human
brains are even MORE unique than human faces!
C4. I would add that not only genetic makeup and life experiences, or free will,
shape neural pathways. There are individual developmental trajectories, not exactly
in the realm of free will, that interact with this triad as well.
3.
Emphasis of unique
characteristics
D1. I disagree with the comparison to human faces as that analogy serves as a gross
understatement of the inherent diversity of the human brain, especially when
compounded with experience. Example: The face does not change with experience
to the extent that the brain does.
D2. Yale University published research in 2015 that looks at this as well but use the
finger print as the comparison. https://news.yale.edu/2015/10/12/imaging-study-
shows-brain-activity-may-be-unique-fingerprints Another thought - neurodiversity
has historically been related to individuals on the spectrum or with a disability;
however, there are increasing references to neurodiversity as being the fact that all
brains are unique. Consideration may want to be given to each brain being unique
and neurodiversity.
4.
Analogy of faces
E1. This is a huge implication for teaching students. 5.
Important
implications for
teaching
F1. So what? This is true, but what bearing does this have on anything?
6.
Unimportant idea
G1. I agree with the statement, but it’s kind of misleading. You could just as well
write a statement emphasizing the ways in which all brains are similar
G2. The differences seem evident and important, but it also seems wise to note that
there are fundamental similarities across many brains.
7.
Not just unique, but
also the same.
17
G3. I agree with that principle. However, I believe we have to be carefully when
talking about it, and emphasize that basic learning mechanisms are the same for all
learners. Too many teachers think that, because everyone has a unique brain, we
must G4. adapt teaching strategies to the learning style or intelligence type of each
student to optimize learning, which is simply not based on evidence.
G5. For the most part the structure of the human brain is quite the same across
people. The same mechanisms play a role in language, literacy, math...The field of
psychology is about these broader principles not about the more minor deviations
one can get by having different experiences. I think this statement is misleading at
best.
G6. My answer will depend on the grain size of analysis:" Comparing people, no
two are alike; comparing people to e.g., dogs, then their brains are representative of
humanity and so vary around a shared form
H1. Insert as before unique so reads as unique as.
H2. Not a well worded statement.
H3. I could quibble with the details, but more agree than not
H4. I don’t think the term "neural pathways" is helpful here. It presupposed a
neurophysiological mechanism that is not necessary to the question.
8.
Wording
The comments fell into eight different categories: (a) Scope; (b) Free will; (c) Emphasis on
the unique characteristics of the brain; (d) analogy to faces; (e) the important implications for
teaching; (f) the unimportance of this idea; (g) the facts that brains are not just unique, but
also very similar; (h) wording of statement.
Of the 34 comments, 26% concerned the inclusion of the concept of “free will,” suggesting
that a thorough review of the evidence related to free will be reviewed. Twenty percent
suggested that the scope of this single statement was either too broad or too narrow.
Eighteen percent wanted it noted that human brains are both unique as well as very similar.
This comment was repeated throughout the survey and suggests that a preface to the
principles should include reference to the great similarities among human brains, rather than
emphasis on the differences.
Twelve percent were concerned that the wording could be more precise, and another 12%
said that there is further evidence for the uniqueness of human brain that could be added.
Six percent noted that the analogy of the brain to faces could be extended further. There
was one comment saying this has huge implications for teaching, and one other saying this
statement is unimportant.
There is robust evidence for Principle 1: Uniqueness in the literature, which should also be
taken into consideration.
Principle 2. Different Potentials
Principle 2. DIFFERENT POTENTIALS: Each individual’s brain is differently prepared to
learn different tasks. Learning capacities are shaped by the context of the learning, prior
learning experiences, personal choice, an individual’s biology and genetic makeup, pre-
and peri-natal events, and environmental exposures.
18
Table 3. Comments on the Principle of Different Potentials
A1. As with many neuroscientific applications to teaching and learning, there are
rich connections possible to a broader literature, and here prior research in
psychology on individual differences among learners would be a natural bridge
to bring teacher educators within the context of this brain-based research.
A2. Individuality has the limits of the species, so at same point there are
universal conditioning aspects.
A3. Individual brains reside in bodies and are integrally bound to a dynamic
environmental context in which many of these factors are interrelated (e.g., brain
on 2 hours sleep and hung over from a party is part of its learning context
A4. Overall nutrition and the ingestion of toxic chemicals is an important
contributing factor to the validity of this principle, especially at the pre- and peri-
natal stage.
1.
More knowledge is
needed to understand
the nuances of this
concept
B1 Same as above [see uniqueness]
B2. See comment above [about uniqueness] 2.
Not different from
Uniqueness.
C1. Again, you could write a statement emphasizing similarities in the cognitive
architecture across individuals.
C2. No, again this is very misleading as in principal human brains have similar
structure and mechanisms.
3.
Should not fail to
remember that
similarities as well as
differences should be
considered.
D1. I don't think this is asking about learning styles (i.e. that students learn best
through their preferred learning style), which is a pervasive and annoying
neuromyth still believed in many educational circles. The wording in the first
sentence connoted "preferred learning styles," though the following sentences
made the principle clearer.
D2. While this is generally true, statements like these have been used in negative
narratives of racial and gender differences.
D3. Yes. But... too often America's educational system is designed for a
"balanced" (think Bell curve) mind, and in reality that leaves 50% really weak in
areas.
4.
True but can be
mistaken for a myth.
E1. All good, but should biology be “biological” to match with “makeup”?
E2. In addition, I would add the way the material or skill to be learned is
presented and the learning activities are structured, and the intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations for learning.
E3. This does not imply that only some people should learn certain things. Every
human has the potential to learn. The speed and depth of learning may differ.
How is this so different from your principle #1?
E4. Weird question. Starts with individual brains being different, and then talks
about different contexts of development. There are two questions here. I agree
with the latter claim, whereas the former (brains are differently prepared) seems
trivial except in the tails of the distribution.
E5. This language is a bit of a disambiguation of the brain from the body, but yes
I agree in full.
E6. I agree, but maybe the title of the principle (different potentials) is
misleading. Intuitively, it seems to me that potential refers only to the genetic.
Here, many cited variables are environmental. Therefore, the link between the
title and the description can be viewed as contradictory.
E7. Learning "capacities" follow a trajectory of unfoldment, and that is
influenced by those factors you name and more. In speaking of genetics make
sure to include epigenetics.
E8. When you use the word potential, it sounds like destiny. The description is
more about experiences that shape but the title suggests that it is more fixed.
5.
Wording: Precision
19
F1. Jesus - you mixed about 5 different themes in that question. I agree with
some, not with others. What am I to do?
F2. Yes I agree with all those, but you leave out a lot. What about other kinds of
experiences, such as the negative effects of emotional trauma, physical traumas
such as disease and accidents, as well as positive aspects of emotional, social,
political and physical experiences? When you talk about the brain's
'preparedness' to learn, this is not a one-off, as it keeps changing all the time in
response to all these factors. And preparedness to learn what? A physical
disability may have no effect at all on the capability to learn one kind of
knowledge, skill or attitude, but be a total barrier to other kinds. And so on.
Learning capacities are so complex, but this statement seems to me to seriously
under-represent that complexity. In that sense I disagree with it.
F3. Lots of words and concepts -- I would love to see these combined to show a
specific example of how all of these weave together. Then I would feel more
comfortable agreeing.
F4. I am not certain if the statement means there are differences in capacities to
learn, or basic differences in tasks learned. I disagree with the former but agree
with the latter, if it implies choices made.
F5. Need to add: "and random developmental factors" (after genetic makeup).
Also need to add at the end: ...and the society that the individual is born into
(including e.g. social status of parents and grandparents; political volatility etc.)
F6. Agreed, but the list might also include things like culture, support systems,
social dynamics, emotional condition, etc.
6.
Wording: Too many
(few) details
The comments fell into six categories: (a) More knowledge is needed to understand the
nuances of this principle; (b) Is this the same Uniqueness principle?; (c) Why only focused
on differences rather than on similarities?; (d) This risks being considered a neuromyth; (e)
Wording (precision); and (f) Wording (too many or too few words).
Of the 25 comments, four people suggest that more knowledge would be needed to
understand the nuances of this concept. Two mentioned that this principle seems the same
as the “Uniqueness” principle. Two others suggested that the wording could be structured
around the similarities, rather than on the differences. One person was concerned that this
kind of wording can be mistaken for support of learning styles myth and two others
suggested this could also promote other neuromyths. There were eight comments
suggesting more precise wording would improve the principle, and six suggesting that the
statement had too many word/concepts already.
While over 90% of the participants agreed with this principle, a review of the wording may
improve acceptance. It should be noted that the 2017 Delphi Panel choose to embellish the
wording because they felt that more details were necessary to avoid neuromythical
interpretations. This may be reflective of the general concern that brief statements are
inadequate; deeper education about core MBE concepts requires more than brief
statements.
There were also thee comments that indicated there is evidence to support this. Indeed,
there robust evidence for Principle 2: Different Potentials in the literature, which should also
be taken into consideration.
20
Principle 3. Prior Experiences
Principle 3. PRIOR EXPERIENCE: New learning is influenced by prior experience. The
efficiency of the brain economizes effort and energy by ensuring that external stimuli are
first decoded, compared, both passively and actively, with existing memories.
Table 4. Comments on the Principle of Prior Experiences
A1. I would generally agree with this principle once the 'pruning' stage of post-
natal neuronal development has occurred. Death of excess neurons coupled
with axonal retraction early in life may be the brain's clever way of solving the
learning paradox. That is, to accommodate learning that is >not< influenced by
prior experience.
A2. Brain built new information based on old one.
A3. Which external stimuli? which existing memories? Even the over-
simplification of brain science does not expect the brain to attend to all external
stimuli, and compare all existing memories on the occasion of each experience.
So it cannot 'ensure' this. There are circumstances under which you could make
this statement, no doubt, but again, it is too simplistic for me to agree with it in
general. You would have to rephrase it in a way that nuances that principle to
something more helpful for learning contexts. Of course new learning is
influenced by prior experience, but cognitive psychology has a lot to say about
how the mind interferes with the brain functions you describe here.
A4. But surely there are degrees of this and an initial interpretation of a basic
experience may be pretty limited. On the other hand a deliberate search for
relevant prior experience and knowledge through connections as simple as
similarities and analogies may deliver powerful constructed knowledge and
understanding.
1.
Additional information is
needed to understand the
nuances of this principle.
B1. I find this principle to be very complex in the way it is written. The
reference to effort and energy as things that the brain does seems odd to me too
B2. I think the wording could be improved
B3. Same concern as question #3. There is a statement of a good principle (new
learning depends on prior experience). But then there is a claim about the
specific mechanisms. I am not sure which statement I am responding to.
B4. This wording just is too specific with regard to both "decoding" and
"comparing". Also stating the word first...as demanding this sequence is too
much. Learning is more ubiquitous. We must begin to understand multiple
forms of learning and as teachers take advantage of these. Does the brain
decode information when we experience "priming" or "inhibition of return"? I
don't think this is the right term.
2.
Wording: Too complex
C1. I think this would benefit from including the notion of 'association' - as
learning is the forming, altering or removing of associations - which by
definition require prior experience
C2. Need to add: influenced by prior experience "as well as evolutionary given
(innate) priors"
3.
Wording: Additions
needed
21
D1. The second sentence is awkwardly phrased; its relationship to the first
sentence isn't as clear/direct as it should be. 1
D2. The second sentence is a little odd. I think I understand it, but it needs to be
unpacked a bit
D3. The first sentence is fairly unambiguous, but the second is hard to interpret,
would need to be put in a theoretical context to be meaningful.
D4. Not certain influence is a strong enough word given the power of prior
experience to impact new learning.
D5. You could say influenced, you could say biased. For better or for worse.
Does evolution constitute prior experience? Epigenetics?
D6. New learning CAN be influenced (otherwise how can we learn brand new
notions) and then the remainder can apply
D7. Disagree slightly, but with the "stimuli are first decoded" part. Predictive
processing theorists say that we impose models from memory (top-down
generative hierarchical models) even before the stimuli are received. Still, I
pushed "agree."
D8. I´m not sure about 'efficiency of the brain' as an explanatory factor here,
but agree that prior experience has a role in much processing of relevant
stimuli.
4.
Wording: Precision
E1. Why bring the brain into this? The first sentence made sense, the r[e]st is
just silly phrasing with no real meaning.
E2. Regarding this par: "The efficiency of the brain economizes effort and
energy by ensuring that external stimuli are first decoded, compared, both
passively and actively, with existing memories." - I am unsure of what papers
would serve as evidence for this from neuroscience, but would be more
confident that info exists from models in cog sci.
E1. Again, here, there is a broad and substantially recent (relatively) base of
cognitive research on how prior knowledge influences our responses to, and
cognitive representation of, new information to be learned.
5.
No need to bring the
brain into this discussion
F1. There is no doubt that new learning is influenced by prior experience.
However, I'm not aware of any strong evidence (i.e. energy data) supporting
this claim.
F2. There are many different kinds of learning supported by brain. Not sure all
occur in same way in brain.
F3. New learning is influenced by prior experience. But I am not sure exactly
how it does it.
6.
True, but unsure why
G1. It works as cognitive anchors as references for new information giving
significance to the unknown.
G2. New learning passes through the filter of previous experience and existing
knowledge
G3. I agree that new learning is influenced by prior experience, but I don't use
this framework of encoding, decoding, and comparing memories.
G4. However, while it commonly activates existing memories it may not
always do so and the idea that the brain economizes effort in all cases suggests
an optimality which may be lacking.
7.
Heuristics: How does all
learning passes through
the filter of prior
experience?
The comments on the principle of prior experiences were categorized into seven topics: (a)
Additional information needed to understand the nuances; (b) Complexity of wording; (c)
Additional wording needed; (d) Precision of wording; (e) Cognitive psychology, not the brain
should be the focus of the explanation; (f) While true, unsure why so; (g) All learning passes
through the filter of prior experience is true, but this is not always optimal.
22
Of the 29 comments made, there were four about the need to add more nuances to better
explain memory systems. This was countered with four other comments that suggested that
the wording was already too complex. Two comments suggested additional words (“as well
as”; “association”) to improve clarity. There was one comment that globally indicated that
“wording can be improved” but offered no suggestions.
There were eight comments asking for more precision in the statement, specifically noting
that the first sentence was clear and acceptable, while the second was overly complicated. It
should be noted that the original principle from 2008 only indicated the first sentence,
whereas the 2017 Delphi Panel added the second sentence because it lacked clarity.
There was one comment that there was agreement “10 times the above” previous comment.
Finally, there were four comments about the precise interaction of neural mechanisms of
prior experience processing and their role in heuristics and whether or not this is optimal.
There were three comments suggesting that cognitive science would better explain memory
systems, and that the brain might overly complicate this information. This was counter-
balanced with three comments that assured this statement was true, but lacked the exact
explanation of how this occurred. This brings into question the level of knowledge needed by
teachers to adequately understand how prior experiences influence the teaching-learning
dynamic. There robust evidence for Principle 3: Prior Experiences in the literature, which
should also be taken into consideration. However, based on the comments here, the precise
level of detail teachers need, is less clear.
Principle 4. Constant Changes
Principle 4. CONSTANT CHANGES IN THE BRAIN: The brain changes constantly with
experience. The brain is a complex, dynamic, integrated system that is constantly
changed by individual experiences. These changes occur at a molecular level either
simultaneously, in parallel, or even before they are visible in behavior.
Table 5. Comments on the Principle of Constant Changes
A1. There is much evidence in support of this principle aside from on-going
dynamics of action potentials and synapses constantly being formed,
reinforced, diminished, broken. There are effects of hemodynamics,
microtubules, and quantum level activity to consider. What is less evident, as
indicated above, is the extent to which individual experiences are
precipitating these brain activities, or whether they are precipitated by them.
A2. Better technology allows us to see even more discreet changes in the
brain
A3. This is so important. You have articulated this so well.
A4. Absolutely! And even without experience. The mix of the 150000
proteins and other substances in the brain change across the lifespan just due
to genetic influence.
1.
Confirmation, and beyond
B1. Need to add "within limits" i.e. there is stability as well as change. E.g.,
the Self is a construct based on continuity rather than constant change.
B2. Important to mention that most (maybe more than 90%) of the brain is
stable, which makes it possible for the changes to take place (learning).
B3. Examples where there may be changes with significant delay as the
integration of the experience into the more established perspective of the self
can take time.
2.
Stability as well as change
23
B4. Although the brain changes some aspects of its structures and functions
over time some structures and functions may stay constant.
B5. Perhaps constant is too rigid. Better to say adapts to changing
circumstances
B6. careful -- yes this is correct just be 'being' but may not be changing to
improve, to learn, but just to survive
C1. Not sure they only occur at a 'molecular' level, e.g. when new axons are
formed/connected. Maybe call it 'neuronal level' instead?
C2. Changes not only occur at a molecular level but also at other levels of
organization (e.g., cellular, network).
C3. Although behavioral changes might be seen before our current methods
allow us to find the underlying molecular events
3.
Not just molecular
D1. Sounds good, but for me until we have some good examples I want to say
that this is still speculative.
D6. I agree with the second sentence. As to the dynamic signature of brain
changes in relation to behaviour - that begs many questions.
4.
Questioning the evidence
E1. However, I don't think the brain can be isolated in this way, except as a
purely abstract exercise. 5.
Remember to put the
brain in its context
F1. The everyday plasticity!
F2. The plasticity of brain processes is huge and constantly allow new
connections, new options.
6.
Renaming plasticity
G1. Again - so what? What is this survey looking for? 7.
So what?
Nineteen people commented on the principle of constant changes. These comments were
divided into seven categories: (a) Confirmation; (b) Stability as well as change; (c) Changes
are not just molecular; (d) Agree, but unsure of the evidence; (e) Reminder to consider
constant changes in context; (f) Plasticity and constant changes; (g) So what?
Four comments enthusiastically backed the principle and added additional details as to how
constant changes occur in the brain. Six participants suggested that this statement should
be balanced by adding that the constant changes are also experienced in a move towards
greater stability over time. Three comments related to the word “molecular”. One person was
unsure how this was measured, one suggested that a more precise word might be
“neuronal” and one suggested a more precise wording would be at the level of networks.
One person cautioned that the constant changes in the brain must always be considered in
context and that without such context this was a “purely abstract exercise”. Two people
suggested that these constant changes is the same as “everyday plasticity”; this brings up
the question of whether or not the principle of constant changes and the principle of plasticity
should be one single principle. One person agreed, but asked “so what” suggesting that this
information is not necessary for teacher practice.
Two people, while agreeing that there are constant changes, said that the evidence for this
was still unclear. There robust evidence for Principle 4: Constant Changes in the literature,
which should also be taken into consideration, and which appears to be absent from teacher
training thus far, given these comments.
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Principle 5. Plasticity
Principle 5. PLASTICITY: The brain is plastic. Neuroplasticity exists throughout the
lifespan though there are notable developmental differences by age.
Table 6. Comments on the Principle of Plasticity
A1. Plasticity changes over life not only in aspects related to quantity but also
related to quality. This has an evolutionary significance.
A2. The term plasticity is highly ambiguous and should be qualified. Which
plasticity are you referring to, neuronal, synaptic, connectivity, dendrites...
A3. The evidence from much research during the 'Decade of the Brain' has
provided substantial evidence of brain plasticity.
1.
Confirmation, and beyond
B1. by age. <-- I would add also by topic/construct
B2. Not just age, but from major interventions via education (for example)
B3. Older, more myelinated pathways could take more effort and time to
change, whereas younger brains are likely to be more malleable
B4. The developmental plasticity!
B5. Important to distinguish between healthy neuroplasticity and pathologic
processes.
B6. I think that puberty is an example which should be added to this language.
It is often overlooked by those who focus on early childhood development.
B7. Yes, more neuroplasticity earlier in life, less so later in life.
2.
Distinguish between types of
plasticity (developmental;
plasticity; experiential vs.
recuperation)
C1. Principle 5 follows from Principle 4.
C2. The distinction between this principle and the previous on (constant
changes in the brain) isn't clear to me.
C3. Your principles 3 [prior experiences] and 4 [constant changes] are subsets
or consequences of plasticity. An additional consequence is that rehearsal,
application and repetition are all necessary for learning.
C4. I don't see much difference between this statement and #5
3.
Relationship between the
principles
D1. The only thought is that the brain is not actually plastic. For someone
unfamiliar with neuroplasticity, this may be a bit confusing. In most online
searches for "The brain is plastic" you will see this is often addressed by
stating, "The brain is not plastic"......
D2. The brain is not plastic, it is organic material. I would re-word the
opening sentence.
4.
Wording, “plastic”
E1. Now this I have experienced in others, and it is an exciting idea. It needs a
clearer notion of what plasticity is.
E2. Need to add 'within limits'.
5.
Wording, clarifications
F1. No one would disagree with this. So what? 6.
So what?
G1. This fact is crucial!
G2. E3. Although the term plastic may indicate it will always change which
may not be so.
7.
Other
There were 21 comments on the principle of plasticity. There were divided into seven
categories: (a) Confirmation and beyond; (b) Distinguish between types of plasticity
(developmental; plasticity; experiential vs. recuperation); (c) Relationship between the
principles; (d) The word “plastic”; (e) Wording; (f) So what?; (g) Other.
25
There were three comments confirming neuroplasticity and suggesting that there were
additional facts that should be added. There were seven comments about different types of
plasticity that should be distinguished, including the differences between developmental
versus experiential plasticity and the difference between learning versus recuperation.
There were four comments about the close relationships between principles 3, 4, and 5.
These came with suggestions that they were the same, and others that 3 and 4 were a sub-
set of 5. This brings up the question as to whether 3, 4, and 5 should be considered different
principles, or a single principle.
There were two comments about word clarification, with one specific word change and
another more globally requesting a clearer definition. One person wrote, “So what” indicating
that this information might not be necessary for teacher knowledge. One person counter-
balanced the “so what” with “this is crucial”. There was a final comment which was missing
some words, making an interpretation impossible.
There were two comment about the word “plastic” and its inaccuracy when referring to the
brain. This brings up the question as to whether or not colloquial terms should be
incorporated into teacher training, or if it would be preferable to maintain scientific
terminology. A compromise word would be “neuroplasticity” or “neuronal plasticity” which is
accepted in both popular press as well as scientific settings. To respond to this important
observation, this principle should be reworded:
Principle 5. NEUROPLASTICITY: The brain is neuro-plastic. Neuroplasticity exists
throughout the lifespan though there are notable developmental differences by age.
There is robust evidence supporting Principle 5: Neuroplasticity, which should be taken into
consideration when planning teacher education programs.
Principle 6. Memory + Attention = Learning
Principle 6. MEMORY+ATTENTION=LEARNING: There is no new learning without
some form of memory and some form of attention. Most school learning requires well-
functioning short, working and long-term memory systems and conscious attention.
However, procedural learning, habituation, sensitization and even episodic memory can
occur without conscious attention.
Table 7. Comments on the Principle of Memory Systems and Attention Systems
A1. See my caveat to Principle 3. 1.
Overlap with principle 3 on
prior experiences
B1 While memory and attention are necessary ingredients, I cannot agree
with this statement as learning implies so much more.
B2. But these are necessary and not yet sufficient conditions. We sometimes
need a goal -- a purpose -- for sorting out specific forms of learning that are
produced in this way. Without at least this the "learning" can be very trivial,
isolated, and of insignificant meaning.
B3. There's more to learning than just memory and attention - for example,
reasoning and other executive functions, and motivation.
B4. There is far more to learning!
B5. You're driving me crazy. I cannot parse the question. Memory +
Attention are not sufficient for complex learning, but they are necessary. Are
you asking if they are sufficient or necessary?
2.
