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Return Migration in the Republic of Moldova: Main Issues and Opportunities
Abstract
The number of return migrants in the Republic of Moldova is small and those who have returned face different socio‐economic reintegration problems, which leads to their re‐inclusion in migration. In this regard, ensuring a sustainable reintegration of return migrants becomes of a great importance. The article aims to analyse the process of socio‐economic reintegration of return migrants in Moldova. To achieve this goal, the following methods were used: qualitative sociological research, policy and SWOT analysis. Conducted research showed that there is a developed legislative framework, which is not fully functional. Even if the Government takes measures to facilitate reintegration of return migrants, some of these are still not easily accessible and sustainable. The study reveals that return migrants often face same problems as local people. A general socio‐economic growth will ensure economic development, creation of opportunities for citizens to work in the country and not to (re)emigrate.
... La fel cum s-a întâmplat în alte țări, și în Republica Moldova a fost publicat un ghid de reintegrare a migranților reîntorși la baștină, unde au fost stipulate oportunitățile de angajate existente pe piața muncii, oportunități de formare și conversie profesională, de dezvoltare a afacerilor etc. (Nicoara, 2018). Principalele tendințe și particularități ale fenomenului revenirii migranților au fost analizate de mai mulți cercetători din Republica Moldova (Ianioglo, Tabac, Pahomii, Ceban, Onofrei, 2021). Dincolo de aspectele sociale, sunt la fel de sensibile și cele economice -aspecte legate de remitențe, de utilitatea și riscurile pe care le comportă pentru dezvoltarea sustenabilă a țării, dar și de transferul de capital financiar al migranților reveniți în mediul de afaceri (Pahomii, Ceban, Ianioglo, Tabac, 2019). ...
The aim of this study is to analyze the situation regarding the access of Moldovan migrants who returned to their country of origin to pensions in Italy after several years of work and a contribution period in the country of migration. The topic of ageing is a current issue for migrants, the number of those arriving at the retirement age is constantly increasing. Some solutions are stipulated in the bilateral agreements regarding social security, signed in the last 20 years by the Republic of Moldova with other countries where there are Moldovan citizens. The first dossiers of pensions from Italy for Moldovan citizens returned to the Republic of Moldova were completed in 2010-2011, and the contribution period was 7-10 years. In recent years, the pension files include a contribution period of 20 years. The number of returned Moldovan migrants who receive pensions from Italy has increased to about 6 thousand. In order to research this issue, we analyzed the national and international normative framework (Republic of Moldova, Italy, European Union), the implementation of the agreement between Moldova and Italy in the social security sector (also taking into account the new Moldovan-Italian agreement, signed in Rome on October 31, 2024, the responsibilities of the National Office of Social Insurance of the Republic of Moldova, the official statistics regarding the community of Moldovan citizens in Italy, etc. We conducted in-depth interviews with the representatives of the ACLI Patronat office in Chisinau (Patacli), operators and experts who provided assistance in completing pension files from 2011. For several years, the SIAS Patronat representatives also assisted Moldovan citizens interested in Italian pensions. Highlighted the arguments regarding the growth of Moldovan migrants with pensions from Italy and the estimations for the next years; the changes, the new agreement; the specifics of the current pension dossiers (types of pensions: for the age limit; disability; survivor's pensions); the conditions to have access to the pensions; the specifics of the highest (or lowest) pensions, etc.
... In Moldova, high out-migration has challenged the country's demographic resilience (Gagauz et al., 2023) while remittances have improved living standards and contributed to poverty reduction among the household members left behind (Waidler et al., 2016;Meyer & Shera, 2017;Abduvaliev & Bustillo, 2019). Remittances in Moldovan households are widely used for consumption purposes, while investments are made when a certain amount of savings is accumulated (Ianioglo et al. 2020). ...
