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In consultation, school psychologists may offer educators direct training to support the implementation of classroom interventions aimed to improve student outcomes. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic literature review of single-case design research studies during which educators received direct training to implement a classroom intervention, specifically instructions, modeling, practice, and feedback. Two doctoral students in school psychology screened 228 articles and evaluated 33 studies to determine if direct training is effective and an evidence-based practice per single-case design standards proposed by the What Works Clearinghouse. Results of the review indicate that there is support for the practice to be deemed evidence-based and associated with better intervention implementation than before its application. Implications include direct training being considered for intensive, complex interventions to promote educator success with implementation. (PsycINFO Database Record
The research base for Check-in, Check-out (CICO), a targeted behavioral intervention within a schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports framework, is growing. However, little has been written about its application in therapeutic alternative programs. To extend the literature base, the current article describes a study conducted using an applied multiple baseline single-case research design involving three students with emotional disabilities enrolled in a therapeutic alternative education program. Overall, results indicate that improvements in the three participants' targeted behaviors were noted following intervention. Treatment fidelity and social validity data indicate that CICO steps were implemented as intended and were perceived as acceptable, understandable, and feasible. Implications for research and practice are described.
Single-subject research plays an important role in the development of evidence-based practice in special education. The defining features of single-subject research are presented, the contributions of single-subject research for special education are reviewed, and a specific proposal is offered for using single-subject research to document evidence-based practice. This article allows readers to determine if a specific study is a credible example of single-subject research and if a specific practice or procedure has been validated as "evidence-based" via single-subject research.
The need for an increased understanding of secondary and tertiary supports within a school-wide positive behavior support framework in high schools is discussed. Outcome data such as discipline referrals sent to the office seem to indicate that school-wide applications of positive behavior support can decrease the proportion of students who require more intensive supports. While limited information is available on high school level supports, connections can be made with cutting edge research on self-determination and increased student participation in buy-in to the overall process. Connecting individualized supports to the overall curriculum of the schools appears to have implications for increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of supports in secondary school settings.
It is well documented that youth with or at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (E/BD) have severe deficits in their academic functioning. To begin to address these deficits, we focus on the need to close the opportunity gap by providing access to multi-tiered systems of academic prevention, maximizing academic learning time, and providing explicit instruction for youth with E/BD. We offer recommended positive behavior interventions and supports necessary to improve engagement in instruction. Closing the achievement gap using multi-tiered academic supports requires best practices for universal screening and diagnostic assessment to understand youth academic needs. We detail the key elements of explicit instruction directly linked to improved academic performance. We conclude with alterable instruction factors for intensifying instruction and emphasize the need for intensive language instruction for the majority of youth with E/BD.
S chools are increasingly held accountable for their efforts to improve the academic and so-cial behavior of their students, despite diminishing resources to support those efforts (Eber, Sugai, Smith, & Scott, 2002; Sugai et al., 2000). In addition, many schools lack the expertise to define and use practices and systems that meet the needs of their students with both efficiency and effectiveness (Sugai et al., 2000; U.S. General Accounting Of-fice, 2001). Further, with the advent of legislation requiring more proactive strategies to identify and serve students with academic and social behavior concerns, schools may be unprepared and ill-ad-vised as to how to best implement such practices. ABSTRACT: This article reports on 2 studies investigating a response-to-intervention (RTI) approach to behavior support in 2 second-grade classrooms. The results suggest that a slightly more intensive but efficient targeted intervention ("check in and check out") was effective in supporting the social behavior success of 4 students whose problem behaviors were unresponsive to general classroom management practices. For 4 other students whose problem behaviors continued to be unresponsive to the "check-in and check-out" intervention, more individualized and function-based interventions were indicated and proved to be effective. The results from this research suggest that RTI logic can be applied to the social behavior support of students who present inter-fering problem behaviors in the classroom. Implications and recommendations for research and practice are discussed.
In comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered models, it is essential to have a systematic method for identifying students who need supports at Tier 2 or Tier 3. This article provides explicit information on how to use multiple sources of data to determine which students might benefit from these supports. First, the authors provide an overview of how to make an assessment schedule for all schoolwide data. Second, the authors outline how to create a blueprint for Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports in a given school, including a description of the strategy or practice; inclusionary criteria; data to monitor progress; and exit criteria. Last, the authors provide an overview of how to connect students to support and monitor their progress.
To support students' academic, behavioral, and social needs, many schools have adopted multitiered models of prevention. Because Tier 3 interventions are costly in terms of time and resources, schools must find efficient and effective Tier 2 interventions prior to providing such intense supports. In this article, we review the literature base on Tier 2 interventions conducted within the context of multitiered prevention models evidencing a Tier 1 behavioral plan. Article selection and coding procedures are described and results are presented. Finally, we summarize our findings of four research questions, reflect on limitations, and offer suggestions for future inquiry.
We report a randomized, wait-list controlled trial assessing the effects of school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS). An effectiveness analysis was conducted with elementary schools in Hawaii and Illinois where training and technical assistance in SWPBS was provided by regular state personnel over a 3-year period. Results document that the training and technical assistance were functionally related to improved implementation of universal-level SWPBS practices. Improved use of SWPBS was functionally related to improvements in the perceived safety of the school setting and the proportion of third graders meeting or exceeding state reading assessment standards. Results also document that levels of office discipline referrals were comparatively low, but the absence of experimental control for this variable precludes inference about the impact of SWPBS. Implications for future research directions are offered.
To meet the complex social behavioral and academic needs of all students, schools benefit from having available multiple evidence-based interventions of varying intensity. School-wide positive behavior support provides a framework within which a continuum of evidence-based interventions can be implemented in a school. This framework includes three levels or tiers of intervention; Tier I (primary or universal), Tier II (secondary or targeted), and Tier III (tertiary or individualized) supports. In this paper we review the logic behind school-wide positive behavior support and then focus on Tier II interventions, as this level of support has received the least attention in the literature. We delineate the key features of Tier II interventions as implemented within school-wide positive behavior support, provide guidelines for matching Tier II interventions to school and student needs, and describe how schools plan for implementation and maintenance of selected interventions.
School leaders react to inappropriate behaviors by excluding students, despite research suggesting an association with poor student outcomes. Students with disabilities are frequently subjected to these practices. One framework that has been proposed to reduce the reliance on reactive discipline procedures is schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS). In this study, we replicated several state-level quasi-experimental studies with discipline data from California. Using propensity score matching, we compared 544 schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity and 544 schools that had never been trained. We found statistically significantly fewer out-of-school suspensions and days missed due to out-of-school suspensions across all students. Students with disabilities were statistically significantly less likely to be sent to alternative settings due to behavior in schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity, with an effect size of −0.65. These results replicate and extend prior findings.
Positive behavioral interventions and support (PBIS) is a multitiered framework for behavioral support that is being increasingly implemented in schools. Although research has linked PBIS to improved student outcomes, less research is longitudinal and considers both academic and behavioral outcomes. This study examined the relationships between changes in school‐wide (i.e., Tier I) PBIS implementation level and changes in disciplinary and achievement outcomes over a 2‐year period. Participants included 85 Ohio schools with data on PBIS implementation fidelity (from the tiered fidelity inventory, or TFI), out‐of‐school suspensions (OSSs), and statewide achievement tests for the 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 school years. Linear regressions were conducted to examine the degree to which changes in TFI Tier I scores predicted changes in OSS and achievement scores when controlling for school‐level demographic variables that also were related to the outcome variables. Changes in TFI Tier I scores was found to significantly predict changes in OSS per 100 students but not changes in achievement scores.