Learning is more than just
memory and attention
26
B6. Although I would take out the equation sign. Memory and attention are
foundational components of learning. Also, we are over-reliant in our
teaching on working memory and executive function. I would love to see
teachers take advantage of long-term memory systems like episodic
memory, and prepare their students with priming techniques before
introducing new concepts. This is an untapped area for teachers.
B7. I think learning also requires practice.
B8. I more or less agree with this, but would add that truly effective learning
should be joyful and playful.
C1. Learning and memory are two sides of the same coin. Attention can
potentiate or modify both. I would not state this as a mathematical equation.
That is a gross oversimplification and misplaces attention. You contradict
yourself by stating that learning can occur without conscious attention. So
this is not only poorly worded, but has the potential to result in a myth.
C2. attention is needed for episodic memory and also for complex
procedural learning
3.
Two sides of the same coin
D1. There are a lot of terms here. If you do not understand what attention
and procedural learning and all the other terms are this is a hard principle to
grasp
D2. I totally agree with this, but I wonder if this might be confusing to a
layperson. The common understanding of “attention” doesn’t often overlap
with the idea of “non-conscious attention”. It feels like something like the
idea of non-conscious awareness (or possibly mentioning subliminal
messages as an example) might help to clarify this.
D3. Again - you've made many competing points. This survey is really
difficult to address meaningfully.
4.
Complexity of principle
E1. As many educators, psychologists and neuroscientist note today
attention/focus has lost its relevance. "NO ATTENTION TO
ATTENTION!" This means no more memory formation. Then no more
learning.
E2. it is helpful for teachers to understand the fundamentals of memory and
how this can impact the design of learning engagements and retrieval in their
classrooms.
E3. Define School Learning
5.
Role in classroom learning
F1. How is "well-functioning" being defined. Just a consideration.
F2. this is mostly right, I guess? not sure what's meant by episodic memory
w/o conscious attention.
F3. I agree with the second sentence, but the first and third sentences seem
to contradict one another. Also, I don't think procedural learning defined as
the kind (or the only kind) of learning that does not require attention.
F4. I would add that attention does not mean engagement which I think is
also needed.
F5. I don't understand this. Using Kirschner et al's definition learning is
memory. This question seems to confuse learning-verb (the processes by
which memory is changed) and learning-noun (the result of those processes)
F6. Actually I agree with all of this up until the last clause, since even
procedural learning requires attention, just at what some have called an
implicit or enactive level.
6.
Wording, precision
G1. Yes to memory, not necessarily to attention. I learn sometimes
surreptitiously; learning can occur later when connections are made and I
may not have been attending. The second sentence yes, the first sentence not
quite
G2. In general, I agree, but in terms of it being an absolute statement,
cannot. there is a lot of learning (meaning neural change) happening outside
of consciousness and awareness. Examples include learning from dreaming,
neural structural change caused by interoception, etc.
G3. This principle may go to[o] far in saying some for of attention is needed.
We really don’t know that it all cases.
7.
Definition of attention
27
There were 26 comments about the principle of attention+memory=learning. These
comments were divided into seven categories: (a) Overlap with principle 3 of prior
experiences; (b) Learning is more than memory and attention; (c) Attention and memory are
two sides of the same coin; (d) Complexity of this principle; (e) Role in classroom learning;
(f) Wording, precision; (g) Definition of attention.
Two people expressed the idea that attention and memory are two sides of the same coin.
The two comments suggested that there cannot be attention without memory or memory
without attention. This observation suggests that knowledge about the neural networks of
attention and of memory are not yet shared as there are distinct, while sometimes
overlapping circuits. Two people also suggested that while memory and attention are easily
understood concepts, many laypeople do not appreciate the complexity of these systems,
nor their scope. Specifically, this person noted that attention spans the spectrum of
consciousness, not only alert states. None of the comments rejected the role of attention
and the role of memory; all suggested additional elements. There was one comment
referring to the overlap with principle 3 on prior experience. Some participants suggested
that repetition, play and joy are also ingredients of successful learning.
There were eight comments explaining that learning involves more than just attention and
memory. This group of comments suggests that the mathematical expression of this
principle as a formula (+, =) should be modified to include words only and add other
elements.
A suggested re-wording which considers all of these comments would be:
Principle 6. MEMORY SYSTEMS AND ATTENTION SYSTEMS ARE NEEDED FOR
LEARNING: Learning involves multiple cognitive processes, including memory and
attention. There is no new learning without some form of memory and some form of
attention. Learners are not always conscious of these processes. Most school learning
requires well-functioning short, working and long-term memory systems and conscious
attention. However, other types of learning can occur without conscious attention (e.g.,
procedural learning, habituation, sensitization and even episodic memory).
There is robust evidence supporting Principle 6 MEMORY SYSTEMS AND ATTENTION
SYSTEMS ARE NEEDED FOR LEARNING, which should be taken into consideration when
planning teacher education programs.
Additional Principles?
Participants were asked if they would like to add any new principles. Fifty-seven percent
(57.32%) said yes. It is interesting that 10 years ago the majority of experts queried were
hesitant to say that there were any principles at all, and in the current survey more than half
feel that the six principles mentioned were not enough.
Of the 47 comments made, most suggestions were to add a principle about concepts that
are currently labeled tenets in this study. This shows that there is support for core ideas
about teaching and learning, but that most participants did not distinguish between the
concept of a principle – true for all learners independent of age and culture – and tenets –
true but with broad human variation.4
4 The authors acknowledge there are no “truths” in science, but rather evidence or lack thereof. The use of the
word “true” is to establish acceptance rather than an epistemological foundation.
28
The most suggested new principle was about the role of emotions in learning (n=9). This
was closely followed by the role of social context, situated learning and classroom contexts
for learning (n=8). There were also comments about the role of executive functions,
including working memory (n=5), motivation (n=3), the reminder that learning is
developmental (n=2), and metacognition (n=2). The connection between the physical and
mental was also emphasized related to sleep and dreaming (n=2), physical activity (n=2),
and nutrition (n=2). All of these suggestions are already included but as tenets, not
principles.
Additionally, there were comments suggesting that learning is a behavior; that the
universality of learning processes outweighs the differences; and that epigenetics should be
included. There was also one suggestion to avoid neuromyths, such as multi-tasking.
Four participant agreed that there were likely to be more principles, but they did not know of
any specific ones at this time. There were also suggestions for improvements on wording
related to memory, which should be considered. Finally, there was one comment indicating
the need for further definitions before the use of terms, such as learning. There was also one
comment criticizing this survey process.
The distinctions between concepts should be revisited to determine if anything should be
moved from tenets to principles.
WHAT PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING ARE SUPPORTED BY MIND,
BRAIN, AND EDUCATION SCIENCE?
Principle 1. UNIQUENESS: Human brains are unique as human faces. While the
basic structure of most humans’ brains is the same (similar parts in similar regions),
no two brains are identical. The genetic makeup unique to each person combines
with life experiences and free will to shape neural pathways.
Principle 2. DIFFERENT POTENTIALS: Each individual’s brain is differently
prepared to learn different tasks. Learning capacities are shaped by the context of
the learning, prior learning experiences, personal choice, an individual’s biology and
genetic makeup, pre-and peri-natal events, and environmental exposures.
Principle 3. PRIOR EXPERIENCE: New learning is influenced by prior experience.
The efficiency of the brain economizes effort and energy by ensuring that external
stimuli are first decoded, compared, both passively and actively, with existing
memories.
Principle 4. CONSTANT CHANGES IN THE BRAIN: The brain changes constantly
with experience. The brain is a complex, dynamic, integrated system that is
constantly changed by individual experiences. These changes occur at a molecular
level either simultaneously, in parallel, or even before they are visible in behavior.
Principle 5. NEUROPLASTICITY: The brain is neuro-plastic. Neuroplasticity exists
throughout the lifespan though there are notable developmental differences by age.
Principle 6. MEMORY SYSTEMS AND ATTENTION SYSTEMS ARE NEEDED
FOR LEARNING: Learning involves multiple cognitive processes, including
memory and attention. There is no new learning without some form of memory and
some form of attention. Learners are not always conscious of these processes.
Most school learning requires well-functioning short, working and long-term memory
systems and conscious attention. However, other types of learning can occur
without conscious attention (e.g., procedural learning, habituation, sensitization and
even episodic memory).
29
Part 2 What tenets of learning are
supported by MBE research?
In this survey, the term tenet is a concept that is true for all people but with a large degree of
human variation either due to culture, genetics, or prior experiences. Participants were
asked to review 21 statements that are listed as the tenets of learning and to answer if they
agreed, disagreed or had no basis to reply.
The participants agreed with all 21 tenets, but to differing degrees, as seen in Table 8.
Table 8. Mind, Brain, and Education Tenets 2020 Results
Tenet Agree Disagree
No basis
to answer
Tenet 1. MOTIVATION influences learning. However, what
motivates one person and how may not motivate another in the same
way. 97.72% 0.91% 0.00%
Tenet 2. EMOTIONS AND COGNITION are mutually influential.
Not all stimuli result in the same affective state for all people. 98.18% 0.00% 1.82%
Tenet 3. STRESS influences learning. However, what stresses one
person and how may not stress another in the same way. 95.45% 2.73% 0.91%
Tenet 4. ANXIETY influences learning. However, what causes
anxiety in one person may not cause anxiety in another. 97.25% 1.83% 0.92%
Tenet 5. DEPRESSION influences learning. However, what causes
depression in one person may not cause depression in another. 93.64% 0.00% 5.45%
Tenet 6. Learning is influenced by both CHALLENGE AND
THREAT as perceived by the learner. What a person finds
challenging or threatening is highly individualized as are their
reactions to the stimuli.
88.99% 3.67% 5.50%
Tenet 7. Reactions to FACIAL EXPRESSIONS are highly
individualized: they reflect prior experience, both personal and in
response to cultural expectations. 74.55% 8.18% 16.36%
Tenet 8. The brain interprets TONES OF VOICES unconsciously
and almost immediately. However, the reaction to the tones of voices
is based in part on prior experience and therefore individualized. 73.39% 5.50% 20.18%
Tenet 9. SOCIAL INTERACTIONS influence learning. Humans
are social beings who learn from and with each other. Different
amounts of social interactions around learning are desired by
different people.
96.36% 0.00% 2.73%
Tenet 10. ATTENTION is a complex phenomenon comprised of
multiple systems supporting functions such as metacognition, self-
reflection, mindfulness, states of high alertness, selective attention
and focused attention. These systems work to different degrees in
different people. These systems also have different relationships with
one another in different people.
88.99% 4.59% 4.59%
30
Tenet 11. Most LEARNING IS NOT LINEAR but rather advances
and retracts based on stages of growth, reflection and the amount of
repetition to which one is exposed. 86.24% 6.42% 5.50%
Tenet 12. Learning involves CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS
PROCESSES, which may differ by individuals based on their
training and other individual experiences. Learning is also described
as implicit (passive or unaware processes) and explicit (active or
aware processes).
92.66% 1.83% 4.59%
Tenet 13. Learning is DEVELOPMENTAL (nature and nurture) as
well as EXPERIENTIAL (nurture). A person's age, cognitive stage
of development and past experiences all contribute to learning and do
so differently for each person.
89.81% 7.41% 1.85%
Tenet 14. Learning engages the entire physiology: The BODY AND
BRAIN interact to play a role in learning processes. 78.70% 11.11% 10.19%
Tenet 15. SLEEP AND DREAMING influence learning in different
ways. Sufficient sleep permits the brain the pay attention during
wakeful states and dreaming contributes to memory consolidation.
The amount of sleep and dreaming individuals need can vary based
on culture, circumstances, motivation, genetics and rehearsed sleep
hygiene practices.
72.22% 3.70% 22.22%
Tenet 16. NUTRITION influences learning. Basic nutritional needs
are common to all humans, however, the frequency of food intake
and some dietary needs vary by individual. 90.74% 0.00% 8.33%
Tenet 17. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY influences learning. However,
different individuals need different amounts of physical activity to
perform optimally. Interspersing physical and cognitive activity may
improve learning.
87.16% 5.50% 6.42%
Tenet 18. USE IT OR LOSE IT. Brains that remain active
cognitively help development and can also stave off cognitive decline
in the aging brain. Individual variations including experiences and
genetic predispositions influence the final outcomes of interventions,
however.
83.49% 5.50% 7.34%
Tenet 19. FEEDBACK about learning progress influences learning
outcomes. Feedback itself can be a source of learning. The type,
frequency and use of feedback can influence learning outcomes,
which varies by individual.
96.26% 0.93% 2.80%
Tenet 20. It is easier to retrieve memories when facts and skills are
embedded in individually RELEVANT AND MEANINGFUL
CONTEXTS. However, what is relevant or meaningful varies by
individual.
92.59% 1.85% 4.63%
Tenet 21. Brains detect NOVELTY and seek out PATTERNS.
However, what is novel to or recognized as a pattern by one
individual may not be novel or may not be recognized as a pattern by
another.
93.52% 2.78% 3.70%
31
All of the 21 tenets received a high degree of agreement from the participants, with the
exception of the roles of facial expressions (74.55%), tones of voices (73.39%), and the
importance of sleep and dreaming for learning (72.22%). This suggests further research is
needed to determine why participants are less aware of the evidence in these three tenets
than other areas, and whether or not they merit attention in teacher education. Additionally,
a more thorough review of the literature related to these concepts in teacher education is
warranted as there is robust evidence supporting the influence of facial expressions, tones
of voices, and the role of sleep and dreaming in learning, as well as the overall influence of
the body-brain connection in learning.
The evidence supporting the tenets supplied by the 2017 Delphi panel and updated by the
authors can be found here.
Tenets 1: Motivation
Tenet 1. MOTIVATION influences learning. However, what motivates one person and
how may not motivate another in the same way. (Percent agreement by participants:
97.72%.)
Table 9. Comments on the Principle of Motivation
A1. a lack of dopamine can almost destroy the motivation to learn 1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. One aspect of motivation that Spinoza referred to as 'conatus' is likely to
be shared by all but the most despondent.
B2. We shall differentiate automatically, low-order from deliberative, high-
order motivation, just as attention. Students shall learn how to get motivated
by themselves. Educators have this responsibility!
B3. And desires -- the desire to find the truth, curiosity, and the desire to
communicate clearly and accurately are some of the powerful motivators of
learning
B4. Motivation is more why we do x rather than y, but too often it is construed
as a push and pull. So agree if the former. 9
2.
Definition of Motivation
C1. Principle of individual differences
C2. Webster defines Tenet as principles within a group or organization. So
your separation of principles or layering here is tenuous. If motivation stems
from processing in emotional areas of the brain that provide value to decisions
or experiences, why isn't this a universal principle? What's the difference in
being motivated differently than in humans being unique or having different
potentials?
C3. motivation dictates sustained attention and as we have already said,
attention is required for learning.
3.
Related to principles
D1. The 2nd sentence is awkwardly constructed: "what motivates one person
and how" isn't a grammatically parallel construction, and it's serving as the
subject of the verb "may." Clearer sentence structure would communicate the
concept more clearly. For example: "People are motivated in different ways by
different forces." Or: "learners respond in different ways to different school
motivations."
4.
Wording, precision
E1. Culture and image of self as learner are significant variables that most
teachers will recognize 5.
Variables in motivation
32
F1 But learning influences motivation too: See Garon-Carrier et al (2016)
F2. Motivation not only influences learning, but determine it
F3. A number of studies support the evidence that learning and competency
cause motivation (not motivation causes/influences learning).
6.
Learning and Motivation
are mutually influential
G1. I suppose most of the 22 items here will be "painfully obvious," like this
one.
G2. Air is also what we breathe - though we do it in different volumes.
7.
This is not surprising
Fifteen people commented on the tenet of motivation in seven categories: (a) Confirmation;
(b) Definition of motivation; (c) Motivation is related to the principles; (d) Precise wording; (e)
Variables in motivation; (f) Mutually influential relationship between learning and motivation;
(g) No surprise.
One person added that dopamine is important for motivation. Four people suggested
extending and clarifying the definition of motivation. Three people suggested that motivation
was related to the principles, mentioned earlier. One person suggested rewording the tenet.
One person suggested that motivation is influenced by self-perception as well as culture,
which should be included. Three people suggested that motivation and learning are mutually
influential and that this relationship should be explained. Two people said that this tenet was
“painfully obvious” suggesting that this tenet is already well-known.
There is robust evidence supporting the tenet of Motivation, which should be considered
when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 2: Emotions and Cognition
Tenet 2. EMOTIONS AND COGNITION are mutually influential. Not all stimuli result in
the same affective state for all people. (Percent agreement by participants: 98.18%.)
Table 10. Comments on the Tenet of Emotions and Cognition
A1. So long as neural connections between the limbic system and the neocortex
are not compromised, emotions and cognition are likely to remain mutually
influential to some extent, despite one's best efforts to be objective and rational.
A2. This should probably be a principle
1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. update recommendation: Not all stimuli result in the same affective or
cognitive state for all people.
B2. I agree with the second part that not all stimuli result in the same affective
state, but what do you mean by mutually influential?
B3. I don't really like the wording "mutually influential". Cognition is
embodied, and is thus integrated into the functioning of the whole organism,
including bodily states and affect. The wording of this item creates the
impression that "emotions" and "cognition" are clearly separate phenomena. It
may create the impression that "cognition" refers to conscious thought
(cogitation), when in fact much complex cognition takes place at the intuitive or
unconscious level. I find that competing uses of the term "cognition" create
confusion.
B4. I think it is more reciprocal
2.
Wording
33
C1. To me emotions are cognitions and not separate.
C2. At brain level, it seems odd to me to make this strong distinction between
emotions and cognition.
3.
Emotions and cognition
are not separate
D1. It depends on individual differences, age, experiences among others
D2. Importance of culturally responsive and linguistically diverse classrooms
are significant factors that can support or impede student's emotional
connection to learning
4.
Context
E1. I agree, but like my earlier comment about the layperson‘s understanding of
the word “attention”, I wonder if they would fully understand how broad the
term “emotion” is here. Again, I think extra clarification night help people to
better understand what this entails.
5.
Definitions needed
F1. No one would disagree. 6.
No surprise
G1. That doesn't mean this isn't a universal. My comments above stand and can
be applied to much of the rest of your list. I disagree with your layering and will
not edit more of these.
7.
Too much layering
H1. Neuroscience repeatedly acknowl[…]
H2. Emotions are in control of the brain's cockpit!
8.
Other
Fifteen people commented on the tenet of emotions and cognition in seven categories: (a)
Confirmation; (b) Wording; (c) No separation between emotion and cognition; (d) Context;
(e) Definitions; (f) No surprise; and (g) Too much layering.
There were two comments that confirmed the tenet, and suggested addition information was
available to support it. One person suggested that this should be a principle. There were four
comments about wording, specifically about the concept “mutually influential” and the
reciprocal nature of the emotions and cognition. There were two comments saying that
emotions and cognition are not separate in the brain. There were two comments about how
emotions and cognition are influenced by culture, age, and linguistic differences. One
participant suggested that the average person might not define emotions and cognition in
the same way and that a clearer definition would be useful. One person indicated that “no
one would disagree” with this tenet. One person wrote, in frustration, that there was too
much layering of conceptual knowledge in this tenet. There were two comments which were
classified under “Other”. The first was an incomplete sentence, and the second echoed the
importance of emotions in decision making, age, and culture.
There is robust evidence supporting the tenet of Emotions and Cognition, which should be
considered when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 3: Stress
Tenet 3. STRESS influences learning. However, what stresses one person and how
may not stress another in the same way. (Percent agreement by participants: 95.45%.)
34
Table 11. Comments on the Tenet of Stress
A1. I agree that stress impacts learning but there are some fairly common
stressors that trigger the amygdala for all humans. Others stressors May
develop because of personal experience or trauma.
A2. this is a bit general...there are some universal stressors, e.g., hunger, bodily
harm...
A3. Although there are some universal stressors, the phrase "in the same way"
as a qualifier makes this statement true.
A4. Fear is the greatest stress on learning
1.
Universal stressors
B1. We shall differentiate optimal stress from excessive stress. No stress at all
is not adaptive. What is stressful today tomorrow may not be stressful anymore.
Students have the right to learn how!
B2. Toxic vs. episodic stress are two very different types of stress that teachers
should be aware of.
2.
Types of stress
C1. should highlight eustress vs what we usually think of as [negative] 'stress'
C2. Yes, there is distress and eustress, where the latter can be a strongly
motivating factor.
C3. And stress may not be negative. Also, stress is a mismatch between
perceived demand and perceived capability.
C4. Would it be valuable to introduce the eustress/distress dichotomy?
C5. Delineate between eustress and chronic forms.
C6. stress has both positive effects (if the stressor and learning area overlap)
and negative effects (non-stressor related information is blocked from being
learned for up to an hour.)
3.
Stress is not always
negative
D1. Neuroscience repeatedly acknowledges the primacy of affect/emotion in
human function, including learning.
D2. However, stressors can interfere with learning.
4.
Stress and learning
E1. And what is stress???? An ur-emotion?
E2. Too vague
5.
Definition
F1. No it is more our coping strategies to stress that makes the difference. It is
not the stress, it is the coping strategies that influence learning .
F2. Distinguish between different stress responses.
6.
Stress responses
G1. See previous comment (under motivation) about sentence structure. 7.
Too much layering
H1. Empowering students to identify and then practice strategies to cope with
their unique stress triggers is powerful 8.
Empowering students
I1. See breathing comment above 9.
No surprise
There were 21 comments made about the tenet of stress divided into nine categories: (a)
Universal stressors; (b) Types of stress; (c) Stress is not always negative; (d) Stress and
learning; (e) Definition; (f) Stress responses; (g) Too much layering; (h) Empowering
students; and (i) No surprises.
35
There were four comments that suggested an acknowledgement about “universal stressors,”
such as fear, would be a useful addition. Two comments suggested incorporating different
types of stress (toxic, optimal, episodic). There were six comments suggesting an
acknowledgement that not all stress is negative and that eustress should be more explicitly
noted in this tenet. There were two comments about the role of stress and learning, and two
others requesting a clearer definition of the word stress. There were two comments
recommending that stress itself should be less prominent than the response to stress. There
was one participant who echoed previous tenet comments that the tenet should not be so
packed and that there was too much “layering” of ideas. There was one comment that
knowledge of stress and learning should be used to empower students. Finally, there was
one comment that said this tenet was of no surprise.
There is robust evidence for the tenet of Stress, which should be considered when planning
teacher education programs.
Tenets 4: Anxiety
Tenet 4. ANXIETY influences learning. However, what causes anxiety in one person
may not cause anxiety in another. (Percent agreement by participants: 97.25%.)
Table 12. Comments on the Tenet of Anxiety
B1. Often times one can experience anxiety based on a bad experience in one's
past where the cause of that anxiety is consciously long forgotten but
unconsciously triggered by similar circumstances that gave rise to that
experience.
1.
Unconscious anxiety
C1. again, there are some universals 2.
Universal emotions
D1. Does anxiety need to be separated out from stress? Might want to make the
distinction clear.
D2. same as above [see Stress]
3.
Stress and Anxiety
E1. But once again -- what does anxiety involve : fear -- of failure, of humiliation,
etc.
E2. Too vague
E3. Define anxiety. Influences is too broad, but yes it is hard to argue with
influences.
4.
Definitions
F1. Younger learners in particular can benefit from support in identifying and
articulating their anxiety 5.
Learner support
G1. Anxiety interferes with learning to varying degrees and ways across learners. 6.
Anxiety interferes with
learning
H1. These are getting silly. 7.
Other
36
There were 10 comments on the tenet of anxiety divided into seven categories: (a)
Unconscious anxiety; (b) Universal emotions; (c) Stress and anxiety; (d) Definitions; (e)
Learner support; (f) Anxiety and learning. Finally, there was one comment under (g) “Other”.