Remittances and know-how transfer play a significant role in economic development in countries with high out-migration, and Moldova, in this regard, has been abundantly studied. In our research, we tried to assess the influence of remittances and knowledge transfer on local development from the point of view of migrants’ families, local entrepreneurs, and stakeholders. We used the empirical data obtained from a nationwide survey of about 600 rural households whose members experienced international migration and from the interviews with stakeholders and focus groups with farmers’ attendees. The results revealed that remittances often support the household's budget, covering the salary gap, and contribution on initiation of the local businesses. To encourage the investment of remittances in local infrastructure and entrepreneurship, the government launched several programs that aim to subsidize migrants’ business incentives. However, the results show that migrants prefer to invest in improving living conditions and are more reluctant to invest in their own businesses, either because of the lack of a market or because of institutional mistrust. The local authorities acknowledge the importance of remittances on local development, but at the same time, they are concerned about the demographic resilience of the localities and emphasize the lack of labor force caused by migration. In the context of labor shortage, entrepreneurs in the agricultural field admit that they have to improve the technology of production processes but also adapt their field of activity to one that requires less intensive manual work. The obtained results contribute to a better understanding of the influence of remittances on migrants’ households and local development.
... Contemporaneamente, la ristrutturazione neoliberale dello Stato in senso capitalista e le politiche di aggiustamento strutturale che ne sono conseguite hanno aumentato la necessità di risorse finanziarie per sostenere le spese per i servizi -in particolare quelli sanitari ed educativi -un tempo coperte dal welfare statale (Keough 2015). Le difficili condizioni di vita nel paese, esacerbate dai riverberi della crisi economico-finanziaria che ha interessato l'area post-socialista nel corso degli anni Novanta, hanno portato ad un incremento progressivo quanto vertiginoso dei flussi emigratori: nel corso di tre decenni, quasi un quarto della popolazione ha lasciato il paese per guadagnarsi da vivere all'estero (Görlich, Trebesch 2006, Mogildea 2017, Ianioglo et al. 2020, rendendo la Moldavia uno dei paesi con i tassi emigratori più alti e una delle nazioni più dipendenti dalle rimesse al mondo. Ancora oggi, le rimesse della diaspora moldava contribuiscono a circa il 15% del PIL nazionale (Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali 2022). ...
ITA Mobilità e genitorialità sono processi intimamente intrecciati. Da un lato, la prima colloca la seconda in un più ampio spazio transnazionale all'interno del quale le pratiche di cura e le scelte relative all'esercizio del ruolo genito-riale sono informate da norme, valori, ideali, aspirazioni e bisogni che ab-bracciano diversi contesti culturali (il paese d'origine, quello d'accoglienza e, talvolta, i diversi "altrove" in cui si diramano le reti diasporiche). Dall'altro, l'evoluzione delle priorità genitoriali e di cura nel corso del ciclo di vita in-fluisce sul progetto migratorio, portando a scegliere-anche a seconda delle opportunità che si dischiudono nel paese di origine e in quello di approdo-l'insediamento, la ri-migrazione o il ritorno. Connettendo diversi livelli (locale, nazionale e transnazionale) e le diverse temporalità della migrazione moldava verso l'Italia, il contributo analizza il nesso mobilità-genitorialità nello spazio transnazionale mettendo in luce quei vincoli ed opportunità che si creano nell'intersezione fra processi economici, socio-culturali, giuri-dici di ampio respiro e priorità che cambiano nelle diverse fasi del ciclo di vita di madri e padri. Parole chiave mobilità; maternità/genitorialità; spazio transnazionale; tem-poralità della migrazione; Moldavia Abstract ENG Mobility and parenting are deeply intertwined. On one hand, the former situates the latter within a broader transnational space where care practices and choices related to parenting roles are shaped by norms, values, ideals, aspirations, and needs spanning different cultural contexts (the country of origin, the host country, and sometimes the different "elsewhere" where dia-sporic networks extend). On the other hand, the evolution of parenting and caregiving priorities throughout the life course influences parents' migratory project, leading to choices-also depending on the chances that unfold in *
... have migrated (Masferrer & Roberts, 2012). It is very important to ensure the reintegration of the migrants into the local society after returning (Ianioglo et al., 2021). Individual characteristics such as gender and age are significantly associated with the possibility of resettlement after returning (Croitoru & Vlase, 2022), and it is more difficult for the elderly, women and returning groups with lower education level to reintegrate into local society (Coniglio, 2018). ...
Driven by factors related to economic development, return migration has become a topic of increasing academic interest. There are several mainstream theoretical interpretations of the phenomenon of return migration, and the existing literature focuses on the causes of return, employment choice and return effects. Through literature review, it is found that both economic factors and non-economic factors will have an impact on the decision to return. Compared with non-migrant group, returned migrants are more likely to engage in self-employed. Returned migrants may bring back advanced ideas and technologies, which will have a positive impact on local economic and social development, but the driving effect on employment is limited. In developing countries, “entrepreneurship” means vulnerability. Entrepreneurship is a choice made when all other labor market opportunities are not satisfactory or individuals have no employment opportunities, which belongs to necessity-based entrepreneurship. This paper discusses the findings based on a summary of the review and provides the prospects for future research.