Although there are many definitions of a high-need (or high-risk) school, typically researchers and policy makers agree it is a setting in which a vast percentage of students are (a) living in economic disadvantage, (b) from racially diverse backgrounds, (c) identified as having a disability, or (d) underperforming academically. Many teachers in high-need settings are new to the field or have experienced persistent challenges demonstrating effective classroom management. As a result, these teachers might benefit from intensive data-driven coaching to improve classroom management practice. Yet, existing empirically supported comprehensive coaching models tend to require resources that may be scarce in high-need settings. In this multiple-baseline single case research design study, teachers who requested assistance to provide effective classroom management received feasible coaching support (i.e., explicit didactic training, booster training with verbal modeling). Teachers implemented comprehensive classroom management plans with the highest level of treatment fidelity upon receiving booster training, and class-wide student behavior improved.
The purpose of this study was to examine associations between implementation fidelity of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) and student outcomes over time. The sample included 477 K–12 schools across 10 states implementing SWPBIS for varying numbers of years and at varying levels of fidelity (but with 78% of schools at or above established fidelity criteria). Results indicate that, in general, schools showed a decline in office discipline referrals (ODRs) and out-of-school suspensions (OSSs) over 3 years. SWPBIS fidelity of implementation was positively associated with initial levels of ODRs and OSSs, and the relations between fidelity and OSSs varied based on years of SWPBIS implementation. Levels of fidelity did not predict change in ODRs or OSSs. Despite no statistically significant associations between fidelity and student academic outcomes, schools that had implemented SWPBIS for 3 years or more had higher achievement in mathematics after controlling for prior achievement.
The present study investigated the effects of an intensive training protocol on levels of paraeducator fidelity to a group contingency intervention used to manage the classroom behavior of students with EBD. A multiple baseline design across classrooms was used to determine whether the training was associated with initial and sustained increases in treatment fidelity. Data were also collected on the effects of paraeducator use of the group contingency program on rates of paraeducator, teacher, and student behavior. Results indicated that the training package was associated with immediate increases in paraeducator fidelity, which were subsequently sustained following the removal of systematic performance feedback on paraeducator adherence to the protocol. The implementation of the group contingency program by paraeducators also led to increases in the rates of interactions between paraeducators and students, increases in the rates of teacher instruction, and decreases in the rates of aggressive behavior by students. Findings of the study are discussed within the context of developing effective training methods for paraeducators working alongside students with EBD.
Colleagues in the field of mental health have made considerable progress developing inventories of evidence-based practice; however, the field of special education for children with emotional or behavioral disorders has only recently begun to do so. This paper provides some personal reflections on four major issues for consideration as we pursue evidence-based practice in this field, including: (1) the nature of acceptable evidence; (2) the sustainability of evidence-based practice; (3) the overlap of learning disabilities and emotional or behavioral disorders; and (4) the context of special education in the field of mental health. Such problems are formidable and remain largely unresolved as we enter a new phase of deliberation regarding evidence-based practice.
School-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SW-PBIS) can effectively reduce problem behaviors and simultaneously increase pro-social behaviors in general education settings. SW-PBIS is not a “packaged” intervention, but a framework through which schools create systemic changes for promoting expected behaviors, while also monitoring and intervening with students who have behavior concerns through a tiered model of service delivery. A case study documenting the SW-PBIS implementation process in an alternative educational setting is presented. Alternative schools typically serve students who qualify to receive special education services, have a lower staff-to-student ratio, and often warrant more intensive student interventions as compared to general education settings. These differences from traditional environments pose unique challenges to the SW-PBIS implementation process. Suggestions for neutralizing these challenges such as providing enhanced Tier 1 supports and extensive staff training are explained in depth in this case study.
School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is an example of applied behavior analysis implemented at a scale of social importance. In this paper, PBIS is defined and the contributions of behavior analysis in shaping both the content and implementation of PBIS are reviewed. Specific lessons learned from implementation of PBIS over the past 20 years are summarized.