There was one comment that both conscious and unconscious anxiety should be considered
in this tenet. There was one comment that suggested that there are some universal causes
of anxiety. There were two comment suggesting that the relationship between stress and
anxiety should be more clearly defined. There were three comments recommending a
clearer definition of anxiety. There was one comment suggesting that knowledge of this
tenet would be beneficial to learners. There was also one comment agreeing that anxiety
interferes with learning. Finally, there was one comment suggesting that “these are getting
silly”.
There is robust evidence for the tenet of Anxiety, which should be considered when planning
teacher education programs.
Tenets 5: Depression
Tenet 5. DEPRESSION influences learning. However, what causes depression in one
person may not cause depression in another. (Percent agreement by participants:
93.64%.)
Table 13. Comments on the Tenet of Depression
A1. Again there are some universal triggers. Should we be focusing on this
aspect? What are the universals? 1.
Universal triggers of
depression
B1. In my experience, depression is a natural governor that forces one to slow
down, thereby providing a better, less distracted, opportunity to reassess one's
choices and options in life.
2.
Use of depression to
improve choices
C1. Stress (threat) generates anxiety (conflict) which can in turn leads to
depression (giving up)!
C2. The end-game of anxiety.
3.
Relationship between
stress, anxiety, and
depression
D1. So, I totally agree that this is true, but it does raise the question: out of all of
the disorders listed in the DSM5 (e.g. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD), Autism Spectrum Disorder, Conduct Disorder, Disruptive Mood
Dysregulation Disorder, Eating Disorders, Internet Gaming Disorder. etc. ), why
is “major depressive disorder” the only one to get its own tenet?
D2. Is this clinically-diagnosed depression, or just depressed affect.
4.
Why only Depression?
E1. Define depression is more important that its influence. Don't put the cart
before the horse here. The hard problem is defining depression.
E2. This term suggests a clinical diagnosis/condition. Perhaps negative affect or
sadness?
E3. Sure. These statements re: "influences" of depression/stress/anxiety are
vague, though. For depression, are you suggesting that it's more than just
decreased motivation to learn? Also some cognitive component, such as reduced
memory functioning?
E4. Too vague
E5. Depression is a term defining a precise pathology
5.
Definitions
F1. Again, can be challenging to identify in younger learners
F2. There are differences in how depression may interfere with learning among
individuals.
6.
Depression and learning
So what!? 7.
So what?
37
There were 14 comments on the tenet of depression in seven categories: (a) Universal
triggers of depression; (b) Depression can improve choices; (c) Complex relationships
between stress, anxiety and depression; (d) Why only depression?; (e) Definitions; and (f)
Depression and learning. There was also one comment that said, “So what?” suggesting
that there is push-back to the tenet, albeit unspecified. There were two comment about
refining the definition of depression. There were two comments questioning the definition of
depression. There were five comments suggesting a refined definition of depression.
There was one comment suggesting that there were universal triggers of depression. There
was one conference that suggested that being depressed slows down reflection and permits
better choice. There were two comments related to the relationships between stress,
anxiety, and depression. These comments suggest that the neurotransmitters and
chemically nuanced differences between “negative” emotional states is not yet shared with
teachers and might be a beneficial addition. There were two comments related to the
relationship between depression and learning. Finally, there was a suggestion that this was
of no importance (“so what?”).
This is robust evidence to support the tenet of Depression, which should be taken into
consideration when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 6: Challenge and Threat
Tenet 6. Learning is influenced by both CHALLENGE AND THREAT as perceived by
the learner. What a person finds challenging or threatening is highly individualized as
are their reactions to the stimuli. (Percent agreement by participants: 88.99%.)
Table 14. Comments on the Tenet of Challenge and Threat
A1. Some threats are universal. If a dog approaches you with teeth bared, you
will see it as a threat. Other threats are individual. 1.
Threats are universal
B1. Culture can also play a role here, in the teacher-student dynamic 2.
Culture and student-
teacher dynamic
C1. This tenet captures much of what is meant to distinguish intrinsic from
extrinsic motivation. 3.
Link between motivation
as compared with
challenge and threat
D1. Let's celebrate the art of transforming threats into challenges! 4.
Threats into challenges
E1. I've never heard the term "threat" used to describe an influence on
learning. That threw me off a bit, and I'd like to learn more.
E2. Challenge, threat, fear of failure, but also self-confidence.
E3. I'm not sure what constitutes a challenger or a threat, or whether "both"
means at the same time.
E4. Again, what are the universal components of what allows us to perceive
something as a challenge vs threat, and what are the universals of threat. I am
comparing this approach to that Jaak Panksepp took in looking for the basic
emotional networks/systems that are conserved throughout evolution. Is there
more value in this approach?
E5. Agree, but would have added self-efficacy notions -- our confidence is a
major precursor to taking on challenges and threats
5.
Definitions
F1. It is always put up against the perpendicular axis of skill/ability 6.
Relativity
38
There were 10 comments divided into six categories: (a) Threats are universal; (b) Culture
and the student-teacher dynamic; (c) Relationship with motivation; (d) Threats into
challenges; (e) Definitions; and (f) Relativity.
There was one comment suggesting that the belief that threats are universal should be
shared. There was one comment that culture influences the student-teacher relationship.
There was one concept that motivation, challenge and threat are related. There was one
comment that students should learn to change challenges into threats. There were five
comments that recommended bettering the definition of wording of threats and challenges.
There was one comment that challenges and threats are relative to the individual. These
comments suggest that the commonality of certain things are threatening (such as a mad
dog) should be more clearly separated from perceived threats in classroom contexts.
There is robust evidence to support the tenet of Challenge and Threat, which should be
taken into consideration when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 7: Facial Expressions
Tenet 7. Reactions to FACIAL EXPRESSIONS are highly individualized: they reflect
prior experience, both personal and in response to cultural expectations. (Percent
agreement by participants: 74.55%.)
Table 15. Comments on the Tenet of Facial Expressions
A1. To some extent this is true but it ignore the evidence about universal
emotional expressions.
A2. Aren't there some facial expressions that our universals, however… Smiling
for example.
A3. There is more to this issue related to universal expression recognition which
interacts with individualized reactions
A4. ...agree mostly; many reactions are more standard
A5. Reactions to facial expressions evocative of fear or threat do not always
reflect prior experience. They are rather embedded into our preprogrammed
genetic makeup to be evoked in case of life danger (Possible) situations. They
may later on be modulated to incorporate learned mechanisms (such as cultural
influences) but there is a priming effect that is not exclusively experience
dependent.
A6. I agree, but feel like there are a fair amount of facial expressions that initiate
common reactions among a majority of a population. (e.g. smiling)
A7. Is pretty stable, even between races, age, etc. Everything has variability but it
does have a normal distribution, like almost everything in human abilities and
behavior.
A8. But there are some reasonably universal expressions too.
A9. I do not want to agree here, mainly because this is too vague. Reactions is a
vague term. Is this at the psychological level, behavioral level, physiological
level? Indeed there will be variation, but it seems we are losing those core basics
of our evolutionary response. I am thinking of Roy Baumeister and Steven Porges
here. If we are talking about the cranial nerve playing a role in facial expression,
and how that influences our own emotions, we are talking about a highly
automatic system. I think my saying "highly" individualized we are over-
emphasizing culture over some very basic biology. Think also of Paul Ekman on
the core emotions. This work is cross cultural and quite well respected.
A10. Yes and no. Contrary to Barrett, I think there are some universals, but not
sure they are as extensive as Eckman claimed.
A11. Omit the "highly," as babies react to the 6 basic emotions similarly
1.
Universal emotions
39
B1. Facial expressions are highly individualized but not at a 100% rate. 2.
Emotions not universal
C1. I think it depends what you mean by " highly individualized" 3.
Definitions
D1. There are likely some overlaps between Tenet 7 and Tenet 4. 4.
Repetition
E1. It’s not clear how this is specifically relevant to education
E2. The concept of emotional education might be included
E3. I'm not sure why this is here
5.
Relevance to education
F1. Again, important to address directly as cultural interpretations can vary
F2. However, there is also a body of research in developmental psychology and
some neuroscience data that indicates a remarkable degree of mirroring of
emotional expressions across different cultures.
6.
Cultural relevance
G1. But they also stimulate creative interpretation of hidden thoughts, feelings,
motivations, attitudes, and desires. 7.
Positive aspects
H1. Seems a touch trivial compared to the others. The premise of most these is
individual differences which means we must kind of agree. but that is less
important than the principles up front.
8.
Relatively unimportant
I1. I feel like you're building a bridge to nowhere here 9.
Of no importance
There were 22 comments in nine categories: (a) Universal emotions; (b) Emotions are not
universal; (c) Definitions; (d) Repetition; (e) Relevance to education; (f) Cultural relevance;
(g) Positive relevance; (h) Relative unimportance; (i) Of no importance.
There were 11 comments related to universal emotions, and there were two comments
about the cultural relevance of this tenet. This suggests that it is vital to clarify what factors –
including cultural norms – influence facial interpretation. This also suggests that faces are
equated with emotions by many of the participants, which merits further study. There was
one comment that said that while emotions are generalizable, they are not universal due to
individual memories. This means it is also important that the link between facial expressions,
memory, and emotions be clearer in order for this tenet to gain more acceptance.
Additionally, there was one comment about the definition of “highly individualized.” This, and
other comments about universality and individuality, suggests that the word “highly”
contrasts with the universality of facial perceptions.
There was one comment about repetition between tenet 7 (challenge and threat) and 4
(anxiety). There were three comments about the relationship of this tenet to education.
There was one comment about the positive aspects of understanding challenge and threat.
There was one comment about the relative unimportance of this tenet, and one that says
this tenet is of no importance. This brings into question the level of nuance needed in
teacher education and whether or not the sub-divisions made here by emotional states
(which are triggered by distinct combinations of neurotransmitters) are necessary in teacher
education.
40
This tenet was one of three that received less than 75% acceptance from the participants
(74.55%). While the literature offers robust evidence to support the tenet of Facial
Expressions, it appears to be both less studied and less understood. To remedy this and to
respond to the comments, this tenet has been reworded as follows:
Tenet 7. Reactions to FACIAL EXPRESSIONS are both universal in that there are six or
seven emotional states recognized by all humans, as well as highly individualized, in
that a person’s culture as well as their own past life experiences condition responses to
faces.: they reflect prior experience, both personal and in response to cultural
expectations.
As this tenet was less supported than the others, more research into the role of facial
expressions by teachers, student memories, and the impact of resulting emotional states on
learning should be undertaken.
Tenets 8: Tones of Voice
Tenet 8. The brain interprets TONES OF VOICES unconsciously and almost
immediately. However, the reaction to the tones of voices is based in part on prior
experience and therefore individualized. (Percent agreement by participants: 73.39%.)
Table 16. Comments on the Tenet of Tones of Voice
A1. True, in my opinion, but there are also expressive tones of voices that are
likely much more universally recognized representationally, even
transculturally. Help!
A2. I think there are some tones of voices that are cultural and linguistic as
well..
1.
Universal tones of voice
B1. disagree that the tone of voice is always processed or that it is immediate. 2.
Disagree
C1. This is also very variable on the conditions at point in time. Very different
if you are at a cocktail party having an argument Vs at a meeting with
colleagues
3.
Context
D1. But prior experiences could depend on the phylogenetic background and
not only on the ontogeny. 4.
Prior experience
E1. Phrased in a way that’s impossible to argue again
E2. Inflection would be as relevant here as tones.
E3. Again, reaction is vague. There are some pretty low level system involved
in experiencing tone of voice. These past three questions are all on individual
differences. Could there be a single tenet on individual differences that talks
about individual developmental trajectories? I like the idea of focusing not
simply on individual differences, but how they unfold and manifest.
E4. Again, Agree to first part (but this happens sometimes and reads now as
universal) but the second is too obvious to disagree
E5. This depends on what you mean by "unconsciously"
5.
Wording
F1. One variable not the only one In nonverbal learning 6.
Non-verbal learning
41
G1.Should you include culture here, too?
G2. Tones of voices are also subject to cultural expectations.
G3.Great question. A study in Korea found different levels of cortisol in test-
takers hearing mild versus not-so-mild TAPE RECORDINGS of instructions.
Wow.
7.
Culture
H1. Same as above. These are incredibly leading questions. 8.
Leading questions
I1. Same... I think that some statistics could be useful (what percentage respond
differently)
I2. J1. However, in the statement there is an epistemological (reductionistic)
problem: the brain does not interpret, but a person who has a brain (the part
does not represent the totality).
9.
Other
Again, not sure why this is here 10.
Unimportant
There were 18 comments related to the tenet on tones of voices. These comments were
divided into 10 categories: (a) Universal tones of voice; (b) Disagreement that there are
universal tones of voices; (c) Context; (d) Prior experiences; (e) Wording; (f) Non-verbal
learning; (g) Culture; (h) Leading questions; (i) Other; (and (j) Unimportant.
There were two comments suggestion that there are tones of voices that are universally
interpreted, and one comment which disputes that. These three comments suggest that
there is much more that needs to be learned about voices within the teaching and learning
dynamic.
There was one comment that suggests that context is all-important in interpreting tones of
voice, and relatedly, there was one comment that indicated that prior experiences plays a
role in emotional voice interpretation and three mentioning that culture plays a role in this.
There were five comments about improving the wording to this tenet, including adding
“inflection” to “tones” and to amplifying the explanation of “individual.” Relatedly, there was
one comment about non-verbal learning. There was one statement suggesting that this was
a leading question, two comments that were unintelligible, and one comment that said this
was unimportant for teachers.
This tenet was one of three that received less than 75% acceptance from the participants
(73.39%). While the literature offers robust evidence supporting the tenet of Tones of
Voices, it appears to be both less studied and less understood. To remedy this and to
respond to the comments, this tenet has been reworded as follows:
Tenet 8. The brain interprets TONES OF HUMAN VOICES unconsciously and almost
immediately. The perception of tones and inflections of human voices are both universal
in that basic emotional state, such as anger, are recognized by all humans, as well as
highly individualized in that a person’s culture as well as their own past life experiences
condition responses.
As this tenet was less supported than the others, more research into the role of teachers’
tones of voices, student reactions, and the impact of resulting emotional states on learning
should be undertaken.
42
Tenets 9: Social Interactions
Tenet 9. SOCIAL INTERACTIONS influence learning. Humans are social beings who
learn from and with each other. Different amounts of social interactions around learning
are desired by different people. (Percent agreement by participants: 96.36%.)
Table 17. Comments on the Tenet of Social Interactions
A1. Collective intelligence, one of the main points of current education.
A2. yes, and the learning may be good or bad
1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. Agreed, to an extent. Individual interactions with the world itself, beyond the
social, adds an important dimension to learning that can be overlooked or
underplayed in its importance to learning. OM
2.
Non-social interactions
also important
C1. And this will also vary depending on the task (and day). Labeling a student as
an "introvert" shouldn't preclude them from participating in group learning
engagements, which they might also occasionally prefer.
C2. This should not imply that individual preferences for social interaction
should dictate the degree of social interaction. Otherwise, you have a recipe for
social misfits.
3.
Degrees of desired social
interaction
D1. Would "during learning" be clearer/more precise?
D2. Amounts and types?
D3. question needs clarification
D4. Two different statements but I agree with both. Again influences is too light
a term, most likely. Who argues with "influences"? Isolation is often comparable
with a form of torture to such highly socialized animals as humans.
D5. Yes, but let's have some examples. The variety of meaningful social
interactions is enormous.
4.
Wording, precision
E1. This is silly - I'm done. 5.
Silly idea
F1. Ditto 6.
Other
There were 12 comments in four categories: (a) Confirmation with additional ideas; (b) Non-
social relationships also of value; (c) Degrees of desired social interaction; and (d) Precise
wording. There was also one comment that said, “This is silly,” and one which said “Ditto,”
presumably in reference to an earlier comment which was impossible to reference due to
data anonymity.
There were two comments confirming this tenet and suggesting additional information. The
first said that this tenet speaks to the concept of “collective intelligence,” which is prized in
modern education. The second comment confirmed that learning is social, but that this is not
always good. This suggests that learning from others is inevitable, but not always positive.
There was one comment that suggested that learning can also come from non-social
encounters, such as being in nature. There were two comments about the degree of social
interaction, the first of which points out that the desire for social interaction can vary not only
by individual, but within each individual’s life. The other comment suggests there are
acceptable norms for social interaction and exclusion which should also be taken into
consideration.
43
There were five comments about precise wording, one which globally said this tenets needs
improvement, one that asks for examples, one that critiqued the word “influence” as being
too global and two recommendation. The first recommendation was to add “during learning”
and the second was to add “amounts and types”.
There is robust evidence for the tenet of Social Interactions, which should be considered
when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 10: Attention
Tenet 10. ATTENTION is a complex phenomenon comprised of multiple systems
supporting functions such as metacognition, self-reflection, mindfulness, states of high
alertness, selective attention and focused attention. These systems work to different
degrees in different people. These systems also have different relationships with one
another in different people. (Percent agreement by participants: 88.99%.)
Table 18. Comments on the Tenet of Attention
A1. True, all this, though I suspect things like stubbed toes evoke very similar
states of attention for most people.
A2. It is strange to systematically cite individual differences.
A3. Yes, but the frustration is the second must always be the case (ind diffs) so
what is the point of the first part ... same for all
1.
Attention is also
universal
B1. There is a lot in here. Is metacognition really part of attention? According to
which model. And is mindfulness a part of attention
B2. Metacognition and self-reflection are different from attention. Attention is
usually conceptualized in terms of focused attention, switching attention, and
sustained attention.
B3. I cannot see mindfulness as a 'system' - it is a technique that draws about
some aspects of attention and cognition
B4. Both grammatically and conceptually, this point includes too many elements
to be clear. Is it "attention" that is "supporting functions such as...," or is it
"multiple systems"? Are the "systems" at the beginning of sentence two the
multiple systems that comprise attention, or are they the functions of
"metacognition, self-reflection, etc." I think this tenet should be divided into its
constituent parts and stated more clearly.
B5. edit: to different degrees in different people, and are called upon differently
depending on the task
B6. There is no such thing as unconscious, outside of perhaps deep anesthesia.
Prefer subconscious or non-coconscious cognitive processes
B7. "work to different degrees" is not my favorite word choice. Also, this over-
emphasizes differences in relationships between the neural systems. In
understanding systems level neuroscience, you might say the strength of a
connection is greater or weaker, but many systems have basic functional
architecture that is universal and highly conserved.
B8. The attentional systems work different, but not in terms of "degrees", in
different people.
B9. I agree. But the multiple systems cited are not independent, but overlapped.
Therefore, I'm not sure it is appropriate to use the term "multiple systems."
2.
Wording, precision
C1. Note about this item as an example for your construction of those in this
instrument: The statement includes too many clauses, and it's nearly impossible
to which of those I agree or disagree. When my agreement is to all - then it's ok.
But if it was not - I would not know how to respond. for example, I may agree
that attention is a complex phenomenon, while disagree (not my case, but think
hypothetically) with "these systems work to different degrees in different
people."
C2. I agree with the first two sentences in this statement. But not totally with the
last sentence. I don’t believe attention is that highly individualized. In addition,
what we pay attention to is culturally derived.
3.
Partial agreement
44
D1. But only in part. What causes attention to something -- the motivators -- are
many and need careful analysis. They all connect, I suspect, with the whole array
of our emotions. But there is also what attention is -- and that turns on what the
attention is directed on. That is usually something we are looking for, and may be
closely connected with why -- the motivator -- of the attention we use to focus on
specific things. All of this needs unpacking. Without that a tenet like (10) is
hollow.
D2. I wouldn't lump all of this under attention.
D3. Too vague
4.
Need to unpack or
hollow
E1. Attention is also influenced by emotion: for example, if the event/object
triggers fear, attention is narrowed to the event/object feared. This attention is
different to attention provoked by interest, familiarity that is positive....
5.
Emotions
F1. This doesn't say anything much. Not sure why it's important to go into so
much detail to say so little - are these things really disputed?
F2. Posner
6.
Information is obvious
G1. It is important for teachers to understand more about attention so they are
better able to differentiate instruction and see their students' attention as their (the
teacher's) responsibility
7.
Important for teachers
H1. You have attention up under principles 8.
Attention is a principle
There were 22 comments on the tenet of Attention. These were divided into eight categories:
(a) Attention is also universal; (b) Precise wording; (c) Partial agreement; (d) Need to unpack
concept; (e) Emotions; (f) Information is obvious; (g) Unimportant; and (h) Attention is a
principle.
There were three comments that pointed out that attention has many similarities across
humans, and that calling out the individual differences, as opposed to their similarities, was
not a complete reading of the information. This relates to a repeated comment throughout
which calls for a great prominence of information related to brain similarities, rather than to
their differences.
There were nine comments about precise wording. Three mentioned metacognition as its
own system, independent of attention. Mindfulness and self-reflection were also both
mentioned twice as their own systems, independent of attention. These two points are worth
further research, as the literature on neural networks related to metacognition and
mindfulness clearly relate to attention systems, which does not seem widely known by
teachers.
The imprecision of the words “multiple systems” was mentioned by two participants, as was
the idea that this occurs in “different degree” in different people. Finally, one person pointed
out that there is no such thing as “unconscious” and suggested that the relationship of
attention to consciousness should be on a spectrum.
Two people showed partial agreement for the concept. Both thought the first sentence was
clear, but that there were too many ideas in the second. This coincided with the three
comments relating to the need to “unpack” the concept of attention further as there were too
many ideas in a single sentence. One person wanted to highlight the importance of emotions
in attention systems. One said that this information is “obvious” while another said teachers
need to learn more about this. Finally, one person said attention was a principle, not a tenet.
These comments all point to the vital role of attention in learning and the more nuanced
understanding of it in teacher education that is needed.
45
There is robust evidence for the tenet of Attention, which should be taken into consideration
when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 11: Learning is Not Linear
Tenet 11. Most LEARNING IS NOT LINEAR but rather advances and retracts based on
stages of growth, reflection and the amount of repetition to which one is exposed.
(Percent agreement by participants: 86.24%.)
Table 19. Comments on the Tenet of Learning is Not Linear
A1. It is strange to systematically cite individual differences. 1.
Similarities vs.
Differences
B1. Does it depend on the kind of learning? Some procedural learnings are finite
and step-by-step. Others are more conceptual and nonlinear.
B2. I disagreed just because this seems too broad - i.e., this implies that there are
no types/aspects of learning that are linear, but it seems to me that there are some
that could, perhaps arguably, be termed linear
B3. But may also be stabilized and focused by interest, curiosity, and desire to
find the truth about something.
2.
Type of learning
C1. Well, finally something I can disagree with, a little bit at least. Mathematical
stickler that I am, I suspect that were we to take the first derivative of learning,
quite a lot, if not most, of it would be the result of constant effort, occasionally
punctuated by qualitative changes in understanding.
3.
Linearity
D1. This statement invokes the notion of stages, which I do not find useful when
thinking about learning and development 4.
“Stages”
E1. Strongly agree
E2. good tenet
E3. This seems to be a principle?
5.
Agreement
F1. A complexity here is helping teachers to see that if a student has to be tested
quickly "before they forget" (for example, before a break) than it was never
meaningful learning to be begin with
6.
Practical applications
G1. too broad 7.
Too broad
H1. I'm just not prepared to say I agree with something that purports to say
something but in fact says so little. Same applies to most of these 'tenets'. 8.
Little to (dis)agree with
I1. Same note about the number of actual clauses included in this "naive"
sentence.
I2. The verb "retracts" doesn't work in this sentence.