... As argued by Ianioglo et al. [54] for the Moldovan case, the trust deficit of migrants towards institutions leads to a failure to apply to existing support mechanisms, which our data in the form of deep scepticism about such proposals can attest. Namely, transnational family members also highlight the epistemological scepticism to communicate effectively: ...
The study discusses whether and how Ukrainian and Moldovan migrant parents, some of whom had to leave their children behind in the care of other adults, are faced with a disapproving public discourse while also facing strong pressure both in their relationship with the public authorities and at the level of society, community, and family. Through this approach, we aim to answer the following question: Are Ukrainian and Moldavian transnational family members subjected to a process of stigmatization at the level of society and their immediate social environment? In this view, we develop a qualitative inquiry based on in-depth interviews with respondents from Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova. Our main research objective is to examine the attitudes encountered by members of transnational families in society, their relations with the representatives of the authorities, as well as in their close social environment, community, and family. Specific research topics are explored, such as reasons for migration, trust in public authorities, local community, migrants’ community, trust in the host country’s state and society, the attitudes towards the most important key stakeholders involved in the migration process, as well as the support measures proposed by migrants and their families. The findings concerning the attitudes, level of trust, and proposals suggest the presence of a certain degree of stigmatization of parents from transnational families. Our study underlines the need for transnational transfer of good practices and real-life experiences, such as those of migrants, to not remain an empty imitation. This experience can only be transferred through dialogue, trust, and acceptance – which is not the case at the time of our research. Therefore, it is imperative to continue dialogue-based fieldwork with primary stakeholders, the families themselves, to deconstruct and prospectively avoid the structural construction of stigma.
... As argued by Ianioglo et al. [54] for the Moldovan case, the trust deficit of migrants towards institutions leads to a failure to apply to existing support mechanisms, which our data in the form of deep scepticism about such proposals can attest. Namely, transnational family members also highlight the epistemological scepticism to communicate effectively: ...
The study discusses whether and how Ukrainian and Moldovan migrant parents, some of whom had to
leave their children behind in the care of other adults, are faced with a disapproving public discourse while
also facing strong pressure both in their relationship with the public authorities and at the level of society,
community, and family. Through this approach, we aim to answer the following question: Are Ukrainian
and Moldavian transnational family members subjected to a process of stigmatization at the level of society
and their immediate social environment? In this view, we develop a qualitative inquiry based on in-depth
interviews with respondents from Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova. Our main research objective is to
examine the attitudes encountered by members of transnational families in society, their relations with the
representatives of the authorities, as well as in their close social environment, community, and family.
Specific research topics are explored, such as reasons for migration, trust in public authorities, local
community, migrants’ community, trust in the host country’s state and society, the attitudes towards the
most important key stakeholders involved in the migration process, as well as the support measures
proposed by migrants and their families. The findings concerning the attitudes, level of trust, and proposals
suggest the presence of a certain degree of stigmatization of parents from transnational families. Our study
underlines the need for transnational transfer of good practices and real-life experiences, such as those of
migrants, to not remain an empty imitation. This experience can only be transferred through dialogue,
trust, and acceptance – which is not the case at the time of our research. Therefore, it is imperative to
continue dialogue-based fieldwork with primary stakeholders, the families themselves, to deconstruct and
prospectively avoid the structural construction of stigma.
Young people are increasingly turning away from agriculture in many parts of the global South, even where agriculture remains the backbone of livelihoods and the rural economy. This tendency among rural youth has become a critical research and public concern given that mass youth un (der)employment has emerged as a defining feature in many countries. In this paper, we interrogate and depart from the dominant narrative of the youth‐agriculture disconnect by focussing on socio‐economic conditions that shape diverse patterns of youth livelihood in rural areas. Our empirical evidence draws on ethnographic studies conducted in rural parts of Nepal with in‐depth interviews with young people complemented by key informant interviews with local leaders and community workers who shared their experiences and local narratives of the links among youth, agriculture and migration. Findings show that youth aspiration to leave agriculture is hard to deny, although this is heavily mediated by economic status, caste and gender in rural contexts. Given the chronic livelihood insecurity and the structural barriers rooted in class, caste and gender, we find that youth from underprivileged backgrounds do not have the luxury of considering an ‘exit’ from agriculture despite their mobility aspirations. When a longer‐term livelihood trajectory is considered, youth aspirations to transition out of agriculture show some degree of temporality regardless of their background, suggesting their re‐engagement in agriculture later in their life.