Schools implementing tiered supports for social behavior need to be systematic and thoughtful about moving to the next tier. However, schools often apply resources they have in a blanket fashion for children who demonstrate behavior problems. This practice is problematic, and there is a need for increased efforts to plan and be more careful about choosing specific interventions for children who do not respond to universal supports. This article aims to discuss the importance of determining the function for behavior problems prior to intervention selection. The authors discuss problems with the current practices in schools. Data from a study on the use of the Check In Check Out intervention are presented to further illustrate the importance of determining function for behavior and implementing interventions with integrity. Without this important step, children who are at risk may not be appropriately supported and valuable resources are expended without successful outcomes. Implications for practitioners are provided.
Many public schools are experiencing improved student, staff, and school outcomes with the adoption of a positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) framework, which organizes evidence-based practices into an integrated continuum of supports. Although alternative programs are often more restrictive and specialized because of the intensified needs of their youth, they share instructional, behavioral, and organizational characteristics with public schools. The purpose of this article is to describe how the similar challenges and characteristics of alternative and public schools support the use of a PBIS framework as a means to support the needs of youth who display high-risk behavior.
This article presents an example of how school time was monitored to facilitate a cost analysis of school-wide systems of positive behavior support (PBS). The article provides descriptions of how (a) PBS efforts were initiated in the school, (b) time and money were spent preparing for and implementing PBS, and (c) changes in behavior referrals and suspension were used to evaluate the effect of PBS on the larger system. The results indicated a positive assessment of PBS based on predetermined criteria. The discussion focuses on larger issues of cost analyses as systemic evaluation tools for assessing lifestyle change.
Systems of positive behavior support (PBS) that positively affect student performance involve consensus among stakeholders, the development of environments that facilitate student success, effective teaching of rules and procedures, and consistent consequences for behavior. Evaluation of such systems requires schools to collect data to assess performance and to use that information to make data-based decisions. However, surveys indicate that data collection and data-based decision making are among the most difficult components of PBS for school personnel to tackle. This article examines in-person coaching strategies and data use. Individual school results are analyzed in relation to the school's School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET) scores. A discussion of how coaches may more efficiently assess schools' readiness for coaching styles and content includes suggestions for how coaches might use a range of available assessment tools.
Effective behavioral practices for students with emotional/behavioral disorders (E/BD) are critical. Students with E/BD are often served in alternative education (AE) settings due to behavior that cannot be supported in a typical school setting or due to court adjudication based on delinquent activity. Like other settings for students with E/BD, AE programs must utilize effective intervention practices for students to get the most out of the program and make appropriate behavioral changes. This review examined the literature base of behavioral interventions implemented in AE settings from 1970-2010 to assess the inclusion of nine effective practices recommended for use in alternative settings (Tobin & Sprague, 2000; Nelson, Sprague, Jolivette, Smith, & Tobin, 2009). A total of 39 articles were identified and analyzed that met the study criteria. Results indicated that only 29 studies included any of the effective practices. Additionally, small class size was the most frequently noted effective practice. Finally, the quality of research concerning behavior in AE settings appears to be quite low. Implications of this study and directions for future research are presented.
This report presents findings on public education revenues and expenditures using fiscal year 2007 (FY 07) data from the National Public Education Financial Survey (NPEFS) of the Common Core of Data (CCD) survey system. Programs covered in the NPEFS include regular, special, and vocational education; charter schools that reported data to the state education agency (SEA); and state-run education programs such as special education centers or education programs for incarcerated youth. Selected reported findings include: (1) Approximately 476.8 billion in FY 07, approximately 290.7 billion was spent on instruction, 61 percent of all current expenditures; and (4) In addition to current expenditures in FY 07, 6.5 billion in replacement equipment, 14.7 billion in interest on debt for a total expenditure of $562.3 billion. Two appendices are included: (1) Methodology and Technical Notes; and (2) Common Core of Data Glossary. (Contains 3 footnotes, 3 figures and 8 tables.) [For the Fiscal Year 2006 edition, see ED502166.]