I3. advancement and retraction is connected to so many components of both
experience, environment and biology. I would love for us to delve deeper here.
I4. I don't know what advances and retracts means here
I5. Normally I would say "advances and retreats" rather than "advances and
retracts".
9.
Wording, precision
46
I6. Are there other factors beyond the three mentioned (e.g. attention, emotional
valence/strength, competing/conflicting information that interferes with retention)
I7. Not sure how to quantify "most" and I don't think repetition is key.
I8. Not sure what stages of growth refers to here.
I9. I have no idea what "linear" means. Linear is a function of the tests we apply,
not a function of human learning.
I10. Not sure how linear is relevant to learning process
I11. In some cases it may be linear but more usually a power function.
I12. What do you mean by linear....really "linear"...constant rate over time....that
would be silly ....if that is what it means...feel free to switch me to agree.
I13. How can the term linear even be intelligently applied to such a question? Are
we myth busting here?
I14. as an ex music-teacher -- learning is a staccato
I15. cyclical?
There were 27 comments, which were divided into nine categories: (a) Similarities versus
differences; (b) Type of learning; (c) Linearity; (d) “Stages”; (e) Agreement; (f) Practical
application; (g) Too broad; (h) Little to (dis)agree with; (i) Precise wording.
There was one comment about similarities and differences which echoed comments from
other tenets: there are many more similarities than differences and this should be
emphasized. Another comment which sounded similar to prior statements was that “I'm just
not prepared to say I agree with something that purports to say something but in fact says so
little. Same applies to most of these 'tenets'”. This suggests that in an effort to be brief and to
respond to multiple edits, the statements become less definitive and focused.
There were three comments that suggested that different types of learning may result in
different types of learning, some being more “linear” than others. There was one comment
about the tenet sounding like “stages” of learning, with which the writer disagreed.
Three people commented that they agreed, or agreed strongly, or thought this should even
be a principle. One other agreed and offered a suggestion of the “application” of this tenet in
real classrooms. On the other hand, one person simply stated they thought this was “too
broad” of a statement.
By far the largest category of comments was related to precise wording. There were 15
comments suggesting edits. There were five people that said the word “linear” seemed
inappropriate related to learning. Three of these noted the word “retracts” was inaccurate
and should be changed, though one person said they liked this but wanted further details.
Two people offered alternative metaphors to “advances and retract,” which were that
learning is “cyclical” or “staccato”. One person made a global observation that the number of
clauses made this a “naïve” sentence.
To respond in part to these comments, and to state the tenet in the affirmative, rather than
the negative (e.g., “not linear”), the following re-wording should be considered:
47
Tenet 11. Most LEARNING IS CYCLICAL NOT LINEAR but rather and advances and
recedes retracts based on stages of growth, reflection, consolidation, and the amount of
repetition to which one is exposed.
There is robust evidence supporting the tenet that Learning Cycles, which should be taken
into consideration when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 12: Conscious and Unconscious Processes
Tenet 12. Learning involves CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS PROCESSES, which
may differ by individuals based on their training and other individual experiences.
Learning is also described as implicit (passive or unaware processes) and explicit
(active or aware processes). (Percent agreement by participants: 92.66%.)
Table 20. Comments on the Tenet of Conscious and Unconscious Processes
A1. Global Workspace Theory suggests that most of the brain is active most of
the time, whether we are conscious of those activities or not.
A2. Who is the boss? Conscious or the inconscious [sic]? Be aware about what
we are unaware of and consciously update the unconscious has a tremendous
significance in education.
A3. For example implicit motor learning that we all experienced during life
1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. There is no such thing as unconscious, outside of perhaps deep anesthesia.
Prefer subconscious or non-coconscious cognitive processes. At some point the
issue of bias must be addressed in the tenets.
2.
No such thing as
unconscious
C1. Is there also an emotional component? 3.
Emotions
D1. It is strange to systematically cite individual differences. 4.
Similarities vs
Differences
E1. May differ not just among individuals but also within the same individual
over time 5.
Individual difference
F1. I think this could be a principle.
F2. Similarly, does this meet the definition of principle?
6.
Should be a principle
G1. Another question that is really multiple questions. 7.
Complexity
H1. I rather say verbal (linguistic) and no-verbal processes; the term unconscious
is too infected historically 8.
Wording
There were 11 comments on the tenet of conscious and unconscious processes, which were
divided into eight categories: (a) Confirmed, with additional support; (b) No such thing as
unconscious; (c) Emotions; (d) Similarities versus differences; (e) Principle; (f) Complexity;
and (g) Wording.
There were three comments in agreement with the tenet and which offered additional
information to support this idea. There was one comment about the terminology that offered
an argument that there is no such thing as “unconsciousness” with alternate wording was
suggested. There was another comment about the role of emotions and conscious states.
48
Once more, there was the observation that the tenets highlight the differences, rather than
the similarities between individuals, suggesting a modification in wording throughout.
Two people suggested that this should be a principle rather than a tenet, and one person
indicated that, like other tenets, the complexity of the statement really results in “multiple
questions” rather than a single tenet. Finally, one person suggested that verbal and non-
verbal processes might capture the essence of this tenet better than conscious and
unconscious as those words are “too infected historically”.
There is robust evidence supporting the tenet of Conscious and Unconscious Practices,
which should be taken into consideration when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 13: Learning is Developmental as well as
Experiential
Tenet 13. Learning is DEVELOPMENTAL (nature and nurture) as well as
EXPERIENTIAL (nurture). A person's age, cognitive stage of development and past
experiences all contribute to learning and do so differently for each person. (Percent
agreement by participants: 89.81%.)
Table 21. Comments on the Tenet of Learning is Developmental as well as Experiential
A1. Biology and environment are intrinsically related. Just realize the impact of
epigenetics breaking solid but old paradigms under which underlie psycho and
sociological theories.
A2. Learning is an epigenetic process; you cannot meaningfully separate nature
and nurture in the actual individual learning and developmental processes; the
separation is an artefact of sample-based (in opposition to process-based)
research designs
1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. Again, I have to qualify in that there is likely much structural and
substantive learning that is more similar amongst individuals than different.
B2. Not really different for each person. There is normal distribution.
2.
More similarities than
differences
C1. I think this is very loose and not clear
C2. Age is not a malleable variable, therefore it is not useful to say that age
contributes to learning. That is like saying bone growth contributions to height.
C3. This one is a bit tricky. If something is a natural development, that does not
seem to be "learning" to me. Development would certainly contribute to
learning, but it seems a bold statement to say learning IS developmental.
C4. In the second sentence, you don’t mention anything from the “nature” side.
C5. I don't know what experience means here apart from the mind we bring at a
certain age and stage of development, with its experiential history
3.
Wording
D1. Stages are no longer considered an appropriate model for understanding
developmental progress
D2. But I do not think that it is helpful to invoke developmental stages such as
those proposed by Piaget or Vygotsky
4.
“Stages”
E1. Cognitive development is not the only domain of development that affects
learning— so do language development, social emotional development,
sensorimotor development, and attention and executive function development.
5.
Missing elements
F1. You're driving me crazy! This question reads as if a person who identical
age, cognitive stage, and prior experiences would have different responses to
learning. Beats me if I do not know what differs (e.g., diet, genetics, etc.
6.
Other
49
There were 13 comments made on this tenet, which were divided into six categories: (a)
Confirmation with additional evidence; (b) Similarities versus differences; (c) Wording; (d)
Stages; (e) Missing element; and (f) Other.
There were two comments that confirmed the original tenet, and added additional
information about epigenetics to support it. There were two additional comments that
suggested that there are more similarities than differences in human learning processes,
and that this should be brought to the forefront of the discussion.
Five people commented on the wording. The first simply said, “this is very loose and not
clear,” while another commented on the lack of parallel construction in the sentence.
Another said that the definition of the word “experience” was unclear in this context, while a
fourth noted that “age is not a malleable factor” and that it was, therefore, incorrect to say it
contributes to learning. The fifth commented that if something is based on “natural
development” then it did not “seem like learning,” meaning that saying learning “IS
developmental” might be misleading.
One person suggested “Cognitive development is not the only domain of development that
affects learning— so do language development, social emotional development, sensorimotor
development, and attention and executive function development,” which means this
commentator does not consider language, social emotional development, attention and
Executive Function development to be cognitive development. This suggests that common
definitions of cognitive development may not be shared with all of the participants and that
definitions should be shared in a glossary from the start.
There is robust evidence to support the tenet of Learning is Developmental as well as
Experiential, which should be considered when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 14: Body and Brain
Tenet 14. Learning engages the entire physiology: The BODY AND BRAIN interact to
play a role in learning processes. (Percent agreement by participants: 78.70%.)
Table 22. Comments on the Tenet of Body and Brain
A1. There is no learning process without considering physiology.
A2. There is an increasing bulk of evidence that supports this statement.
A3. Antonio Damasio would applaud, I presume.
1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. This is a fundamental tenet of embodied cognition and embodied learning.
B2. I'll add that my theory of learning is rooted in the embodied mind stance.
2.
Embodied cognition
C1. to a very lesser extent the body is involved. Very lesser.
C2. In some situations, not in others.
C3. Entire is too strong. There are body-brain interactions, to be sure, but there
are parts of the physiology that are not involved in learning too.
C4. While body/brain interaction facilitates learning, one can certainly learn
without physiological participation. I suppose you could say eye movement is a
physiological engagement, it seems minor and as such, reading has a very small
physiological contribution.
3.
Body: Lesser extent
50
D1. To me this implies that there are aspects of body control that are involved in
learning and somehow independent of the brain
D2. Different kinds of learning engage different body, brain, and mind
interactions.
D3. In the literal yes, but the body and brain can be invoked to different degrees
in particular instances -- so one can play a more important role in some situations
--
4.
Can the brain and body
ever be separate?
E1. poorly worded. what is the entire physiology?
E2. Depends what you mean by "entire physiology"
E3. I am not aware that there are studies on the totality of the brain or body
E4. Too vague, again what do you mean, and would agree this point? Define
Learning.
E5. I would need a better definition to agree
5.
Wording
F1. Too vague for me. 6.
Too vague
There were 18 comments on the mind-body tenet, which were divided into eight categories:
(a) Confirmed, and additional information; (b) Embodied cognition; (c) Body involved to a
lesser extent; (d) Can the brain and body ever be separate? (e) Wording; (f) Too vague.
There were three comments which confirmed the tenet, and added additional evidence to
support it. There were two comments suggesting that the mind-body tenet is actually the
concept of “embodied cognition”. Four people commented that the “entire physiology” was
too extreme as the body is involved in learning to a lesser extent. There are three comments
that make it clear that the mind and brain are part of the body, so they can never really be
separated. Additionally, during learning different parts of the mind are related to different
parts of the body.
There were five comments about the wording. Two of these related to the words “entire
physiology,” and two asked for a better definition of “learning”. These requests for better
wording and definitions are very important as they suggest that a shared language may not
be in place to ensure communication across fields. One participant said s/he was “not aware
that there are studies on the totality of the brain or body,” meaning that the tenet was born of
research on parts of the mind-body relationship, not the whole. This gives further weight to
the suggestion that “entire” be reworded.
This tenet was approved with a 78.70% approval rate, which suggests it could be improved
upon. There is robust evidence to support the tenet of Body and Brain, however, based on
the comments, the following might be an improvement:
Tenet 14. Learning engages the entire physiology: The BODY AND BRAIN, which is
sometimes called embodied cognition. interact to play a role in learning processes.
Tenets 15: Sleep and Dreaming
Tenet 15. SLEEP AND DREAMING influence learning in different ways. Sufficient sleep
permits the brain the pay attention during wakeful states and dreaming contributes to
memory consolidation. The amount of sleep and dreaming individuals need can vary
based on culture, circumstances, motivation, genetics and rehearsed sleep hygiene
practices. (Percent agreement by participants: 72.22%.)
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Table 23. Comments on the Tenet of Sleep and Dreaming
A1. Although I suspect there is much, much more to the nature of dreaming
than what is expressed in this tenet. 1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. I generally agree with this statement, but the general role of dreaming
(REM) and the amount of sleep most people need as being different is
something I am not clear on. I wonder if there isn`t a basic minimum amount
and type of sleep people need to function. Perhaps it is just semantics in how
the Tenet is phrased.
B2. Newest research suggest dreams mean nothing--look at Matthew Walker's
book Why We Sleep--sleep needs do vary but not that much. Most people
need 7+ to 9 hours per night.
2.
Universal parameters
C1. Do we know that it is really 'dreaming' that contributes to memory
consolidation?
C2. Maybe just sleep here, there’s much less evidence about the role of
dreaming.
C3. I am not familiar with the research on dreaming's influence on learning,
though I know synaptic pruning takes place during sleep and has a profound
impact on learning.
C4. I agree with the "sleep" portion of this tenet. I have no basis to reply to the
"dreaming" portion.
C5. I am not aware of evidence linking dreaming to learning in humans.
C6. While I know studies about sleep I have no knowledge of studies about
dreaming
C7. The contribution of DREAMING to learning is unclear, but certainly
SLEEP is important.
C8. Agree with first two sentences but am not aware of research supporting
third sentence.
3.
Need For More
Information
D1. I think that the food/nutrition as well as physical activity,
spirituality/meditation could influence the need of sleep amount.
D2. How does an individual’s culture alter the amount of sleep and dreaming
that the individual needs? This seems unclear to me.
D3. Only with the first sentence. Regarding the second sentence, I am not sure
that the amount of sleep needs can vary based on culture.
D4. on culture? That's a new one for me.
D5. Not sure of this : "The amount of sleep and dreaming individuals need can
vary based on culture, circumstances, motivation."
D6. Sleep hygiene practices contribute to the amount of sleep and dreaming.
These do not moderate the amount of sleep needed
D7. I do not think we know enough about dreaming to be this bold about its
purpose. The last part is too obvious (of course we vary) and says too little
4.
Influences on sleep
hygiene
E1. If tenets are "below" principles, I feel that both sleep and stress should be
"moved up" to principles 5.
Principle
F1. Typo: "Sufficient sleep permits the brain the pay" should be "to pay"
Sleep debt is real and the body will get its money.
F2. You present hypotheses as facts.
F3. I would reconsider the statement as to how sleep permits the brain to "pay
attention" during wakeful states. I do think there is a general consensus that
dreaming contributes to memory consolidation. Lack of sleep impairs
attention, but sufficient sleep may not be enough to allow for people to "pay
attention" --also vague as we are not being specific about the type of attention
here.
6.
Wording
52
There were 22 comments about the tenet of sleep and dreaming. They were organized in six
categories: (a) Confirmed and with additional information; (b) Universal parameters; (c)
Need for more information; (d) Influences on sleep hygiene; (e) Principle, not tenet; and (f)
Wording.
There was one comment suggesting that the there is more to this tenet than is included in
the description, and another who said that sleep and dreaming should be a principle. There
were two comments that indicate that there are universal parameters to sleep which should
also be mentioned rather than just favoring information about human variability.
Seven other comments were related to sleep hygiene and influences on adequate sleep.
Four of these comments questioned how culture could influence sleep patterns. One of the
participants said, “Sleep hygiene practices contribute to the amount of sleep and dreaming.
These do not moderate the amount of sleep needed,” which suggests getting to sleep ad
quality of sleep are not the same thing. All of these comments suggest that the role of sleep
and dreaming is not an area given much attention in teacher education.
There were three comments about wording. One comment indicated a typo (“the pay” should
be “to pay”). A second said that the way this tenet was written “present hypotheses as facts”.
A third comment said, “Lack of sleep impairs attention, but sufficient sleep may not be
enough to allow for people to “pay attention”.
There were eight comments that that showed a belief in the role of sleeping and learning,
but less knowledge about dreaming and learning. This is an important point as the
participants only agreed with this tenet 72.22%. There is robust evidence supporting the
tenet of Sleep and Dreaming, in which dozens of peer-reviewed studies that show the
distinct roles of sleep and dreaming in learning. This evidence should be further reviewed in
light on educational implications.
Based on the comments, it is possible that the tenet should be reworded as follows:
Tenet 15. SLEEP AND DREAMING influence learning in different ways. Sufficient sleep
permits allows the brain tohe pay attention during wakeful states and both sleep and
dreaming (normally rapid eye movement [REM]) sleep contributes to memory
consolidation. The amount of sleep and dreaming individuals need can vary based on
cultural norms and habits, circumstances, motivation, genetics and rehearsed sleep
hygiene practices.
Tenets 16: Nutrition
Tenet 16. NUTRITION influences learning. Basic nutritional needs are common to all
humans, however, the frequency of food intake and some dietary needs vary by
individual. (Percent agreement by participants: 90.74%.)
Table 24. Comments on the Tenet of Nutrition
A1. ... also food reactivity/metabolic differences matter.
A2. It depends on the activity and metabolism rate.
A3. And the quality of the food as well as well as sufficient macros - adequate
protein, high quality fats, complex carbohydrates as essential while sugar
might be a disruptor to learning due to insulin spikes impact on the brain.
A4. All of this aligns with the MBHE [Mind, Brain, Health and Education]
focus.
A5. Gut microbiota is the big area of research this year. Two weeks ago, I
asked a lung researcher if lung microbiota is being researched and he said they
have just started.
1.
Confirm, and more
53
B1. Although it is quite likely that our understanding of nutritional needs
remains quite rudimentary, and in some cases completely misguided. 2.
No consensus
C1. It works in close relationship with other risk and protective factors like
physical. This element cannot be isolated. 3.
View in context
E1. The description here doesn't follow from the tenet. Try: Children cannot
learn well when they are hungry in the moment, or systematically
malnourished.
4.
Wording
F1. Again, at what level does it influence learning? Are we talking about
overall brain health, or something more specific related to attention, etc.? 5.
Relationship to learning
There were nine comments about the tenet of nutrition, which were divided into five
categories: (a) Confirmation; (b) No consensus; (c) Context; (d) Wording; and (e)
Relationship to learning.
Four comments confirmed the tenet and offered additional information, including the
importance of gut microbiota, metabolic differences, and the quality of foods. There was one
comment that our current understanding of nutritional basics is still in its infantile stage.
Additionally, there was another comment that nutrition cannot be understood in a vacuum,
but that it must be seen in context of all other impacts on the body and mind. Finally, there
was a sentence which challenged the importance of nutrition in education: “…at what level
does it influence learning?”.
Based on the comments, this tenet might be reworded for clarity in the following way:
Tenet 16. NUTRITION influences learning. Basic nutritional needs are common to all
humans, however, the frequency of food intake, the gut-brain axis and microbiome
balance, and some dietary needs vary by individual. Children cannot learn well when
they are hungry in the moment, or systematically malnourished.
There is robust evidence supporting the tenet of Nutrition, which should be considered when
planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 17: Physical Activity
Tenet 17. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY influences learning. However, different individuals need
different amounts of physical activity to perform optimally. Interspersing physical and
cognitive activity may improve learning. (Percent agreement by participants: 87.16%.)
Table 25. Comments on the Tenet of Physical Activity
A1. good one!
A2. This also aligns with the MBHE focus.
A3. John Ratey's book Spark suggest that exercise does improve learning not
may improve learning
1.
Confirm, and more
B1. The positive effects depend on frequency, intensity, age and physical
conditions.
B2. need different amounts, but also different type of physical activity
B3. I don't know what the evidence is that different individuals need different
amounts of activity.
B4. I'm really not sure that there's evidence re: whether different individuals
need different amounts of physical activity, although I agree with the rest of
the statement.
2.
Factors influencing
physical activity
54
C1. We actually know a lot more about what kinds of activity influence
learning, so maybe better to be a little more specific
C2. Spaced learning research seems important here. I know of the experiments
of a HT -Kelly in the UK.
C3. There is a current debate about how different type of physical activities
influence or not some basic aspects of cognitive processes involved in learning
(e.g., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.001).
3.
Debate
D1. From an embodied perspective, Tenet 17 follows from Tenet 14.
D2. many of these are subsets of other things you've said above
4.
Relation to other tenets
E1. Careful -- learning about what? learning about physical attributes (skill,
sport, etc.) but transfer to reading and numeracy not really. No evidence for
the last claim (unless it is part of interleaving and then any task interspersed
can be substituted)
5.
Relationship to education
F1. In sentence two, I think you could use a stronger verb than "may improve."
My sense is that research consistently supports this position
F2. The last statement feels quite generic and potentially not helpful.
F3. There is a bit of hedging in this tenet with the word "may" in
"Interspersing physical and cognitive activity may improve learning
F4. Another double question.
F5. may is a weak form of languaging a tenet. Also really depends on what is
trying to be learned.
F6. I agree that physical activity influences learning, but not sure of this claim
: "different individuals need different amounts of physical activity to perform
optimally." I'm also not sure "cognitive activity may improve learning" (cf.
problem of transfer related to brain training).
F7. If we use the words "may" in these are we just avoiding making the
hardline statement?
6.
Wording
There were 21 comments on nutrition, which were divided into six categories: (a) Confirmed,
and more; (b) Factors influencing physical activity; (c) Debate about which activities; (d)
Relation to other texts; (e) Relationship to education; (f) Wording.
There were three comments that confirmed the tenet and mentioned additional information.
There were four factors that influence the role of physical fitness in learning including
frequency, intensity and age. There were also three comments that explain there are
debates about what kinds of physical activities are actually beneficial to learning. There are
two comments that suggest that this tenet relates to others already mentioned. There was
also a comment questioning the relationship between physical activity and education.
There were seven comments suggesting a change in wording. Four of the seven comments
recommended eliminating the word “may” from the last sentence.
There is robust evidence supporting the tenet of Physical Activity, which should be taken into
consideration when planning educational training programs.
Tenets 18: Use It Or Lose It
Tenet 18. USE IT OR LOSE IT. Brains that remain active cognitively help development
and can also stave off cognitive decline in the aging brain. Individual variations including
experiences and genetic predispositions influence the final outcomes of interventions,
however. (Percent agreement by participants: 83.49%.)
55
Table 26. Comments on the Tenet of Use It Or Lose It
A1. this is also universal 1.
Universals
B1. This is especially important for older people 2.
Reinforcement
C1. As a hypothesis I agree with the sentence. As a tenet I do not. We do not
have enough evidence to support the clear understanding about how
experience and genetic predispositions influence the outcomes of
interventions.
C2. Tim Salthouse would likely disagree, however
C3. Again, some support but not at the level of support for the other 25. Use it
and lost it - yes to shorter term gains in learning ,but aging ...
3.
Disagreements
D1. Hebb principle are based on the simultaneous activity of two or more
neurons and this strength [sic] biochemical and electrical processes that could
maintain one neuronal pathway active.
D2. This popular saying is not just about muscles, but actually about every
single cell of our body, particularly the neurons and glial cells of the whole
nervous system.
D3. Is there also a chemical condition? Plaque from high levels of cholesterol
for example?
D4. It should also be mentioned that these effects tend to be specific, not
general
D5. The "use it or lose it" dictum, in my experience, typically refers to
learning and forgetting well before age-induced cognitive decline. That is:
"use it or lose it" means "if you don't practice chess, you'll lose much of your
chess-playing skill." The advice seems too broad to be useful for strategies to
stave off cognitive decline. It is, after all, very hard not to "use the brain"
generally.
D6. All brains are active cognitively, so this needs better specificity to be
relevant
D7. Learned non-use stem from the energy efficiency contract that the body
has brain. Rehabilitation is hard for this reason.
D8. While I have either read the research or observed the tenets in action that I
have responded positively to above, I don't know whether this tenet is based
on research
4.
Clarifications
E1. This time, I face the issue of too many clauses with which I sometime
agree and sometime disagree.
E2. This interjection should be separated by commas to make this more
readable: variations, including experiences and genetic predispositions,
influence
E3. But I would delete final before outcome in last sentence.