This paper explores Moldovas unique context within migration studies, highlighting its potential to enhance theoretical frameworks on migration. Despite its small size, Moldova has a significant portion of its population working abroad, offering insights into both migration and immobility. The study examines Moldova's dual migratory flows toward the European Union (EU) and Russia, influenced by cultural, historical, and economic ties. Contrary to conventional views, the context of Moldova reveals that financial accessibility and robust social networks do not always result in increased migration aspirations in migration decisions. It also addresses the interconnected issues of human trafficking and migration, emphasizing often-overlooked social dimensions. Positioning Moldova as a valuable “migration laboratory,” this study aims to generate academic interest and propose new research directions to refine migration theories.
Purpose: The current study was undertaken to establish the contribution of social reintegration and life satisfaction of Ugandan migrant worker returnees from Middle East. Its objectives main objective was to analyse the influence of social reintegration on life satisfaction among Uganda migrant worker returnees from Middle East. Materials and Methods: In an effort to address the set objectives, a cross-sectional survey design which followed both quantitative and qualitative research approaches was adopted. Data was collected from a total quantitative sample of 218 Ugandan migrant worker returnees from Middle East. A qualitative sample of 25 managers of registered labour export companies and ministry officials in Uganda was determined by saturation point approach. The data was analysed at descriptive and inferential level. Quantitative and qualitative research were used because they are complementary methods that work well together to provide insights that are both deep and wide.The key references in the study are by (Nimkar, R., Savage, E., Tesfalidet, I., & Adugna, G. (2020)) who revealed that that having a safe, satisfactory and affordable place to live is critical to successful reintegration. Findings: The study findings show a poor life satisfaction amongst the respondent Ugandan migrant worker returnees (Mean = 2.63, SD = 1.53). Such poor life satisfaction were in terms of the returnees not being self-sufficient upon returning, poor intention to return guided by achieving the migration objectives, life not being close to ideal in several ways and rarely having a safe, satisfactory and affordable place to live. The respondents also reported not satisfied with their well-being, with life conditions of poor and rarely secure a means of livelihood. The respondents equally reported rarely holding a stock of incomes alongside the savings and to date not getting the basic things needed in life. The study concluded that that sufficient evidence demonstrates a significant relationship exists between social reintegration and life satisfaction among Uganda migrant worker returnees from Middle East. These results shows that the more the social reintegration, the better the level of life satisfaction among Uganda migrant worker returnees from Middle East and vice versa. Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: Finally, the policy makers at the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social developmenteed develop a well-informed local understandable framework and strategy for assessment of performance of government and external labour recruitment organisations in as far as migrant reintegration programmes are concerned for enhanced social reintegration.
Monografia została przygotowana przez dwudziestoczteroosobowy zespół badawczy.
Zainteresowania naukowe Autorów wchodzących w jego skład obejmują rozwój
procesów społeczno-politycznych oraz stosunków międzynarodowych w dynamicznie
zmieniającej się przestrzeni postradzieckiej. Reprezentują oni różne dyscypliny oraz
kilkanaście ośrodków akademickich i badawczych w Polsce i zagranicą.
Praca ma charakter interdyscyplinarny i powstała z intencją upowszechnienia
rezultatów studiów nad obszarem eurazjatyckim. Stanowi też zachętę do pogłębiania
dyskusji dotyczącej możliwych wariantów jego przyszłego rozwoju
This article explores return migration motivations of different generations of Turkish migrants returning from Germany, the Netherlands and France, using semi-structured face-to-face interviews among 48 informants. The study draws on a qualitative approach and inductive content analysis to get insight into how pre-return, migration and transnational experiences of Turkish migrants influence their decisions to return to Turkey. It was found that an ambition to return to Turkey already present when migrating from Turkey, perceived discrimination in Western Europe and a strong sense of belonging to Turkey play the most important role in return decisions.