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and No Child Left Behind emphasize the use of scientifically based research to improve outcomes for students. From this emphasis, response-to-intervention has evolved. We present one perspective on the defining features of response-to-intervention and application of those features to school-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS). We suggest that the initial purpose of response-to-intervention has expanded from a focus on screening and improved outcomes for students with learning disabilities to a general approach for improving instructional and intervention decision making for all students. We describe a similar evolution of SWPBS, only with a focus on the (a) social culture within the whole school and (b) behavior supports for those students with problem behavior. We conclude by suggesting that the response-to-intervention approach offers an excellent umbrella of guiding principles for improved assessment and intervention decision making, and that SWPBS is an example of the application of these principles to the challenge of establishing formal systems of behavior support for all students' school- and classroom-wide. To guide SWPBS implementation, we offer a self-assessment protocol for school and leadership implementation teams to improve the development of an integrated continuum of behavioral interventions and practices that is effective, efficient, relevant, and durable.
• “I want my children to receive the Response-to-Intervention program.”
• “We've got a Response-to-Intervention team that meets on the 2nd Tuesday of each month, and a School-wide Positive Behavior Support committee that meets on 3rd Wednesday of each month.”
• “Response-to-Intervention is about closing the achievement gap. School-wide Positive Behavior Support is about improving school discipline and classroom management.”
• “We are required to use Response-to-Intervention to identify students with learning disabilities.”
20 years has greatly advanced our understanding of reading problems. We know that many children who experi-ence difficulty learning to read have phonological processing weaknesses (e.g., Liberman, Shankweiler, & Liberman, 1989) and poor word recognition skills (e.g demonstrated that programs emphasizing phono-logical awareness and decoding can significantly improve young students' reading achievement, at least in the short term. ABSTRACT: First graders (N = 323) participated in an evidence-based classwide reading program (Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies; PALS). A dual-discrepancy approach was used to identify 56 children whose reading performance and growth rates were substantially below those of average readers, indicating they were not responding sufficiently to PALS. This approach reliably distin-guished among unresponsive at-risk, responsive at-risk, and average-performing readers. Nonre-sponders were assigned randomly to one of three increasingly individualized treatments: PALS, Modified PALS, or tutoring by an adult. No statistically significant between-group differences on reading-related measures were found. Effect sizes (between .30 and .50) comparing groups and proportions of nonresponders following treatment suggest that tutoring was most promising for re-ducing unresponsiveness.
Implementing a continuum of schoolwide positive behavior support (SW-PBS) from least to most intensive is recommended to prevent and respond to problem behavior in school settings (Walker et al., 1996). This continuum of support includes three main prevention tiers: (a) primary, which involves schoolwide interventions for all students and staff across all school settings; (b) secondary, which targets the 10–15%of students at risk of social behavior failure; and (c) tertiary, which focuses on approximately 5…#x0025;of the student population who need significant intervention strategies and supports (Sugai … Horner, 2002). For additional information on SW-PBS, see chapter 14.
Students who do not respond to primary-tier prevention programs may benefit from efficient secondary-tier (ST) interventions, also referred to as …#x201C;selected…#x201D; or …#x201C;targeted…#x201D; interventions. The group of students who benefit from ST interventions includes approximately 10–15%of the student population who are at risk for developing severe problem behavior due to their (a) poor peer relations, (b) low academic achievement, or (c) chaotic home environments (Lewis … Sugai, 1999). The behaviors of these students are unresponsive to interventions provided at the primary tier (Fairbanks, Sugai, Guardino, … Lathrop, 2007; Kincaid 2007), and these students typically require more practice in learning behavioral expectations and may need academic modifications to ensure learning success (Lee, Sugai, … Horner, 1999).
Teachers who implement evidence-based classroom management can greatly reduce problem behavior in classroom settings. Unfortunately, even with high quality implementation of evidence-based practices, some students will not be successful (i.e., will not respond to the primary intervention). Secondary and tertiary behavioral interventions should be designed and implemented to support a range of students with behavioral needs in classroom settings. In this article, we describe the typical features, steps required to implement, and intervention pre-requisites for secondary and tertiary intervention systems within classroom settings. We conclude with an applied example of incorporating the logic of primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions in the classroom.
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