E4. Don't like the title - too pop psychology
5.
Grammar and words
F1. At least until we have perfected suspended animation. 6.
Other
There were 18 comments divided into six categories: (a) Universals; (b) Reinforcement; (c)
Disagreements; (d) Classifications; (e) Grammar and words; (f) Other.
56
There was one sentence that said this was universal, and another that said this was
particularly appropriate for older people. There were three comments that said they
disagreed with this as a tenet even though they agreed with this as a hypothesis. There
were eight comments that offered clarifications on the Use It Or Lose It concept, including
additional insights about neurons, biochemical processes, glial cells, nervous system, and
energy.
There were four comments recommending grammar changes, three which had to do with
comma use and one that had to do with the title of the tenet itself, which one participant
seemed “too pop psychology”. There was a final comment (“At least until we have perfected
suspended animation”) which impossible to interpret.
The combination of the comments suggest that the phrase, “use it or lose it” which has been
applied to everything from vacation days to neural networks is not well known. This puts into
question whether or not this tenet should be retained. This was approved by 83.45% of the
participants, and has robust evidence to support the tenet of Use It Or Lose It, which
suggests there is merit to its inclusion, though further research should be conducted to draw
direct usage by teachers.
Tenets 19: Feedback
Tenet 19. FEEDBACK about learning progress influences learning outcomes. Feedback
itself can be a source of learning. The type, frequency and use of feedback can
influence learning outcomes, which varies by individual. (Percent agreement by
participants: 96.26%.)
Table 27. Comments on the Tenet of Feedback
A1. Very important 1.
Affirmation
B1. Why do you keep adding "varies by individual." This is always true to a
modest extent, but individual differences pale in comparison to whether one
receives feedback or not. This survey should simply ask -- does the degree to
which individuals differ have a meaningful impact on how we should teach
them? What differences are the most important considerations.
2.
Similarities versus
differences
C1. Feedback might just be used by learners as a form of self-affirmation. I'm
not so sure the influence of feedback is always a good thing. If the level of
dependency is too high, it may actually compromise a person's ability to learn
to think for themselves and act of their own accord.
3.
Feedback not always a
good thing
D1. Add perception of the source of feedback.
D2. And the degree to which it is attended to, perceived, interpreted
correctly, etc. - it has to be meaningful.
D3. Should the list include timeliness of feedback and quality of feedback
(including feedback that is appropriate to the learner's current point of
development with content involved?
D4. It also varies by task. Finite procedural tasks require specific require
specific feedback while personal, cognitive, complex tasks such as teaching
requires a different form of feedback. The type of feedback that is useful
depends upon the level of development from novice to autonomous
4.
Characteristics of good
feedback
57
E1. Every learning process is a loop (at different levels). This is too general.
E2. Too vague. This does not say much. Perhaps consideration of the
individual recipient of feedback needs to be taken into consideration before
providing it.
E3. as long as CAN is in here as 1/3rd of feedback is negative to learning.
But then you are saying too little. This is the problem with these blanket
claims
5.
Too general
F1. Brain learn "using" experiences and renewing them to "find" alternative
solutions or answers 6.
Other
There were 11 comments on the tenet of feedback, which were divided into six categories:
(a) Affirmation; (b) Similarities versus differences; (c) Feedback not always good; (d)
Characteristics of good feedback; (e) Too general; and (f) Other.
There was one comment that simply said, “very important” though the precise reasoning was
not explained. There was one comment that said, “…individual differences pale in
comparison to whether one receives feedback or not,” suggesting that the first question
should be about receiving feedback at all. As mentioned before, this was echoed throughout
the survey, suggesting that the universal response to feedback is more important than
individual reactions.
There was one comment about people’s need for feedback and the dependence this can
develop. This suggests that people may not autonomously learn without feedback if they
depend too much on others, though the literature appears to offer evidence counter to this
as well. This means that a more thorough review of the global body of literature should be
considered when planning educational interventions.
There were four comments which suggested additional characteristics of positive feedback
use. These comments suggest that the “perception of the source of the feedback,” as well as
“the degree to which it is attended to, perceived, interpreted correctly” determine its
meaningfulness and utility to a learner. One participant said that the timeliness and quality of
the feedback matter, while another said, “Finite procedural tasks require specific require
specific feedback while personal, cognitive, complex tasks such as teaching requires a
different form of feedback,” which means that teacher knowledge of these subtleties will
make a difference in learning.
There were three comments that said that this tenet was “too vague” or “too general”. These
comments are important as they call attention to the importance of precision when guiding
teacher practice.
There is substantial research on effective feedback. There is robust evidence that supports
the tenet of Feedback, as well as many of the recommended changes to the wording. Based
on these comments, this tenet could be rewritten as follows:
Tenet 19. FEEDBACK about learning progress influences learning outcomes. Feedback
itself can be a source of learning. The type, frequency and use of feedback can
influence learning outcomes, which varies by individual. Different tasks require different
types of feedback, and the degree to which it is attended to, perceived, and interpreted
correctly depends on the context.
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Tenets 20: Relevant and Meaningful Contexts
Tenet 20. It is easier to retrieve memories when facts and skills are embedded in
individually RELEVANT AND MEANINGFUL CONTEXTS. However, what is relevant or
meaningful varies by individual. (Percent agreement by participants: 92.59%.)
Table 28. Comments on the Tenet of Relevant and Meaningful Contexts
A1. The more elements the brain can use to remember the better probabilities
to reach the needed information 1.
Confirmed, and more so
B1. This tenet holds true for associative and episodic memory, presumably by
definition. I'm not so sure how relevant it is with respect to representational or
more short-term working memory.
B2. Generally, yes, but does this ignore rote memorization (e.g. memorizing
multiplication tables)?
B3. Sometimes skills just need to be learnt to then later apply in relevant and
meaningful contexts. (like the times tables)
B4. Need a definition of "Relevant and meaningful...". But I supposed that is
essentially correlated to the amount of emotional (limbic) response.
2.
Clarifications
C1. Teachers should guide the students from the meaningful to the not yet
meaningful contexts. And the most important they should teach how to search
for meanings and relevance.
C2. But situated memories in contexts can interfere with generalisation,
making what is retrieved too localised, etc. - so the 'teacher' must also take
care with the way situated facts and skills are abstracted for the learning to
transfer to the general situation.
3.
Advice for teachers
D1. This statement is too general for me to feel comfortable endorsing it. It
could be (mis)interpreted to mean: "we have to teach everything in a way
that's individually meaningful for each student." I think it's saying that we
remember distinct facts/skills better when they're a part of well-developed
schema. I would endorse that version of this tenet.
D2. No; some memories are so closely tied to the context of acquisition that
they are not available in other contexts.
4.
Rejected because…
There were nine comments divided into four categories: (a) Confirmed, added information;
(b) Clarifications; (c) Advice for teachers; and (d) Reasons for rejection.
There was one confirmation of the tenet that added that the more ways available to access
information, the easier it will be to reach the information.
There were four comments offering clarifications. The first said, “This tenet holds true for
associative and episodic memory, presumably by definition. I'm not so sure how relevant it is
with respect to representational or more short-term working memory.” The second and third
comments used the example of the multiplication table to explain some concepts that “just
need to be learnt to then later apply in relevant and meaningful contexts”. This comment was
surprising because “memoristic” learning is generally frowned upon in education. The fourth
comment had to do with the role of memorization to emotion and the limbic system.
There were two comments that offered advice to teachers. The first was that a teacher’s job
is in part to guide learners from meaningful to not yet meaningful learning, and then help
them learn to search for meaning and relevance. The second comment offering advice
reminds teachers “that situated memories in contexts can interfere with generalization,
making what is retrieved too localized”. This suggests that a teacher’s job is also to help
students learn that transfer is a key element in learning.
59
Two other comments explained why they rejected this tenet. The first was that it was “too
general” and the second because “some memories are so closely tied to the context of
acquisition that they are not available in other contexts.” This second idea is intriguing and
deserves further exploration.
There is robust evidence to support the tenet of Relevant and Meaningful contexts, which
should be taken into consideration when planning teacher education programs.
Tenets 21: Novelty and Patterns
Tenet 21. Brains detect NOVELTY and seek out PATTERNS. However, what is novel to
or recognized as a pattern by one individual may not be novel or may not be recognized
as a pattern by another. (Percent agreement by participants: 93.52%.)
Table 29. Comments on the Tenet of Novelty and Patterns
A1. Pattern detection is a very general property of brains in all animals.
A2. Also has a normal distribution.
A3. But the experience had to be novel the first time it occurred
A4. There is some gray area here as we are all very good at pattern detection.
1.
Confirmed, and more
B1. It is strange to systematically cite individual differences. In this case for
instance, the identification of patterns is quite universal
B2. Novelty certainly is individual, but patterns have a universal components.
Patterns in number sequences, for example, will be automatically referenced
by the brain. The mathematical mind has some universals.
2.
More similarities than
differences
C1. I don't think this is always true... It seems some people experience what I
like to call a 'hardening of the categories'. The notion that one can't teach an
old dog new tricks also comes to mind in this regard. That is to say, some
people eventually get quite set in their ways, and resist novelty.
C2. Some do, more often than others. Some learn to resist novelty and
patterns.
3.
Harder over time
D1. Again, the statement includes an epistemological (reductionistic) problem:
brains cannot replace agents/subjects in their actions (brains do not detect or
seek). Of course, brain participates in the processes of novelty and pattern
detection.
4.
Reductionist statement
There were nine comments relate to this tenet, divided into four categories: (1) Confirmed
with added information; (b) More similarities than differences; (c) Harder over time; (d)
Reductionist statement.
There were four comments that confirmed this tenet and added additional information.
Collectively they stated that all animals can detect patterns, and that this has a normal
distribution. One person pointed out that every experience is novel the first time it occurs.
There was one comment that said this was an “epistemological” problem and that the brain
participated in the detection of novelty and pattern seeking, but does not do this without the
rest of the body or without context.
There were two comments that echoed the idea that everyone can detect patterns, meaning
this is a similarity of all people, rather than a difference. The other said that “Novelty certainly
is individual, but patterns have a universal components.” There were two comments that
suggest that novelty detection becomes harder over time as people become used to
anticipating patterns they are accustomed to, and therefore may knowingly or not “resist
novelty and patterns”.
There is robust evidence to support the tenet of Novelty and Patterns, which should be taken
into consideration when planning teacher education programs.
60
WHAT TENETS OF LEARNING ARE SUPPORTED BY MIND,
BRAIN, AND EDUCATION SCIENCE?
Tenet 1. MOTIVATION influences learning. However, what motivates one person
and how may not motivate another in the same way.
Tenet 2. EMOTIONS AND COGNITION are mutually influential. Not all stimuli result
in the same affective state for all people.
Tenet 3. STRESS influences learning. However, what stresses one person and how
may not stress another in the same way.
Tenet 4. ANXIETY influences learning. However, what causes anxiety in one person
may not cause anxiety in another.
Tenet 5. DEPRESSION influences learning. However, what causes depression in
one person may not cause depression in another.
Tenet 6. Learning is influenced by both CHALLENGE AND THREAT as perceived
by the learner. What a person finds challenging or threatening is highly
individualized as are their reactions to the stimuli.
Tenet 7. Reactions to FACIAL EXPRESSIONS are both universal in that there are
six or seven emotional states recognized by all humans, as well as highly
individualized in that a person’s culture as well as their own past life experiences
condition responses to faces.
Tenet 8. The brain interprets HUMAN VOICES unconsciously and almost
immediately. The perception of tones and inflections of human voices are both
universal in that basic emotional state, such as anger, are recognized by all
humans, as well as highly individualized in that a person’s culture as well as their
own past life experiences condition responses.
Tenet 9. SOCIAL INTERACTIONS influence learning. Humans are social beings
who learn from and with each other. Different amounts of social interactions around
learning are desired by different people.
Tenet 10. ATTENTION is a complex phenomenon comprised of multiple systems
supporting functions such as metacognition, self-reflection, mindfulness, states of
high alertness, selective attention and focused attention. These systems work to
different degrees in different people. These systems also have different
relationships with one another in different people.
Tenet 11. Most LEARNING IS CYCLICAL and advances and recedes based on
stages of growth, reflection, consolidation, and the amount of repetition to which one
is exposed.
Tenet 12. Learning involves CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS PROCESSES,
which may differ by individuals based on their training and other individual
experiences. Learning is also described as implicit (passive or unaware processes)
and explicit (active or aware processes).
Tenet 13. Learning is DEVELOPMENTAL (nature and nurture) as well as
EXPERIENTIAL (nurture). A person's age, cognitive stage of development and past
experiences all contribute to learning and do so differently for each person.
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Tenet 14. Learning engages the BODY AND BRAIN, which is sometimes called
embodied cognition.
Tenet 15. SLEEP AND DREAMING influence learning in different ways. Sufficient
sleep allows the brain to pay attention during wakeful states and both sleep and
dreaming (normally rapid eye movement [REM]) sleep contributes to memory
consolidation. The amount of sleep and dreaming individuals need can vary based
on cultural norms and habits, circumstances, motivation, genetics and rehearsed
sleep hygiene practices.
Tenet 16. NUTRITION influences learning. Basic nutritional needs are common to
all humans, however, the frequency of food intake, the gut-brain axis and
microbiome balance, and some dietary needs vary by individual. Children cannot
learn well when they are hungry in the moment, or systematically malnourished.
Tenet 17. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY influences learning. However, different individuals
need different amounts of physical activity to perform optimally. Interspersing
physical and cognitive activity may improve learning.
Tenet 18. USE IT OR LOSE IT. Brains that remain active cognitively help
development and can also stave off cognitive decline in the aging brain. Individual
variations including experiences and genetic predispositions influence the final
outcomes of interventions, however.
Tenet 19. FEEDBACK about learning progress influences learning outcomes.
Feedback itself can be a source of learning. The type, frequency and use of
feedback can influence learning outcomes, which varies by individual. Different
tasks require different types of feedback, and the degree to which it is attended to,
perceived, and interpreted correctly depends on the context.
Tenet 20. It is easier to retrieve memories when facts and skills are embedded in
individually RELEVANT AND MEANINGFUL CONTEXTS. However, what is
relevant or meaningful varies by individual.
Tenet 21. Brains detect NOVELTY and seek out PATTERNS. However, what is
novel to or recognized as a pattern by one individual may not be novel or may not
be recognized as a pattern by another.
62
Part 3 What key concepts should be
included in basic teacher
knowledge?
To better understand what teachers should know about Mind, Brain, and Education topics,
participants were asked, “What is important for teachers to know?”
The participants were shown 11 areas of conceptual knowledge identified by members of
the 2017 International Delphi Panel (Table 30) and were asked to express if they are
important for teachers to know or not. They were also allowed to choose a no reply option if
they had no basis to reply, and to add a comment with any additional concepts not included
in the list.
Table 30. The Original and Modified Basic Conceptual Knowledge Areas in Mind, Brain, and
Education
Original Concepts Important
to know Unimportant
to know No reply Summary of the
Comments Modified concepts
based on comments
(a) The brain is
plastic and can
change
103
(95.37%) 3
(2.78%) 2
(1.85%)
No Comments. 1. The brain is plastic
and can change as a
result of learning
experience.
(b) Intelligence is
fluid, not fixed. 101
(93.52%) 2
(1.85%) 5
(4.63%)
1. Not sure it’s helpful to just
know intelligence is fluid. …
understanding that balance it
should be more nuanced
2. It is bloody wrong.
Intelligence is a stable trait.
Teachers do not have a direct
impact on intelligence but they
can have a big impact on the
Investment of intelligence into
usable knowledge.
3. Intelligence has a genetic
basis …. It is to some extent
malleable but not entirely
'fluid'.
4. Must be nuanced to be true.
2. Intelligence is a
malleable
biopsychological
potential to process
information and
problem solving.
(c) Learning is
visible in white
matter tracts
46
(42.59%) 46
(42.59%) 18
(16.67%)
1.The wordings/message is a
bit confusing
2. … of certain types of
learning
3. White matter tracks are not
the basis for plasticity. They
are part of solidifying or
consolidating L & M. Synaptic
plasticity is the key idea.
4. learning changes not only
white matter but other brain
structures as well, and that
genetically influenced
maturation processes also
affect brain structures and
influence how the brain learn
This concept is excluded
from the list, because it is
evaluated as important
only by 42% of
participants and there are
convincing points that
teachers need to know
this concept as a part of
brain plasticity (concept
1)
63
(d) Stimulation of
attentional networks
improves learning
84
(78.50%) 11
(10.28) 13
(12.15%) 1. The wordings/message is a
bit confusing (What is
'probability of learning’?).
2.The wordings/message is a
bit confusing
3.'Stimulating attentional
networks'?
3. The brains’ attention
networks can improve
as a result of training.
(e) The neuromyths
should be debunked 98
(91.59%) 4
(3.74%) 5
(4.67%) 1. Some semblance of truth to
be found in neuromyths
2.See 'On the Irrelevance of
Neuromyths' paper
3. Not focusing on debunking
myths and instead focus on
communicating facts
4. Need to also think about how
to de-bunk
5. The myth of learning styles
is still very alive in public
education
5. Neuromyths like Brain Gym
seem to persist despite all the
literature! … There is a strong
appetite for all brain-based
information
4. Neuromyths and
their origins should be
understood and they
should then
subsequently be
debunked.
(f) Mind and body
are connected 98
(89.9%) 8
(7.27%) 4
(3.64%) 3. Mind? We do not need to
say mind, all is body, and all
systems interact (nothing new).
5. Cognition is
embodied due to the
interaction of the mind,
body, and environment.
(g) Affect and
cognition are
inextricably linked
104
(94.55%) 3
(2.73%) 3
(2.73%) Stress can affect brain
development and learning 6. Affective and
cognition processes are
inextricably linked.
(h) The Default
Mode Mechanism
has been linked to
creative output or
insight
40
(36.70%) 27
(24/77%) 44
(40.37%)
1. The wordings/message is
confusing (What is Default
Mode Mechanism’?).
2. Is there enough evidence to
back this up?
3. Teachers don’t need to know
that the DMN is involved in
creativity. They need to know
what teaching strategies
accomplish that goal.
4. Not much recognized
concept
5. Teachers don't need to know
Default Mode Network. They
need to know that crossing
wires during down time is part
of consolidation and creativity.
6. The tacit operations such as
the 'Default Mode Mechanism'
need to be considered, but less
confident that presently
prescriptive classroom
strategies are readily available
7. A bit dubious. Creativity is
inherent in the brain –
everywhere.
8. It is important for some
types of learning when
leveraged in certain ways
This concept is excluded
from the list, because it is
evaluated as unimportant
by 40% of participants
and there are convincing
points to be not included
as an area of knowledge
that teachers need to
know.
64
(i) “The whole”
child, including
their physiological
and psychological
needs should be
considered
105
(95.45%) 2
(1.82%) 3
(2.73%) 1. It is an insult to teachers - as
if they didn't know this. 7. Teaching
environments need to
meet the physical,
moral, social,
emotional, spiritual,
and aesthetic needs and
interests of the whole
child.
(j) There is a
“testing effect”
which can enhance
memory and
therefore learning
85
(78.98%) 8
(7.34%) 16
(14.68%) 1. be careful with this - it can
be used to justify masses of
frequent testing
2. "Retrieval practice" is a
much better brand name.
3. "Testing effect" is really
active retrieval, and not just
testing.
4. Not much recognized
concept
5. There are lots of
psychological tricks that US
teachers get in their pre-service
Ed Psych courses. This is just
one of them
6. odd question
8. Active memory
retrieval (as
experienced through
frequent, low-stakes
testing) can actually
improve memory and
boost learning.
(k) Tools to study
infant? cognition
such as eye tracking
30
(28.4%) 62
(57.94%) 16
(14.95%) 1. Companies trying to sell this
technology directly to schools.
.. It requires trained use and
skilled interpretation.
2. Teachers have to understand
principles, for example of eye-
tracking methodology, but not
details
3. good to know that the tools
exist
4. The last item is tricky - it is
relevant for the teacher's work.
5. This, of course, could be
important for specific teachers
6. Particularly for Pre-school
teachers.
7. But may be less so,
depending on the age of
students that they teach
8. Eye tracking has become a
very valuable tool, especially
linking attention mechanisms
and cognition, but I am not
certain how teachers
particularly benefit at present
from this basic, but important,
field of inquiry
9. This item is not as important
for all educators
10. odd question
11. Should also understand …
during the specific functional
preschool and school years
12. Tools for research maybe
of interest personally, but not
needed in their capacity as
teachers.
While more than 14%
of participants
evaluated this concept
as unimportant, the
comments imply its
importance. However,
it requires major
modification as follow:
9. Neurotechnology
tools have yielded
important insights into
learning and
development.
65
As a consequence of the comments, three new concepts emerged and are summarized in
Table 31.
Table 31. New Areas of Teachers’ Basic Conceptual Knowledge based on Comments
Comments Additional Concepts
A1. “What is most important for teachers to know is that learners are much
more than just causally determined biological mechanisms.” 10. There is a reciprocal
interaction between nature
and nurture during
development.
B1. “Relatively little neurobiology matters for effective teaching. These areas of
knowledge matter to neuroscientists, but not to teachers…. We should
emphasize educational psychology (which can be incredibly practically useful)
over educational neuroscience.”
B2. “So what!? All of this was clear before neuroscience came on the scene.”
B3. “Sometimes neuroscience is just confirming what most people know.”
11. Neuroscience,
Psychology, Education and
Cognitive Science have
come together to form the
foundations of MBE
C1. “It is especially important that teachers have deep knowledge of brain
development.”
C2. “Teaching teachers about how their pupils' brains learn.”
C3. “Some teachers may be interested in the mechanics of brain activity in
support of other claims about how it works.”
C4. “Role of language(s) in learning at all levels seems to have dropped out of
these tenets and suggestions”
C5. “Teachers need to be very knowledgeable about brain development. They
should have to take a course focused on this topic.”
12. The human brain
undergoes enormous
development across the
lifespan.
Participants were also asked an open-ended question: “What do you wish all teachers
knew about the brain?”
Ninety-three (93) participants responded to this question and 13 skipped the question. Six
new concepts emerged as the result of participants responses to this questions as
summarized in Table 32.
Table 32. New Areas of Teachers’ Basic Conceptual Knowledge based on Open-Ended
Questions
Comments Emerging concepts
D1. “The fact that there are large individual differences therein. That each brain
is unique - that "different" does not necessarily means worst.”
D2. “Brains are accompanied by unique persons and are always brought to
class. What we do in class to engage each brain is critical to the students'
individual success.”
D3. “There are nuances and small differences between learners. Feels too much
like today everyone looking for all-or-none responses.”
D4. “That all brains are unique and that when they see pictures of brains with
blobs on that is an average of a group of brains, rather than what an individual
brain is doing.”
13. Human variance and
individual differences
should be respected
through the use of
differentiated instructional
strategies.
66
E1. “An intro to various executive functions, and when they typically develop…
Also an intro to reasoning/critical thinking.”
E2. “They should know about cognitive capacities especially with exefun
[Executive Functions].”
E3. “It is important for teachers to know that working memory is just a model if
they do not they can become too obsessed with models such as cognitive load
which can drive the debate to a place which sees experiential learning as flawed
and direct instruction as the only method.”
E4. “[A] young person's brain has not finished developing and while it is very
quick at learning, executive functions are not mature and so their perspective in
many situations is different to that of a mature adult.”
E5. “Critical thinking is essential to development of the mind, therefore
development of the brain. Understanding the development of the mind is far
more important than understanding development of that neurology.”
14. Executive functions can
improve through
integrating and teaching
these skills as part of the
curriculum.
F1. “Their cognitive and socio-emotional capacities at different periods of
development.”