Using a social identity theory approach, we theorized that recruiters might be particularly biased against skilled immigrant applicants. We refer to this phenomenon as a skill paradox, according to which immigrants are more likely to be targets of employment discrimination the more skilled they are. Furthermore, building on the common ingroup identity model, we proposed that this paradox can be resolved through human resource management (HRM) strategies that promote inclusive hiring practices (e.g., by emphasizing fit with a diverse clientele). The results from a laboratory experiment were consistent with our predictions: Local recruiters preferred skilled local applicants over skilled immigrant applicants, but only when these applicants were qualified for a specific job. This bias against qualified and skilled immigrant applicants was attenuated when fit with a diverse clientele was emphasized, but not when fit with a homogeneous clientele was emphasized or when the hiring strategy was not explained. We discuss the implications of our findings for research on employment discrimination against skilled immigrants, including the role of inclusiveness for reducing discriminatory biases.
Return migration is not always a process of simply “going home.” Particularly when return is not fully voluntarily, returnees face severe obstacles. This study argues that such return can only become sustainable when returnees are provided with possibilities to become re-embedded in terms of economic, social network, and psychosocial dimensions. We analyze the return migration experiences of 178 rejected asylum seekers and migrants who did not obtain residence permit to six different countries: Afghanistan, Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sierra Leone, Togo and Vietnam. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis, we identify several key factors that influence prospects for embeddedness, such as individual and family characteristics, position in the migration cycle, and the role of pre- and post-return assistance. We find that the possibilities for successful return are highly dependent on the living circumstances provided in the host country: returnees who were enabled to engage in work, had access to independent housing and freedom to develop social contacts proved to be better able to exercise agency and maintain self-esteem. Post-return assistance by non-governmental organizations will be particularly helpful when financial support is combined with human guidance and practical information to enhance a more sustainable return process.
Using a transnational theoretical framework we examine the factors which have been involved in the emergence of a return migration culture in the English-speaking Caribbean since 1834. Caribbean emigration and return is not a simplistic bipolar movement, rather the flow is best understood as a fluid looping process which has some backflow. This paper presents a review of the return migration literature as it applies to the English-speaking Caribbean. By doing so, we make a strong case for the use of a transnational approach to understanding the current return migration phenomenon which has changed due to the ease with which migrants can move back and forth between “home” and abroad. Also presented are a theoretical model of decision making, and the correlates which predict the return migration intentions among Guyanese, Trinidadian’s and Jamaicans living in Toronto in 2004.
The present chapter examines international migration in the Republic of Moldova. The authors highlight a few stages in the evolution of migration: the period of ethnic minority migration, the period of increases of temporary labour migration and the last period of intensification in migration flows, diversification of the countries of emigration, and formation and growth of Moldovan stocks in the host countries. It is demonstrated that the national economy is highly dependent on remittances, which are predominantly used for consumption and have not been transformed into investments or production in the real economy. The mass emigration has led to a degradation of the demographic potential of the country, and has also increased the speed of population decline and demographic ageing. Some social effects are also mentioned, such as the development of “migration culture”, which increases and facilitates migration intentions, the negative impact on family stability and the phenomenon of children left without parental care. The impact of migration on political institutions, electoral behaviour, and civic activism of diaspora members is also noted. Also, the authors show the main directions of the migration policies promoted by the Government of Moldova.
Based on in‐depth narrative interviews with 64 second‐generation Greek‐Germans and Greek‐Americans who have “returned” to Greece, this article explores intersections between return, transnationalism and integration. Having grown up with a strong Greek identity in the diaspora, second‐generation “returnees” move to Greece mainly for idealistic, lifestyle and life‐stage reasons. However, most find living in Greece long‐term a challenging experience: they remark on the corruption and chaos of Greek life, and are surprised at the high level of xenophobia in Greek society, not only towards foreign immigrants but also towards themselves as “hyphenated Greeks”. The “return” to Greece provokes new “reverse” transnational links back to their birth country, where they still need to keep in touch with relatives and friends, including caring obligations towards parents who remain abroad. Some contemplate another “return”, back to the US or Germany.
Policy Implications
Policymakers responsible for integration should not assume that the second generation has no connections with its parents' country of origin.
In the diasporic home country (in this case Greece), more effort should be made to facilitate the reintegration of the second generation returning ‘home’ and to break down discrimination towards hyphenated Greeks.
Greek policymakers should pay heed to homecoming second‐generation Greeks in order to benefit from their bicultural insights into how Greek society can be improved, especially as regards efficient public services, transparent employment opportunities, better environment management, gender equality, and the elimination of racism and discrimination.
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