F2. “The effect of social rejection on the brain.”
F3. “To develop didactic strategies according to group work, communication
and ….”
F4. “The brain is active and interactive, stimulates by social interaction and
influenced by past experiences and culminated learning.”
F5. “That learning to read is not natural but that existing brain mechanisms need
to be adapted to the cultural invention.”
15. Cognition develops
within a social and cultural
context of learning.
G1. “Teachers should know that particular ways of encoding information are
particularly effective.”
G2. “That the brain can be understand in terms of multiple levels of analyses
that connect with one another.”
G3. “Teacher should know about multiple memory systems.”
G4. “They need to know about self-regulation, metacognition, the need of
attention control, metacognition.”
G5. “Teachers need to understand how memory works, how to remember
effectively.”
16. There are multiple
memory and attention
systems which process
information in different
ways.
H1. “ADHD is real - although some kids are just late bloomers”
H2. “How ADD medication impacts the brain Systems”
H3. “Teacher should know about The dyslexic brain”
H4. “The effect of trauma on the brain”
17. Neurodevelopmental
disorders are impairments
of brain function that can
affect learning.
I1. “How new circuits form the species' “new" cognitive functions like literacy
and numeracy; how the reading brain circuit can help resolve the bifurcation in
the past reading wars.”
I2. “Brain structures and functions involved in many different aural and oral
language, reading and writing, and arithmetic and math skills.”
I3. “Specific brain networks carry out important tasks taught in school.”
I4. “The neurobiology of learning and the arts.”
I5. “More about the evolution of the brain in different species and the brain
growth in humans.”
I6. “That having students sit all day has drastic negative effects on cognition
and learning. Just getting them to stand up every 20 minutes has a positive
effect. The brain need blood flow.”
I7. “That learning to read is not natural but that existing brain mechanisms need
to be adapted to the cultural invention.”
18. Neurobiological bases
of domain specific learning
(e.g., school subject
matters mathematics,
language, literacy and arts)
should inform effective
pedagogies.
67
There were five experts who said there are no benefits to teachers in learning about the
brain or neuroscience, though they supported the use of psychology as a bridge between
education and neuroscience.
Taken together, 18 concepts were identified as key concepts in MBE knowledge that all
teachers should know. If divided by category, and role, the Key Conceptual Knowledge
needed by all teachers can be seen in Table 33.
Table 33. Key Concepts in MBE Teacher Knowledge
Category Role MBE Practitioners: 18 Areas of Teachers’ Conceptual
Knowledge
Pre-requisite
Knowledge: Definition 1. Neuroscience, Psychology, Education and Cognitive
Science have come together to form the foundations of
MBE
Objective 2. Teaching environments need to meet the physical, moral,
social, emotional, spiritual, and aesthetic needs and interests
of the whole child.
Neuromyths 3. Neuromyths and their origins should be understood and
they should then subsequently be debunked.
General Cognition Attention 4. The brain’s attention networks can improve as a result of
training.
Memory 5. There are multiple memory and attention systems which
process information in different ways.
Executive
Functions 6. Executive functions can improve through integrating and
teaching these skills as part of the curriculum.
Foundational Beliefs Development 7. The human brain undergoes enormous development
across the lifespan.
8. There is a reciprocal interaction between nature and
nurture during development.
Plasticity 9. The brain is plastic and can change as a result of learning
experience.
10. Human variance and individual differences should be
respected through the use of differentiated instructional
strategies.
11. Neurodevelopmental disorders are impairments of brain
function that can affect learning.
12. Intelligence is a malleable biopsychological potential to
process information and problem solving.
Context 13. Cognition is embodied due to the interaction of the
mind, body, and environment.
14. Cognition develops within a social and cultural context
of learning.
Affect 15. Affective and cognition processes are inextricably
linked.
68
Domain Specific
Cognition Subject area
knowledge 16. Neurobiological bases of domain specific learning (e.g.,
school subject matters mathematics, language, literacy, arts,
and so on) should inform effective pedagogies.
Direct Classroom
Applications Do Exist: Instructional
practices 17. a. Active memory retrieval (as experienced through
frequent, low-stakes testing) can actually improve memory
and boost learning; b. role of affect in social contagion; c.
interleaving for memory enhancement; d. spaced versus
massed practice for better retrieval; e. belief in plasticity re.
Growth Mindsets; f. authentic learning within context, and
so on.
How We Know Technology 18. Neurotechnology tools have yielded important insights
into learning and development.
This list may be considered as the key standards to design effective teacher professional
development on Mind, Brain, and Education.
69
KEY CONCEPTS IN BASIC TEACHER KNOWLEDGE
1. The brain is plastic and can change as a result of learning experience.
2. Intelligence is a malleable biopsychological potential to process information and
problem solving.
3. The brains’ attention networks can improve as a result of training.
4. Neuromyths and their origins should be understood and they should then
subsequently be debunked.
5. Cognition is embodied due to the interaction of the mind, body, and
environment.
6. Affective and cognition processes are inextricably linked.
7. Teaching environments need to meet the physical, moral, social, emotional,
spiritual, and aesthetic needs and interests of the whole child.
8. Active memory retrieval (as experienced through frequent, low-stakes testing)
can actually improve memory and boost learning.
9. Neurotechnology tools have yielded important insights into learning and
development.
10. There is a reciprocal interaction between nature and nurture during
development.
11. Neuroscience, Psychology, Education and Cognitive Science have come
together to form the foundations of MBE.
12. The human brain undergoes enormous development across the lifespan.
13. Human variance and individual differences should be respected through the
use of differentiated instructional strategies.
14. Executive functions can improve through integrating and teaching these skills
as part of the curriculum.
15. Cognition develops within a social and cultural context of learning.
16. There are multiple memory and attention systems which process information in
different ways.
17. Neurodevelopmental disorders are impairments of brain function that can
affect learning.
18. Neurobiological bases of domain specific learning (e.g., school subject matters
mathematics, language, literacy and arts) should inform effective pedagogies.
70
Part 4 What are the lasting
contributions of Mind, Brain, and
Education science?
In an open-ended question, participants were asked: “Globally, what would you say have
been the lasting contributions of Mind, Brain, and Education science/Educational
Neuroscience/Neuroeducation to educational practice, policy and/or research?”
Ninety people (90) chose to respond to this question, and 22 did not answer. The answers
were categorized into four groups as summarized in Table 34. If a respond’s reply fit into
more than one category, the answer was split into those categories.
Table 34. Lasting Contributions of Mind, Brain, and Education
Comments Concepts
A1. “… to emphasize the relevance of interdisciplinary work. … Neuroscience
must go to the classroom to understand the daily problems….”
A2. “Increased understanding of the potential for bidirectional collaborations
between educators and researchers to improve education….”
A3. “Insight in the individual, procession nature of the interactions between M, B
and E”
A4. “Increasing awareness of how mind, brain and education are interconnected.”
A5. “The very notion that interdisciplinary research from the learning sciences
should inform education practices and policies.”
A6. “That transfer of knowledge is not straightforward and that the ultimate proof
of learning is transference.”
A7. “That teaching is no longer just and art form, but also a science.”
A8. “Encouraging a scientific approach to education, knowing that we don't yet
have all the answers, a critical approach to programs that promise better learning.”
A9. “So far, MBE has raised the issue of teacher's understanding how brains work.
Now policy has to be implemented to get neuroscience into teacher training.”
A10. “In general, there are strong connections between the classical cognitive
sciences (prior and modern) that provide human behavioral evidence to
complement what the brain sciences have begun to tell us. … I believe we need to
do more to clearly link the neuroscientific findings with easily understood
summaries of evidence from the cognitive sciences, so teachers have a more
comprehensive basis for interpreting and using the brain-based evidence.”
A11. “Collaboration and communication by experts in these areas.”
A12. “Improvement in the training of human resources in the teaching and learning
sciences.”
1.
Enhanced
understanding and
value for
transdisciplinary
thinking
71
B1. “Advances such as the innate non-symbolic number sense as a pillar of the
development of numerical cognition and formal mathematics.”
B2. “Social/emotional learning, metacognition and executive control, cognitive
modifiability. The impact of fear, poverty, and trauma on learning… The impact of
early experience on later, lifetime learning.”
B3. “Knowledge on plasticity & influence environment/experience-protracted
development adolescent brain.”
B4. “Learning can be increased if we modify environmental circumstances.”
B5. “To understand human learning, especially that of youth, we need to be
cognizant of how the brain functions.”
B6. “An understanding of the centrality of working memory for all school
learning.”
B7. “Neuroplasticity, brain development, working memory, and executive
function.”
B8. “Just knowing that there is a body of research informing how humans learn.”
B9. “Explanation of the role of attention, motivation, memory in learning- -
presenting the "optimistic data" that the brain can change in effective teaching -
presenting the facts regarding individuality of learning.”
B10. “That there are conditions that affect school learning irrespective of
intelligence, requiring different kinds of approaches to learning particular topics,
not just more of the same. That there are age/development-related changes in the
brain, e.g. at adolescence, that affect learning needs.”
B11. “That intelligence is not fixed.”
B12. “That learning can be increased when students learn about using
metacognition to improve their learning”
B13. “That learning results in physical changes in the structure of the brain.”
2.
Increased knowledge
and insights about the
learning and
developing brain
C1. “Eliminating unhelpful and unproven teaching strategies - myth busting.”
C2. “For the moment, raising the teachers' interest. With the risk of developing
Neuromyths if we are not capable of producing usable knowledge...”
C3. “The contributions lie in correcting misimpressions about the brain. The
research information shows the contributions that education/teaching can make to
development.”
C4. “Exposure of neuromyths, knowledge that the work of educationists,
psychologists, and neuroscientists together is important, that education needs to be
reformed to reflect our knowledge on how the brain works.”
C5. “Raising awareness of the importance of evidence-informed practice
Combatting neuromyths Bringing educators and researchers closer together
Thinking about evidence-informed methods of assessing individual dual
differences.”
C6. “Huge. MBE research has helped to dispel Neuromyths amongst teachers and
this has a direct link to student outcome. It also helps to create a culture where
teachers are not just passively receiving information but actually making their own
research with their students.”
3.
Awareness and
Debunking of
Neuromyths
D1. “Disclosure of knowledge about evidence-based teaching and learning.
D2. “Contributions on the particularities of development throughout the life cycle.”
D3. “An emphasis on research (not fads/trends) as the basis for effective
educational practice.”
4.
Improvement in
evidence-based
educational practices
72
D4. “We all know the brain is the most important [organ] of our body but deciding
how create the good educational environment we need to attention more than brain
mechanism.”
D5. “Made educators more aware of brain development and their role in fostering
good brain development.”
D6. “Contributing to spreading the message that "intelligence" is not fixed,
therefore promoting the belief that every learner CAN learn.”
D7. “The recognition that neuroscience and findings in learning from animal
models can change educational practice.”
D8. “That education has to be individualized based on the individual's brain
structure and function.”
D9. “Increased awareness of positive possibilities no matter what the age or
conditions.”
D10. “Enhanced understanding of brain functioning helps to understand the learner
and individual learning patterns, i.e. it is the whole person that learns.”
D11. “The far more sophisticated understanding of the complex factors influencing
learning (both generally and in specific domains like literacy and numeracy).”
D11. “To bring the [educational] science forward.”
As seen in the Table 34, the lasting contributions of MBE can be categorized into four
concepts including: (a) Enhanced understanding and value for transdisciplinary thinking; (b)
Increased knowledge and insights about the learning and developing brain; (c) Awareness
and debunking of neuromyths; and (d) Improvement in evidence-based educational
practices.
Ten participants noted that MBE research is still young, and has, therefore not made any
lasting contributions to the teaching-learning dynamic:
E1. “… The lasting contributions are somewhat modest; … this is because the
focus is upon didactics whereas more growth could come from a focus upon 'the
learning individual' and the many factors which determine learning efficiency.”
E2. “Still to be determined.”
E3. “Not sure.”
E4. “Unable to comment.”
E5. “Not sure there is a universal lasting contribution yet.”
E6. “It is in the infant stage.”
E7. “Nada.”
E8. “So far - I'm yet to see any substantial contribution (let alone lasting). My
experience working with teachers suggests that the notion of "stress prevents
learning" has left tremendous impression. I also think that their coming to
understand learning as a process that builds on what students do know (previous
experience and knowledge, asset approach) rather on what students don't know and
we need to fix ("misconceptions," deficit approach) is strengthened by learning
about the brain.”
E9. “Lasting contributions? A little too early to tell, in my opinion, aside from
helping to overcome the Cartesian mind-body divide.”
E10. “I don't think we are there yet in any way.”
MBE research is in its
infant stage.
73
Specific domain areas and cognitive functions were also mentioned by some participants
related to the Social Brain; Memory, Emotions and Behavior; the Gut-Brain Axis;
Epigenetics; Diversity; Neuroplasticity; and Growth Mindsets.
GLOBALLY, WHAT WOULD YOU SAY HAVE BEEN THE LASTING
CONTRIBUTIONS OF MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION
SCIENCE/EDUCATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE/NEUROEDUCATION
TO EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE, POLICY AND/OR RESEARCH?
1. Enhanced understanding and value for transdisciplinary thinking.
2. Increased knowledge and insights about the learning and developing brain.
3. Awareness and debunking of neuromyths.
4. Improvement in evidence-based educational practices.
74
Part 5 What is the main aim of
education based on Mind, Brain,
and Education science?
This was an open-ended question: “What is the main aim of education based on Mind,
Brain, and Education science?”
Ninety people (90) chose to respond to this question, and 22 did not answer. The answers
were divided into nine groups as summarized in Table 35. If a respondent’s reply fit into
more than one category, the answer was split into those categories.
Table 35. The Aim of Education
Comments Concepts
A1. “To develop translational research approaches - where teachers and
neuroscientists conduct 'clinical trials' taking the evidence from 'bench to
bedside' as in medicine.”
A2. “Improving educational outcomes based on an improving and ever-
expanding body of transdisciplinary empirical evidence.”
A3. “To consider the huge variety of aspects of the multiple dimensions in
which characterize education, including them in the pedagogical theories and
practices.”
A4. “To bring together scientists, teachers and policy makers to discuss and
use the latest research from cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience and
educational research.”
A5. “Promote the REAL interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary work and to
promote respect between different people involved in Education (researchers,
teachers, politicians).”
A6. “Teach better and learn better from an interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinary paradigm.!
A7. “To develop our understanding of learning in the context of education
through collaborative research involving neuroscientists, cognitive scientists
and psychologists, educational psychologists, educational technologists and
teachers of all kinds.”
A8. “Integrating psychology, neuroscience, and education as interdisciplinary
fields where knowledge from sciences can be shared in understandable ways
by teachers and later implemented in practical classroom settings.”
A9. “To leverage findings across the disciplines to improve education.”
A10. “To better understand how educators, education researchers, cognitive
psychologists, and neuroscientists can inform each other's work.”
A11. “To stimulate, create and provide new ideas, research, and practices at
the intersection of biology, brain, cognition, and education, considering the
"learning individual" as a being with a cognitive, emotional and social mind
and body.”
A12. “To connect neuroscience, psychology and education, but it tends not to
be a balanced connection.”
1.
To develop translational
and transdisciplinary
approaches to research.
75
B1. “Inform public about research pertaining to trends and considerations
regarding learning from an evidence-based perspective.”
B2. “Research informed strategies from education, neuroscience, and
psychology that support learning and student success.”
B3. “To help teachers teach more effectively and students learn more
effectively based on science and research.”
B4. “An integrated evidence based approach to defining the learning and
testing environment.”
B5. “An increased understanding of the capacities of the learner with the aim
of improving the quality of learning that occurs.”
B6. “To translate research to practice.”
B7. “Working with educators, integrate our large and growing understanding
of the principles and tenets above into education at all levels via both
evidence-based curricula as well as broad principles/tenets that can inform
teaching practice in less specific ways.”
B8. “Education with strong scientific basis which: protects against
misconceptions/myths; optimizes use of scientific insights on making
education more effective for all (in terms of how it aligns with how the brain
works/develops/learns/remembers/individually differs)”
B9. “Grounding educational practice
B10. “Create a seamless linkage between processes of learning at the mind and
at the brain level - and provide teachers with good enough knowledge of those
linkages so they can better foster their students' learning.”
B11. “To bring the science of how people learn into the classroom to make
teachers more efficient and students more successful.”
B12. “To educate children in a way that is informed by the nature of the human
brain and directed by evidence.”
B13. “Sound research informing practice.”
B14. “Reducing the gap between what is done in the classroom and what we
know about learning and associated mechanisms. … Cognitive science has the
potential of making clear where intuitions come from and why thy can be
wrong.”
B15. “To inform educators and curriculum developers about how children
learn best, and what they are capable of at different grade levels, and how best
to address learning differences/disabilities.”
B16. “To inform practitioners of research- and evidence-based information
about the learning brain.”
B17. “Applying knowledge gained from cognitive neuroscience when this
knowledge has been shown to be robust.”
B18. “Scientific investigation”
B19. “To make the process of teaching-learning a science (not just an art). This
will improve education as the field of health has had in the last century.”
B20. “To make education more research-based.”
B21. “To provide research-based learning opportunities accessible by a wide
range of individuals to provoke emotional, cognitive, and physiological
development and flourishing.”
B22. “To understand the processes behind learning, and which factors affect
learning and how.”
B23. “To eventually complement education with neuroscientific evidence.”
2.
To ground education in
scientific research.
76
C1. “Stimulate an integrated and comprehensive view on education and
learning as a creative process, with direct consequences for the practices of
teaching and learning.”
C2. “The main aim is to recognize that education is more than giving
information, knowledge, understandings and skills. The additional parts, such
as harnessing pupils' interest and motivation, can be understood via MBE.”
C3. “To help the child and adolescent to acquire knowledge, skills and
experiences which help the individual to adapt to a changing environment.”
C4. “The cultivation of fair-minded critical thinking.”
C5. “For me, the purpose of MBE is to join hard science (an empirical
understanding of learning processes) with a soft heart (a concern for the
wellbeing of the whole learner).”
C6. “To inform instructional planning, instructional delivery and
communication with students, parents, and other educational stakeholders--
including policy-makers.”
C7. “To walk the walk of transdisciplinarity.
C8. “To dispel neuromyths”
C9. “ To communicate science
C10. “To generate compassion for one’s self and others based on an
appreciation for the rules and limitations of the human form of life.
C11. “Banning the ignorance of the concept of the average.”
C12. “Improve the response to students, the quality of education.”
C13. “I think it should be to open up learning, to move away from one-size-
fits-all models.”
C14. “A more humane view of what culture is.”
C15. “To convey the message that identical observed learning as manifest
through actions or choices can be the result of different brain states that
therefore require different educational responses to advance learning or
remediate difficulties.”
C16. “Ability to think better and [have a] good life”
C17. “To inform educators about how the brain learns so that teaching
materials and their delivery can be designed to maximize the learning potential
of the brain.”
3.
To offer a more
comprehensive view on
education to education
practitioners, researchers,
and policy makers.
D1. “To build expertise in the teacher and, consequently, confidence that s/he
can improve learning for any student.”
D2. “To give teachers a broader perspective on the workings of the brain and
its role in the learning process.”
D3. “The area has significant implications for how teaching is approached.
Importantly, it shows that changes in outcomes can be promoted; the brain is
not fixed at birth.”
D4. “To improve teaching and learning.”
D5. “Teachers need to understand synaptic plasticity and its consequences.”
D6. “It could be aligning the practice of teaching with how M, B, E suggests
that students learn.”
D7. “To elevate teacher understanding of MBE so that they can better
appreciate, challenge, and support the learning variability that exists in every
school and classroom.”
D8. “To improve the teaching and learning process leading to improve student
outcomes with more students becoming successful learners.
D9. “… to empower teachers to make informed decisions about what learning
activities and strategies are in harmony with how the brain learns.”
D10. “The unsubstantiated hope that knowledge about the brain will make
better teachers.”
D11. “To impart learning in a way that enhances the probability of future
learning.”
4.
To enhance teacher
expertise.
77
E1. “Education based upon MBE science may help in using knowledge about
the sources of individual variability and factors which help or inhibit learning.”
E2. “To understand the brain better as our organ of thinking and learning.”
E3. “To know and understand how the brain learns and what are the factors
that enhance or decrease learning.”
E4. “Understanding the importance of Knowledge construction.”
E5. “That some findings from brain research have implications for what
educators do in schools and classrooms.”
E6. “To improve learning outcomes.”
E7. “Establish links between education and the brain.”
E8. “Understanding how brain and mind both contribute to learning and are
changed by learning.”
E9. “To ask neuroscientists to help with explanations about learning (as so
little has come the other way).”
E10. “To promote teaching and learning beliefs and practices that are grounded
in how the brain works.”
E11. “To gain a better understanding of the mind-brain connection and
behavior in general.”
E12. “Extending understanding of mechanisms active in the learner and the
learning context that can optimize learning.”
5.
To offer a better
understanding of the mind-
brain connection.
F1. “Teaching individual students in the way they learn best.”
F2. “Designing the learning environment based on learner's brain
development.”
F3. “To enhance brain development.”
F4. “To help the student to develop his/her maximum capacity based on his/her
brain's potentials.”
F5. “The ability to survive individually in a complex world, and to connect
with others to solve problems.”
F6. “To teach young people how to respond intelligently and empathically to
life's complex problems and conflicts.”
F7. “Respond to the current educational needs of ALL students.”
F8. “To respect individuality to control/stimulate child's attention to develop,
create optimal setting for learning to focus on cognitive, metacognitive and
executive functioning to restructure teacher's stereotypes and routines in
teaching to disseminate that teaching does not automatically means learning.”
F9. “To nurture autonomous learners who are able to develop the knowledge,
skills and mindsets to succeed beyond the context of school.”
F10. “To maximize the learning potential of every student by attending to the
principles and tenets of learning.”
F11. “To increase the efficacy of education for all learners.”
F12. “We in the field have spent more time talking about what MBE is and
what we think it does/does not offer to education, or how to integrate with
education researchers and practitioners. In that way, MBE centers learning and
understanding/improving learning and approaches to facilitate learning, and so
perhaps I'd say that MBE views the aim of education as facilitating effective
learning. However, this is overly narrow - rather I think candidate aims of
education from the MBE perspective are the same as from other perspectives:
creating an educated and productive citizenry, well-rounded individuals,
empowered citizens who participate in and can be successful in society,
lifelong learners, etc.
F13. ·To build healthy brain, maximize student potential, and support the
development of higher cognitive capacities for a student to be able to direct
their own lives.”
F14. “To maximize learning and create positive attitudes to learning and self-
efficacy for all learning.”
F15. “Knowledge about the sources of individual variability and factors which
help or inhibit learning the main functions of education based on Mind, Brain,
and Education science.”
6.
To maximize the potential
of every learner.
78
There were eight participants who pointed out that they do not know the aims of MBE. Three
participants noted that educational goals are independent of the science on which they are
based. One participant also replied that knowledge is still rooted in cognitive psychology
rather than neuroscience.
WHAT IS THE MAIN AIM OF EDUCATION BASED ON MIND,
BRAIN, AND EDUCATION SCIENCE?
1. To develop translational and transdisciplinary approaches to research
2. To ground education in scientific research
3. To offer a more comprehensive view on education to education practitioners,
researchers and policy makers
4. To enhance teacher expertise
5. To better understand the mind-brain connection
6. To maximize the potential of every learner
79
Part 6 What changes are needed in
Education from a Mind, Brain, and
Education perspective?
This was an open-ended question: “From an MBE perspective and in your opinion, what
changes should be made in the current education system?”
Ninety-one participants answered this question and 21 skipped the question. If a respond’s
reply fit into more than one category, the answer was split into those categories.
Table 36. Changes needed in education
Comments Concepts
A1. “Change the focus from teacher-centered learning to learner-centeredness.
More emphasis on individual differences (as, by the way, is also an emphasis in
this questioner).”
A2. “Students should not be tracked early on, based on perceived potential; each
student should be provided with the tools to excel at the highest levels.”
A3. “Move away from robotic classrooms, and rather include all the important
aspects of human life.”
A4. “Moving from education as a bulk to personalized activities.”
A5. “Focus on global competencies with students as proactive partners and
change agents.”
A6. “Connectivism (learning through interactions with others), situationism
(learning through engaging in practical cases), and constructionism (each person
constructs his/her knowledge) should govern the educational processes.”
A7. “More individualized kinds of learning systems.”
A8. “Allow learners to learn at their own pace and not have to be in learning
groups of their chronological age.”
A9. “Better understanding of prior knowledge and individuals systems on how
learning occurs.”
1.
Change the focus from
teacher-centered learning
to learner-centeredness
pedagogies
B1. “Having the humility to admit we don't know but being eager to find out.”
B2. “Hearing more about how the brain works and make decisions based on
that.”
B3. “The body of knowledge is significant enough to contribute substantially to
education and educational policies.”
B4. “Propose an evidence-based practice and make conscious, explicit and
judicious use of current contributions in pedagogical decision-making. Consider
that neither empirical evidence nor experience alone is sufficient.”
B5. “More knowledge and skills in the area of applied cognitive psychology
different structure in physical classroom setting new text books reflecting on the
knowledge how the person learns.”
B6. “Greater uptake of research, more time for teachers to engage in research,
invitation for students to give their opinions on what they need in the classroom.”
2.
Change the focus of
teaching based on
intuition to evidence-
based teaching.
80
B7. “Greater attention to the implications of the research for teaching and
learning -- especially of children often found on the margins.”
B8. “We need to think about delayed start times for adolescents We need to heed
basic principles from research such as the importance of explicit and direct
instruction We need to do away with false dichotomies such as whole word vs
phonics.”
B9. “Take detailed policy on curriculum, pedagogy and assessment away from
government and ideological whims.”
B10. “Complete reform of how reading is taught so as to incorporate the science
of reading.”
B11. “Curriculum development and classroom practice need to take the finds of
MBE into account.”
B12. “Curriculum should be based on brain development.”
B13. “Henceforth, they ignore why science can produce knowledge that is
valuable and different from intuitions, including in the domain of education.”
B14. “Innovate methodologically and adopt strategies such as gamification,
flipped classroom, ABPs, etc. for its impact on motivation.”
C1. “Minimize the systematizing of education. Avoid having learners follow a
fixed timeline for learning with pre-determined learning objectives that are not
responsive to the individual learner.
C2. “Allow for more flexibility and autonomy for teachers and learners, as well
as increased professional responsibility for teachers to be true researchers of their
craft.”
C3. “From teaching and assessing the acquisition of content to instead, teaching
processes of continuous and lifelong learning.”
C4. “Focus on how, for what and with what resources is taught and not almost
exclusively on what is taught.”
C5. “School subject should be reformed.”
C6. “Many educational practices are routine and limit children's wider
experiences that can be optimum for brain development.”
C7. “Design flexible plans that accept non-linear educational trajectories: if the
starting points are unique, it will be necessary to admit different arrival points.”
C8. “Mastery Learning with Mixed-Age Classrooms.”
C9. “Go back to intermingling grades as per the old country schoolhouses, where
all kids have the opportunity to be both learners and teachers... I think that would
help alleviate peer group pressure, ostracization, and the formation of gangs.”
C10. “Aim for mastery learning rather than passing grade levels or standardized
tests.”
C11. “Grading. I would like to see us move to a mastery model that values
intrinsic motivation and allows students more choice.”
C12. “Focus on the whole child and not metrics based on high stakes testing.”
C13. “Choice, flexibility, etc. over their learning.”
C14. “High stakes testing should be immediately discontinued. Given what is
known about the impact of stress and anxiety on performance, student
achievement should not be judged by their performance on these high states
evaluative instruments.”
C15. “More formative assessment”
C16. “Some possibilities among many others: Hands-on outside the classroom
learning. For instance, building small houses, based on knowledge about math,
chemistry, biology, and at the same time using physical efforts, and social skills.”
3.
Change the curriculum
from fixed,
predetermined, age-based
objectives and evaluation
to more flexible mastery-
based assessments.
81
D1. “To the degree that we have a system, schools of education should place an
MBE framework at their curricular center. Failing that, they should include the
MBE perspective: the more emphasis the better.”
D2. “Neurodiverse learners should become part of teacher preparation.”
D3. “Rethink teacher training. The idea of simply teaching to a curriculum based
on student age is not right, Testing of knowledge needs to be different.”
D4. “Core curriculum defined and required in teacher training.”
D5. “Teachers, teacher educators, educational administrators and curriculum
developers, need to be aware of basic MBE understanding like …”
D6. “All of the MBE principles and tenants should be incorporated into
curriculum and professional development.”
D7. “Incorporate the contributions of the MBE in the initial training of the
educators and in the processes of professional updating of the educators in
service.”
D8. “Focus on knowledge but also on the processes which enable learning
changes in teacher's training.”
D9. “Foundational training for all teachers in a neuro-developmental
framework.”
D10. “Better teacher training -Teaching must be based on the way brain naturally
learns.”
D11. “Focusing more on pedagogical content Knowledge: combining the content
knowledge.”
D12. “Empowerment of teachers, focusing on their knowledge of the connected
and processual nature of education, and on their autonomy as professionals
participating in a highly dynamic and complex process that cannot be reduced to
protocols and prescriptions for practice.”
D13. “Teachers need a more enlightened understanding that learning is not linear
but influenced by many social, personal and cultural aspects.”
D14. “Any pedagogical training should be grounded in the principles and tenets
of MBE (as expressed above) before even looking at other pedagogical theories.
Rather use the last 30 years of research and work backwards from there than the
other way around.”
D15. “There should be regular professional development activities to keep
teachers current on new findings in educational neuroscience.”
D16. “Teachers' training is a major issue, both initial training and professional
development. Teachers' are not trained to understand research - and its limit ….”
D17. “The Learning Sciences and MBE science should be integrated into all
curricula for K-12 teachers and higher education instructors, instructional
designers, and anyone involved in professional development.”
D18. “Teachers should be exposed to appropriate cognitive neuroscience and
psychology concepts about learning and the brain. They should understand best
practices that help students learn based on neuroscience and psychology
research.”
4.
Integrate MBE courses in
educational sciences
curricula and teachers’
professional programs.
E1. “They should stop teaching learning styles.”
E2. “Incorrect or simplified information about brain development should not be
provided.”
5.
Inform schools about the
outcomes of neuromyths.
82
F1.” Better qualitative and quantitative relation between teachers, students, and
parents.”
F2. “…And most of all, development of abilities such as compassion, empathy,
gratitude, respect, mainly toward different people regarding culture, religion,
gender, social economic level, color, deficiency, etc. Qualification of
undergraduate and graduate courses formation!”
F3. “Less emphasis on performing - More effort to reduce stress and anxiety -
more emphasis on wellbeing/development.”
F4. “Promote teaching strategies that enhance the personal and the group and
collaborative (social brain).”
F5. “Development of social/political emotional skills. Recognition of the
relevance of music, drama, and all kinds of art for education.”
F6. “Reduce stress and promote achievable challenge by using frequent feedback
of goal progress”
6.
Focus on socio-emotional
domain of learning as
well as cognitive aspects.
G1. “Respect to physiology according to each child/young/adult level of
development (among other factors): sleep, nutrition, exercise and so on.”
G2. “Later start times, improving HVAC and lighting, inclusion of mindfulness
practice, pedagogical changes, to name a few.”
G3. “More physical exercise in the younger years”
G4. “Later start times in middle and high school, Breakfast, exercise and art
every day for every child.”
G5. “I imagine now the heath of brain is very important. So before thinking
about mapping our strategies to maybe consider that how can we care about
children brain system. Because bad actions in educational system could damage
brain functioning in the natural way.”
7.
Consider physiological
influences on learning in
policy design.
H1. “Design educational proposals that are oriented to the development of
executive functions from initial education. The FEs, inhibitory control, working
memory and cognitive flexibility, impact academic performance and are pillars
for the development of self-regulation of learning and the achievement of
autonomous behaviors.”
H2. “More attention to General Cognitive Skills (Memory, Attention, EFs)”
H3. “Explicitly teaching students about their brain plasticity as a way to enhance
motivation.
H4. “…teaching effective metacognitive and cognitive strategies so that they
experience higher levels of academic achievement.”
H5. “Promote ACTIVE LEARNING based on the development, exercise and
practice of the executive functions of the prefrontal cortex (executive attention,
working memory, planning, decision-making and inhibitory control.”
H6. “Active learning, and an emphasis on critical thinking.”
8.
Design education around
the basic general
cognitive functions of
attention, memory and
executive functions.
I1. “Establish long-term interdisciplinary and collaborative research communities
between all the professionals who have the opportunity to observe, influence,
experiment and learn from learners learning in the context of education, and
motivate the professionals to learn from each other. Policymakers can be
included in the mix but must not lead.”
I2. “Different actors must be included.”
I3. “Basic understanding of research methodology (to be better consumers of
educational marketing), basic understanding of brain
development/neuroplasticity, increased opportunities to actively participate
in/design MBE research.”
9.
Establish
interdisciplinary and
collaborative
partnerships between
educational researchers,
practitioners and policy
makers.
83
One participant answered, “When I'll have time, I'll write this book ...” to suggest that a short
survey question format was inadequate to respond to this question. Another participant was
not optimistic and replied, “Nothing from MBE should drive these decisions. Knowing how
people learn is not the same thing as knowing how (or what) to teach nor does it answer the
question of why schools should (or do) exist”. This reply suggests that the participant
believed it was a stretch to presume that Education should rely on contributions from MBE to
shape policy decisions.
FROM AN MBE PERSPECTIVE AND IN YOUR OPINION, WHAT
CHANGES SHOULD BE MADE IN THE CURRENT EDUCATION
SYSTEM?
1. Change the focus from teacher-centered learning to learner-centered
pedagogies.
2. Change the focus of teaching based on intuition to evidence-based teaching.
3. Change the curriculum from fixed, predetermined, age-based objectives and
evaluation to more flexible mastery-based assessments.
4. Integrate MBE courses in educational sciences curricula and teachers’
professional programs.
5. Inform schools about the outcomes of neuromyths.
6. Focus on socio-emotional domain of learning as well as cognitive aspects.
7. Consider physiological influences on learning in policy design.
8. Design education around the basic general cognitive functions of attention,
memory and executive functions.
9. Establish interdisciplinary and collaborative partnerships between educational
researchers, practitioners and policy makers.
84
Part 7 What, if anything, should
children be taught about the brain
and learning?
This was an open-ended question: “What, if anything, should children be taught about
the brain and learning?”
Ninety-five people answered this question and 17 skipped it. The answers were divided into
five categories as presented in Table 37.
Table 37. What, if anything, should children be taught about the brain and learning?
Comments Concepts
A1. “They have one. Use it, develop it, and protect it.”
A2. “Certainly it would be helpful to teach the children about the brain, its
functions, and the ways it can be enhanced.”
A3. “They should have a basic introduction to neuroscience.”
A4. “Age appropriate information of the ways that people learn in order to
enhance their capacity to plan and regulate their own learning.”
A5. “They should be taught the basic principles and tenets from very early ages
and reinforced so that they are advocates for learning and have agency.”
A6. “All of the above, at the proper stage and stage.”
A7. “Knowledge about the structure and function of the brain and its
development and that it is the center and that it is the center for coordinating
learning to all the senses. How they can enhance, monitor, and control that
process.”
A8. “Basics but using an adapted language and didactic strategies according to
the age.”
A9. “Children must know the characteristics of their brain through playful
resources and scientific experiments appropriate to their level of development as
part of comprehensive training.”
A10. “Children should understand how their own brain functions particularly as a
developmental continuum and especially at adolescence.”
A11. “As much as they can understand at each age. They're getting to know
themselves.”
A12. “They should know how their brain works.”
A13. “They should understand the notion of a complex system, and understand
that the brain is an example of such a system, but also that the brain is a
component of a complex system that far exceeds its own limits (the body, the
person in context, environment, culture, ...)”
A14. “The brain is a very complex organ. It works dynamically. Even though
everyone has a brain that looks similar, everyone's brains are different due to
stimulus variations, etc. It is important to know that what your brain is like is not
etched in stone. It changes, leading to a sense of openness rather than
determinism.”
1.
Brain health: its
functions, and
development
85
B1. “That some of our functions are put in a difficult situation by our current
world, by our inventions. Attention is threatened by multiple stimuli. One has got
to invent strategies to protect attention and focus on a task.”
B2. “There is increasing evidence that a sufficiently focused, and carefully
created set of learning experiences (building on the students basic vocabulary
and level of prior learning), can be effective in helping younger students know
how their brain relates to their goals and behaviors in life. So, this is a reasonable
objective to promote in school curricula and more research should be encouraged
in this area of classroom learning.”
B3. “Children should be included in the conversation about how their brain best
learns, so they can understand any struggles (and successes) and become
empowered advocates for their own learning in the future.”
B4. “That intelligence, learning etc., largely depend on strategies we acquire. It's
not magic: it's not just "make an effort to stay concentrated". One help oneself to
stay concentrated by putting in place strategies. In the same way that one help
memory by using strategies, such as testing, etc. Learning to learn means
adopting a toolbox of strategies that make us learning more easily.”
B5. “How their choices of experiences will influence how their brain will
develop.”
B6. “The development of metacognitive processes.”
B7. “… metacognition, the need of attention control, how memory works, how to
remember effectively.”
B8. “Metacognition”
B9. “They should know about cognitive capacities especially with exefun
[Executive Functions].”
B10. “Children, especially young adolescents, can become cognizant of personal
metacognitive functioning and become more self-regulative in their own learning
management.”
B11. “Specifically how to learn. There seems to be a common thought that
people just learn, without thought about how best to teach about learning.”
B12. “That brains are unique, that metacognition can help them learn.”
B13. “When we teach children to drive, we don't teach them about spark plugs
and cam shafts. We teach them about the steering wheel and the turn signals.
Children should be taught effective learning strategies (retrieval practice). If we
can make lessons about neurons fun and intriguing, that's fine. But, the focus
should be on the very practical things they can do. For instance: teachers should
know about working memory. It's our job, not our students' job, to manage the
WM load of a particular task.”
B14. “That learning requires effort. Adopting strategies and using them is
effortful. Testing oneself is more effortful that reading and re-reading. But it is
also more effective. One should be not ashamed of the fact that learning has
required effort and has not come like that. Feeling the effort of learning does not
mean one is stupid as compared to those who learn with no effort - there's no
such a thing. The feeling can change, the rhythm can change, but effort is
necessary to go beyond one's actual state.”
B15. “That some difficulties they encounter in learning are NORMAL. We go to
school to learn things we are not prepared to learn, to acquire cultural knowledge
that sometimes is difficult in respect to other forms of learning (such as walking,
talking, socialising). This is why we need a technology: Education makes us
smarter.”
B16. “They should know that difficulties in school learning are not a reflection
on their character or value as an individual.”
B17. “…have an understanding that they won't learn everything there is to learn
and not learning something in the moment doesn't reflect poorly on them...just
not time yet.”
B18. “They should know about different ways of approaching learning, some of
which they may not have thought of - they are able to teach and help each other
sometimes, if the process is carefully monitored.”
2.
Metacognitive strategies
and learning how to learn
86
C1. “That their brains can change and do change and that they have the ability to
rewire their brains through proper learning practices.”
C2. “Positive perspective – plasticity.”
C3. “Very importantly that intelligence is not "fixed".”
C4. “The brain is changing as a result of learning.”
C5. “Its capacity to change, their abilities aren't fixed, and certainly not by
gender/ethnicity or any other stereotype.”
C6. “Children should be taught that their brain are always changing and they
could be better according to their efforts.”
C7. “Plasticity.”
C8. “The brain is plastic; you are what you do repeatedly.”
C9. “Neuroplasticity and myelination.”
C10. “Many of the things what we would also like to teach the teacher and the
parent, although on a more elementary level. Teach them a flexible mindset and
the fact that the brain is necessary to cope with novelty.”
C11. “Children should be taught that their brains are capable of learning
anything, and that they can increase the capacity of their brains by attending to
tasks and practicing. They should be taught that their brain ….”
C12. “Neuroplasticity”
C13. “That it can constantly change according to its experience. That making
mistakes is a critical part of learning and how mistakes are processed in the
brain.”
3.
Neuroplasticity
D1. “Stuff that will give them sense of control (e.g., nutrition, sleep, overcoming
sensible difficulties should be embraced, and the like).”
D2. “Everything relevant to their experience and safe development.”
D3. “Everything! Outreach about the brain with children is the best part of my
job. Neuroplasticity, growth mindset, importance of sleep, nutrition, exercise,
importance of developing good stress regulation skills, etc.”
D4. “How harmful certain practices and substances are for brain development.”
D5. “Importance of sleep and self-care. Best practices for learning.”
D6. “That everything they do matters, from practice and perseverance to reading
for pleasure to sleep and exercise.”
D7. “Joyful and ludic pedagogic practices are useful to teach about how the brain
and the whole body are related to these processes.”
D8. “As much as is age appropriate, especially the need for adequate sleep.
D9. “Exercise and nutrition and stress reduction are very important. Learning is
an active process - you can't just passively receive information.”
D10. “That their brain will learn best if they treat it with care through good
nutrition, plenty of physical and mental exercise, and plenty of sleep.
4.
Physiological factors
(sleep, maturation,
nutrition, exercise, and
stress) and their control
over them
E1. “How emotions affect learning”
E2. “The effect emotions have on cognition (and strategies to regulate those
emotions).”
E3. “Learning how to learn requires practice, repetition, metacognition and
reflection about the significance of attention, learning, memory, and motivation,
emotional and social skills. Everyone should have the right to develop all these
abilities! “
E4. “Self-regulation …”
E5. “I'd probably suggest that information about memory, emotions, and
motivation be provided -- but in the context of particular problems. I would not
advocate trying to teach young children about the complexities of research on the
brain.”
5.
Emotional self-regulation
strategies
87
CHILDREN SHOULD BE TAUGHT ABOUT…
1. Brain health: its functions, and development
2. Metacognitive strategies and learning how to learn
3. Neuroplasticity
4. Physiological factors (sleep, maturation, nutrition, exercise, and stress) and
student control over them
5. Emotional self-regulation strategies
88
Part 8 How do you distinguish the
field of Mind, Brain, and Education
science from Educational
Neuroscience and Neuroeducation?
To better define the field of Mind, Brain, and Education science, and to determine if there
were any distinguishable differences between Educational Neuroscience, and/or
Neuroeducation, participants were asked, “How do you distinguish the field of Mind,
Brain, and Education science from Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation?”
Eighty-nine (89) participants answered and 23 did not. Where a single answer encompassed
two or more different opinions, they were placed in separate categories.
Table 38. The Relationships between the fields of Mind, Brain, and Education science,
Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation
Comments Distinguishable differences
A1.I see Mind, Brain, and Education as a globally encompassing moniker
that includes any and all activities that implicates those three topics in some
substantive way.
A2. MBE Science includes psychology (mind) and health/physiology.
A3. I think MBE is much more open to the contribution of educators while
Ed Neuroscience understands itself as a field of research.
A4. In some aspects, MBE is more transdisciplinary, but in other the limits
are not clear.
A5. Mind, Brain and Education: campo interdisciplinario que convoca a la
Psicología Cognitiva, la Neurociencia Cognitiva y las Ciencias de la
Educación.
A6. MBE is more focused on looking for the real connections between mind
and brain in educational setting. MBE more clearly analyses the issues
involved.
A7. MBE brings in the work of cognitive psychology and, most importantly,
how it translates to classroom practice.
A8. In my opinion MBE utilizes frim cognitive science
A9. MBE has an integrative approach, with a focus on usable knowledge
A10. MBE makes room for "educational psychology" -- which does include
immensely practical suggestions for classroom teachers (and, occasionally,
students). So: I think MBE should focus on education and psychology, and
include enough neuroscience to inspire interest and underline core messages.
For instance: the process of neural network formation as a part of learning is
enough like schema formation to be a useful analogy. I think that can
usefully be included.
A11. MBE’s deliberately interdisciplinary nature.
1.
Mind, Brain, and Education is
Broader/ Transdisciplinary
89
A12. In my mind, MBE requires research to meet the standards of
Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience and Education - whereas Educational
Neuroscience and Neuroeducation may not have the same clearly articulated
standards across all three domains.
IA13. believe that the of Mind, Brain, and Education science is more down-
to-earth and approachable for the educational community. With more
relevant questions for the those who work in the real world
A14. MBE is focused on pedagogy and bridges education, neuroscience, and
education.
A15. MBE is transdisciplinary by nature and equally affords information
and participation from its compounding fields (psychology, neuroscience
and education). Educational Neuroscience is the study of the brain for
educational purposes and Neuroeducation joins neuroscience with education
knowledge. These two names (Educational Neuroscience and
Neuroeducation) do not explicitly recognize the role that psychology has in
informing educational advancement.
A16. I see MBE as broader in scope and more inclusive of different fields.
Edu Neuroscience and Neuroeducation seem more specific to just
neuroscience and education without aspects of physiology, psychology, and
other fields being addressed.
IA17. believe MBE has more of an applied science focus that seeks to link
findings to classroom approaches.
A18. MBE adds a lens of cognitive psychology to the intersection of
neuroscience and education. This distinction is important because it furthers
the importance of considering the whole child.
A19. MBE offers tangible strategies for teachers to use in the classroom
A20. MBE science considers biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and
education as interrelated basic areas in a way none overlaps with the other.
Similarly, with regard to research, findings should be supported in these
same areas.
A21. Mind, Brain, and Education = a broader transdisciplinary approach to
this relationship, with increased emphasis on psychology, sociology, and
health.
A22. Mind, Brain, Education, equilibrium between cognitive psychology,
neuroscience and education.
A23 Mind, Brain, and Education science embraces the whole field, while the
other two are focused on specific issues.
B1. The MBE is an applied science, while Educational Neuroscience and
Neuroeducation are more or less basic science 2.
Mind, Brain, and Education is
an Applied Science
C1. I see educational neuroscience as more than an applied cognitive
neuroscience, and as potentially much more than interdisciplinary research
involving educational and cognitive researchers. I prefer to envision it as a
transdisciplinary approach to overcoming the mind/body divide that
warrants a complete reexamination and reformulation of philosophical
foundations and methodological approaches.
C2. Educational Neuroscience: a sub-discipline of Neuroscience
C3. Educational neuroscience, I guess, is more physiological/ factual. Whilst
it most definitely includes the importance of emotions and stress, it doesn't
concern itself with the concept of 'mind'. C4. However, my background isn't
in MBE so I am less familiar - this is my preconception.
C4. Educational Neuroscience = the study of education through
neuroscience
C5. Educational Neuroscience -> more neuroscience than education
3.
Educational Neuroscience is
Applied Neuroscience
90
D1. As for neuroeducation, I see it as involving a well informed and
humanistic application of findings and results from the neurosciences,
including and hopefully, eventually, and especially, educational
neuroscience, toward the improvement of educational practice.
D2. Neuroeducation is more about teaching/educating about the brain
D3. Neuroeducation: a sub-discipline of the Learning Sciences.
D4. Neuroeducation is more appropriate term to emphasize the focus on
education rather than neuroscience like neuroeconomics and neuroethics,
etc.
D5. neuroeducation just focuses on the relation between neuroscience and
education
D6. Neuroeducation = the study of neuroscience through education
D7. Neuroeducation -> equilibrium between neuroscience and education
4.
Neuroeducation Seeks to Be
Applied Educational Practice
E1. Neuroscience for me is more related to understanding the Structure,
chemistry, and function and function of the Brain an interaction with the
body and Education is what we do to learn how to make it all work together
to achieve its greatest potential
E2. Barely. I call this The Controversy and consider it pissing on territory.
All multidisciplinary approaches should be welcome without distorting the
science.
E3. These are not mutually exclusive in my interpretation, but MBE tends
toward more holistic and integrated understandings compared to some of the
established research and application strategies in Educational Neuroscience
and Neuroeducation. However, I find the latter two categories to be not well
defined presently, partly because their applications span such broad fields
including speech pathology, medical pathologies, learning disabilities, and
of course increasingly 'normal human learning.'
E4. It should be the conduit for sharing knowledge gained by
neuroscience/education with teachers and parents who are engaged in
practices that can foster or harm children/adolescent brain development.
E5. Mmmm, difficult question; interesting to see the answers of the
participants. MBE science is directed much more to the individual learning
subject and the many factors which impact his/her functioning. MBE is
more directed towards the learner whereas ENN is more directed at teacher
and teaching (and ways to promote teaching; it has less emphasis on
motivation, neuropsychological skills and individual differences - which in
my opinion are essential to promote learning.
E6. There is overlap: I hate to see "camps" set up so that there is elite status.
Also, it depends on how this questionnaire defines the 3 entities.
E7. Thank you for asking!! Educational Neuroscience (EN) is the cognitive
neuroscience of learning and factors that affect learning. MBE encompasses
this but is broader, and refers to interdisciplinary initiatives that span the
mind, brain, and education sciences, and that may intersect with other fields
like genetics, learning sciences research, and others. I don't use the term
Neuroeducation and have only seen it listed as a synonym for MBE or EN.
E8. One is the research part of the process and the other is the application of
that research.
E9. I think of Mind, Brain and Education as my primary field of scholarly
engagement. Educational neuroscience is the field of research from which I
draw the basis for the creation of viable curriculum which I refer to as
"neuroeducation". MBE - Umbrella term for the field. Ed Neuroscience -
Specific field focused on research Neuroeducation - Curricular models in
use - also praxis.
5.
They are Complementary
Fields which Overlap in
Places
91
F1. As noted above, I think neuroscience is fascinating, but rarely directly
and practically helpful to teachers and students. There just aren't enough
hours in a lifetime to be a good teacher, and to know enough about
neuroscience to make smart changes to teaching practice based on it. As
you've read a thousand times: there are too many levels of analysis between
those two fields.
F2. Neuroeducation is pseudoscience
F3. Neuroeducation is for me a very bad word! It makes teachers think that
we are proposing a method - like Brain Gym or Multiple Intelligence - while
we are trying to foster an encounter between communities, so that they can
produce new applied and theoretical knowledge together.
F4. I definitely prefer Cognitive Science to any neuro label.
F5. I don't. I think that most references to neuroscience in education are
hype, involving a rapid "bait and switch" into cognitive science
F6. The first one is good, that the latter two are silly. Those that call
themselves an educational neuroscientist likely have no idea what real
neuroscientists do all day. I do and the detail, complexity, and perseverance
needed to do their work are off the charts.
6.
This Distinction is
Unnecessary as Neuroscience
Does Not Apply to Education
G1 I don't make a clear distinction.
G2. A great question.
G3. I don't think there is a clear difference
G4. I consider them the same.
G5. It depends on who is using the terms, which are often synonymous.
G6. I don't
G7. I cannot really do that. They are often used interchangeably
G8. These appear to be valuable overlapping fields of study.
G9. I don't think you need to distinguish. Naming is confusing
G10. Don't know
G11. Same, different words.
G12. Today these terms are vague and not as well understood as they should
be.
G13. I think MBE and EN are synonymous
G14. I don't understand what each of those terms mean, let alone the
difference.
G15. I don’t.
G16. I don't. Seems like a silly concern.
G17. I don't, by and large
G18. I don't, but use the term Educational Neuroscience.
G19. There are no distinctions for me. They are the same.
G20. I don't distinguish among them.
G21. These terms are often used interchangeably.
G22. Hmmmm...I haven't, really.
7.
There is No Difference/I Do
Not Distinguish Between the
Terms
92
G23. I see them as the same.
G24. Don't know. They should all converge.
G25. No idea.
G26. I don't think I am sufficiently aware of the fine distinctions.
G27. I don't
G28. They all seem the same to me
G29. Beats me.
G30. I don't really.
G31. I do not. But I can understand that some would, based in their
applicability.
G32. I don't. To me, they all refer to the same area of scientific inquiry.
However, I think educational neuroscience is the best descriptor.
G33. While I understand your delineation among the names, In practice, I
often use MBE and Educational Neuroscience interchangeably when talking
to laypeople because it is easier to grasp at a glance.
G34. G35. I don't
G35. Not aware of distinctions
G36. I cannot make such distinctions.
G37. The overlap is too high, such that it depends on how narrow you define
bother parts.
G38. I cannot, really. I know the arguments (transdisciplinary) but I have no
training in the latter two.
G39. I don't know.
G40. Not sure I do.
G41. They overlap considerably
G42. I don't. They are different perspectives on a common project.
G43. I don't think that they should be distinguished if they have the same
goal.
G44. I am unaware of any distinctions between these various names for the
role of neuroscience in education.
H1. I am not a specialist in either area and hence have no comment.
H2. Unable to comment
H3. No comment
H4. beyond my pay grade.
H5. I do not have enough information about Educational Neuroscience and
Neuroeducation to answer this question.
H6. sorry, not my expertise
H7. OH dear - I guess what I wrote above is ENN, so I don't know the
answer to this.
8.
No Comment
93
The largest category of answers was that there is no difference between the three fields of
MBE, Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation (43%), which is almost double (22%)
the second greatest response, which as that Mind, Brain, and Education science is more
Transdisciplinary than Educational Neuroscience or Neuroeducation, followed by 9% who
say they are different but complementary fields.
Figure 4. How Do You Distinguish MBE, Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation?
HOW DO YOU DISTINGUISH THE FIELD OF MIND, BRAIN,
AND EDUCATION SCIENCE FROM EDUCATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE
AND NEUROEDUCATION?
1. There are no differences: 43%
2. Mind, Brain, and Education is broader/more transdisciplinary: 22%
3. They are complementary fields which overlap: 9%
Mind, Brain, and
Education is
Broader/Transdisciplinar
y
22%
Mind, Brain, and
Education is an Applied
Science
1%
Educational
Neuroscience is Applied
Neuroscience
5%
Neuroeducation Seeks to
Be Applied Educational
Practice
7%
They are Complementary
Fields which Overlap in
Places
9%
This Distinction is
Unnecessary as
Neuroscience Does Not
Apply to Education
6%
There is No Difference/I
Do Not Distinguish
Between the Terms
43%
No Comment
7%
HOW DO YOU DISTINGUISH MBE, EDUCATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE AND,
NEUROEDUCATION?
94
Part 9 What are some possible
careers for Mind, Brain, and
Education science, Educational
Neuroscience and Neuroeducation
graduates?
To gauge the demand for graduates in the new fields of Mind, Brain, and Education,
Educational Neuroscience and Neuroeducation, participants were asked, “What are some
possible careers for Mind, Brain, and Education, Educational Neuroscience and
Neuroeducation graduates?”
Eighty-three (83) participants answered and 29 did not (Table 39). Where a single answer
encompassed two or more different opinions, they were placed in separate categories.
Table 39. Careers options in Mind, Brain, and Education, Educational Neuroscience, and
Neuroeducation.
A1. Teacher educators are required to help preservice and in-service teachers
put findings from these areas into practice.
A2. Formación profesional transdisicplinaria de los educadores.
A3. Teaching Research on learning and pedagogy.
A4. They will help teachers to gain confidence in making critical judgements
about research findings, and in debating and discussing issues or ideas in the
field of neuroscience and education.
A5. Faculty development; faculty member; researchers
A6. Wish more positions were open for training teachers
A7. professional development,
A8. Teacher trainers
A9. Consulting with schools, professional development. Q38. New Scholars and
Researchers
A10. teacher trainers, which means it is best if they have MBE and some
teaching specialty. MBE alone, and before ever teaching, might not be very
valuable.
A11. Counselors in schools
A12. Within firms and as educational consultant
A13. Consulting
A14. Right now, mostly as instructional designer
tA15. To work as a real advisor for low performing children to disseminate the
knowledge in the school to do educational therapy to conduct the research in the
area to formulate the advices how to teach effectively
1.
Teacher Educators,
Instructional Designers,
Consultants
95
A16. consultancy;
A17. instructional design;
A18. consultant, etc.
A19. I would like to see more public education agencies have these graduates
serve as research consultants to help teachers interpret research and to help
school systems make research-informed decisions about purchasing, etc.
A20. Working with schools to deliver CPD (professional development);
A21. Consulting with private startups
A22. private efforts to enhance the ability to learn.
A23. Consultant (translator)
A24. Developers of education professional development
A25. New scholars and researchers are required in these areas
B1. industry (e.g., working for ETS or College Board or AAMC, etc.),
researchers, statisticians
B2. commercial research (EdTech and other, i.e. Chief Learning Officer)
B3. R & D (research and development) in think-tanks and institutes;
B4. Trainers in business and industry
2.
Industry
C1. Educators for the elderly/retirees 3.
Geriatric Learning
D1. curriculum developers, etc.
D2. Teachers / pedagogues
D3. Teachers and administrators;
D4. The graduates of MBE can work in schools
D5. Teaching
D6. Teachers/professors
D7. Teachers
D8. Directors of Curriculum and Instruction
D9. Administration
D10. Becoming educational engineers who are capable of understanding the
science and the classroom, of proposing applied research, of embarking teachers
in collaborative, participative research.
D11. teachers, teacher trainers, policy makers, researchers
D12. Any careen in teaching, leadership, or technology.
D13. Certainly, the classroom and as educational leaders (building principals,
head teachers, supervisors of professional development and of learning).
D14. teachers,
D15. teaching, lecturer,
D16. teacher, especially in collaborative groups
D17. neuroeducational specialist
D18. teaching positions;
D19. Teacher, researcher, HR trainer, occupational psychologist
4.
K-12 Teachers or
Administrators
96
D20. Teachers, researchers
D21. Anything in education.
D22. Teachers
D23. Teachers
D24. Teacher
D25. Teaching
D26. Teachers
D27. Teaching
D28. Teacher
D29. Teaching (the obvious),
D30. school management
D31. Personnel management
D32. HR
D33. Human resource manager,
D34. apart from face-to-face work (classroom teaching, tutoring),
D35. Teachers in public school, administrators in public education,
D36. After/before school programs,
D37. homeschooling support, experimental charters, any school start-up
initiatives.
D38. teaching jobs, but that would depend on the integration with schools of
education
D39. Teachers
D40. School managers Work with school leadership
D41. pedagogical leaders
D42. Education management
D43. Administrators,
D44. School Leadership
D45. school administrators
E1. teaching material developers
E2. materials writing
E3. E4. developing educational materials
E5. Curriculum development, with textbook publishers, digital game-based
learning tools, etc..
E6. AI research, AR/VR R&D
E7. Design of assistive technology.
E8. All aspects of education, learning,
E9. Educators in healthy and pathological conditions including ADHD, learning
difficulties etc.;
E10. and also directed at educational practice in an applied setting; in addition:
E11. Publishing
E12. publishing companies.
E13. ed tech
E14. Design of curriculum
E15. curriculum design
5.
Educational Materials
Developer, including
EdTech and AI and
Curriculum
97
F1. social assistants, psychologists
F2. psychopedagogues
F3. psychopedagogues
F4. psychology, School Psychology, psychiatry, childcare, medical profession
F5. psychologists
F6. ed psychology
F7. School psychologist
F8. counsellor or other applied psychologist
F9. Clinical psychology
F10. Pretty much the same as all psychology graduates.
F11. Educational counselling and therapy
F12. Counselor
6.
Psychologists or
Counselors
G1. Graduate education and teaching in Universities
G2. Graduate school
G3. university professor/researcher in undergraduate and graduate courses of
related areas.
G4. higher education University faculty
G5.In the current system of higher education?
G6. College faculty
G7. Professor
G8. Dean
G9. Undergraduate and postgraduate teachers in education, psychology and
neuroscience courses
G10. Faculty member
G11. University lecturers
G12. University leadership
G13. University Professors involved in preservice and in-service education for
educators
G14. Professor
G15. Professors
G16. University jobs, perhaps
G17. University professor
G18. University administrators in student success initiatives
7.
Graduate School or
University Position
H1. applied researcher in non-profit or other educational organization, liaison or
facilitator of school-community partnerships,
H2. Researchers
H3. Researchers
H4. Research Lead in a classroom setting
H5. Academic researchers.
H6. Academic research
8.
Researcher
98
H7. Researcher
H8. Researchers, educators,
H9. researchers (let me know if you hear of any high-paying ones that open up!
:)
H10. Researcher
H11. Research, writing
H12. Hopefully, they will read those papers mentioned above and if they want
to pursue education research or education, they will shift focus from the brain to
the mind.
H13. Research leads or head of research within schools to support the use of
promising, Research positions at universities
H14. Research careers
H15. already existing, research and strategies as well as action research as a
way to measure MBE implementation.
H16. researchers in the fields of psychology, education and neuroscience.
H17. research
H18. Learning researchers
H19. Making surveys, I suppose
H20. academic researcher,
H21. research
H22. Researcher
H23. Researchers
H24. Research in education departments, neuro and cognitive science depts,
psychology. Any positions in education should be encouraged. This is so
needed.
H25. Research
H26. Research.
H27. Researchers
H28. research. ENN:
H29. primarily research
I1. Policy and educational politics
I2. State and district directors of education, and national education secretary,
among others
I3. Department/Ministry of Education
I4. education policy in govt.
I5. Work in school boards
I6. School boards
I7. Policy maker
I8. Policy makers
I9. education policy
I10. Policymakers
9.
Policy Makers
99
J1. Work in University departments that have translational, outreach units
J2. I think there is great potential for connecting this work to implementation
science. When this is done there will be a wide career choice in bringing science
to practice in many areas of policy and practice in educational systems at all
levels.
J3. This is great question. They should be in all sectors of society. Health care,
business, education. This is a unique skill set that have not been well articulated
or marketed.
J4. Writers/ authors at the crossroads of biology, medicine, psychology,
informatics, education, sociology and anthropology
J5. Carreras que permitan progresar en la investigación de los vínculos entre
educación, cognición y funcionamiento cerebral.
J6. some sort of translational role for researchers wanting to run educational
RCTs, policy makers, science communicators.
J7. Crossroads of neuroscience, education, psychology, engineering,
philosophy, computer science...
J8. science communication
J9. Science translation
J10. science communicator
J11. Implementation sciences
J12. Research, writing
J13. Communicators
J14. Working in healthcare to help deliver information about diseases so that
patients understand their illnesses better;
J15. HR - working with people in the business world in the same way that
psychologists currently do;
10.
Translational
Communicators
K1. Not For Profit Organizations
11.
Not For Profit
Organizations
L1. Behavioral economist
L2. Philosopher ;-)
L3. Strategy analyst
L4. Coach
L5. Therapist
L6. Adjunct positions in neurodevelopmental clinics
L7. Nutritionist
L8. Cognitive neuroscience
L9. Psychiatry
L10. Neurology
12.
Other
M1. don't know, all of them?
M2. Learning is very broad and can be used in many different environments.
M3. Not clear
13.
Don’t Know or Unclear
100
M4. Unable to comment
M5. no comment
M6. D[on’t] K[now]
M7. I don't know.
M8. Don't know.
M9. sorry, not my expertise
M10. Unaware of the many options
M11. You know the answers.
M12. Not an area in which I would be very helpful to college students who
might have an interest in one of these areas--though I could provide resources
that would be helpful.
M13. This is a great question. I think there is a lot of work to do here to create
real opportunities for graduates. At present, I think there are not clear next steps
for MBE graduates who are doing interdisciplinary work.
M14. In Israel there are positions in this field, and frankly, I am not sure that
this field justifies advanced degrees, I would recommend BA level courses for
the teacher.
There were 13 categories of answers: ((a)Teacher Educators, Instructional Designers,
Consultants; (b)Industry; (c) Geriatric Learning; (d) K-12 Teachers or Administrators; (e)
Educational Materials Developer, including EdTech and AI and Curriculum; (f) Psychologists
or Counselors; (g) Graduate School or University Position; (h) Researcher; (i) Policy Makers;
(j) Translational Communicators; (k) Not For Profit Organizations; (l) Other; (m) Don’t Know
or Unclear.
Figure 5. Possible Careers for MBE and Educational Neuroscience Graduates
Teacher Educators,
Instructional
Designers,
Consultants
12%
Industry
2% Geriatric Learning
-1%
K-12 Teachers or
Administrators
22%
Educational
Materials Developer,
including EdTech and
AI and Curriculum
7%
Psychologists or
Counselors
6%
Graduate School or
University Position
9%
Researcher
15%
Policy Makers
6%
Translational
Communicators
8%
Not For Profit
Organizations
1%
Other
5%
Don’t Know or
Unclear
7%
POSSIBLE CAREERS FOR MBE AND EDUCATIONAL
NEUROSCIENCE GRADUATES
101
WHAT CAREERS ARE OPEN TO PEOPLE IN MIND, BRAIN, AND
EDUCATION SCIENCE?
1. K-12 Teachers or Administrators: 22%
2. Researchers: 15%
3. Teacher Educators, Instructional Designers and Consultants: 12%
4. University positions: 9%
5. Translational Communicator or Scientific Writer: 8%
6. Educational materials developer, EdTech, AI, Curriculum designer: 7%
102
Any additional comments?
Participants were asked if they had any other comments they would like to make. Forty-two
(42) respondents replied (Table 40) though two were “no” and “no comment”.
Table 40. Additional comments from participants
A1. I wish you every success and thank you!
A2. Thank you for your hard work and dedication.. I appreciate being
included in your survey
A3. thanks for the initiative, I learnt a lot.
A4. Good luck with this crucially important work.
A5. I am fully committed to MBE-informed instruction. I work closely with
the Center for Transformative Teaching and Learning and lead my school's
MBE journey. In short, I'm a big fan.
A6. It's a lot of work, even though I would ideally have written a lot more.
I've copied my comments because I would like to compare them with the
findings. It would be polite, and a sign of recognition, and gratitude, for the
effort it takes, to offer your participants a copy of what they submit.
A7. This is great and very valuable - thank you for doing this and for inviting
me to participate!
A8. Thanks for the opportunity to contribute!
A9. This is a useful attempt to gain current perceptions, hopefully from a
broad enough, and also from the intended, audience that you have identified.
A10. This is a great questionnaire; I certainly hope that you will receive
many reactions and that they will aid in further development of the field.
Consider the option to discern various disciplinary groups in their answers
and compare them.
A11. Fun survey! Hope you find out something interesting!
A12. Great work!
A13. I appreciate being asked to complete the survey and look forward to the
results.
A14. Thank you for including me in the survey. The first IMBES conference
I attended as a doctoral candidate was inspiring!
A15. Thanks for collecting these data. I'm very interested in the results!
A16. I enjoyed taking it, for sure it highlights important and relevant findings
for educator again more in the mind studies and less in terms of brain-based
studies.
A17. Thank you Tracey for teaching me more about this transdisciplinary
arena than any other single person, by about 1,000,000 light years! You have
been an excellent example of this kind of researcher and educator.
A18. Interesting survey!
A19. Keep up the good work!
A20. Very interesting to see the ideas so succinctly put.
A21. Thank you for doing this!
A22. Thank you so much. I am applying for a grant to survey teachers across
Asia about their knowledge of findings impacting their profession from
neuroscience. Just seeing this questionnaire gives me ideas. As for the
content, it is very Tracey, but that is SO MUCH better than many of the
neuromyth questionnaires teachers get. The problem is that short statements
like these make it hard to assess real teacher knowledge. Attention is likely
to be interpreted as paying attention, which every teacher knows. Emotion is
likely to be confounded with anger, sadness, etc (feelings). This is the best
I've seen so far, but I think we need to develop additional tools to assess
teacher knowledge. Not sure what though.
1.
Thanks
103
B1. A finer grained Likert Scale would have been preferable to a binary
choice.
B2. One cannot remain anonymous and receive a copy of the findings if one
supplies an email address.
B3. My comments about grammar, word choice, and sentence structure in
the early sections are not intended to be snippy editing suggestions. Instead, I
think the meaning of those sentences is either hard to understand, or in some
cases unclear. Stronger sentences will communicate meaning more clearly --
and that clarity will benefit everyone involved in the project.
B4. Some of the Teacher's Knowledge responses of "unimportant for
teachers to know" are simply meant as a means by which to prioritize the
choices. I believe they are all important in various ways, but ticking all the
"important" boxes wouldn't actually provide very helpful data.
B5. As you could tell from the comments, I thought most of the principles
and tenets oddly tilted to emphasize individual differences.
B6. You saw my comments above. Many of the questions were really
multiple questions. Moreover, it was obvious to me what answer was
desired. I could have been wrong, but my interpretation is what matters in a
survey.
B7. You've really pigeon-holed this. I have been a part of several consensus
papers in the past, and they all sprung from several days of lively debate with
the people who signed the final consensus. This is a survey, not a consensus -
the questions are leading and I fear you're doing it more to bolster your
credibility than to truly discern what this field is achieving. Very
questionable - which is why I answered anonymously. I won't lemd [sic] my
name to a consensus when I've had no say in even the basic issues at hand.
Silly.
B8. I'd worry about a "yes" bias on the tenets.
B9. Although I appreciate the effort that went into this survey, some
questions combine many ideas together or present arguments that cannot be
answered really by a 'yes-no-not sure' format, even though we will all try.
2.
Survey wording or design
C1. Integration of what we now consider different areas of knowledge will
actually create and develop a new and unique area. Later in time, we will not
even recognize its different (many times opposite) origins, paradigms and
beliefs. And more than that, we will not believe that one day in the past
someone could have thought of fighting against any aspect of its dimension.
C2. We stand at a unique point in history in which we can transform the life
trajectories of all learners by empowering them with practical strategies for
enhancing academic gains.
C3. There is much work to do to achieve the goals of MBE and we have to
recruit people with different approaches but that have one main
goal....improve education.
3.
Timeliness of the survey
D1. We need to devote more effort to getting teacher preparation schools to
include findings from educational neuroscience in to their programs. This is
where the roadblock really is!
D2. Because brain info is currently in fashion it is often taught superficially
or even incorrectly. More emphasis should also be made on helping
educators enhance brain development.
D3. This is something that all educators and trainers should be introduced to
as they begin their careers and throughout their careers through professional
development.
D4. Connections in curriculum and interdisciplinary work in schools deepens
student learning.
4.
Need to keep the focus on
better teaching
E1. I would love you to watch my video - a brief one - which provides
pupils' and teachers' feedback from our educational neuroscience programme
which we run over the course of several days in deprived areas (the video
shows our most middle-class school).
https://vimeopro.com/user2677238/neurofiles-education
E2. ummm.... I did not work on How People Learn II (that was in your cover
email)
5.
Other
104
The 42 comments were divided into five categories: (a) Thanks; (b) Survey wording or
design; (c) Timeliness of the survey; (d) Need to keep the focus on better teaching; (e)
Other.
Nine comments were about survey design or wording that might be nebulous or biased,
and/or on the design of the survey. Four comments were on the need to continue to focus on
improvements in teaching. Two comments suggested materials and corrected affiliations.