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Construction and Validation of the Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II)

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Nancy Darling at Oberlin College
Nancy Darling
Teru Toyokawa at California State University, San Marcos
Teru Toyokawa
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A scale to measure three dimensions of parenting style: demandingness, supportiveness, and psychological autonomy-granting. Validated in the US.
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Construction and Validation of the Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II)
Nancy Darling, Ph.D.
Teru Toyokawa, MA
Department of Human Development and Family Studies
The Pennsylvania State University
DRAFT: DO NOT QUOTE WITHOUT PERMISSION FROM AUTHOR
Correspondence regarding this paper can be send to Nancy Darling, Department of Human
Development and Family Studies; 110 Henderson Bdlg. South; The Pennsylvania State University;
University Park, PA 16802. E-mail nxd10@psu.edu
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Construction and Validation of the Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II)
Background and Significance:
Darling & Steinberg define parenting style as "a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are
communicated to the child and that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parents'
behaviors are expressed" (1993, p 488). Parenting style is distinguished from parenting practices, in
that parenting practices are directed towards particular goals--encouraging academic achievement, for
example--while parenting style refers to the overall emotional climate in which particular parent:child
interactions occur. One limitation of many scales used to assess parenting style (for example,
Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1987; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992; Dornbusch,
Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987) is that they confound parenting style and practice by
including questions regarding the content or goals of socialization. For example, Steinberg, et al (1992)
includes items assessing helping with homework in their measurement of parenting style. This makes it
difficult to assess whether the association found between parenting style and academic outcomes is due
to parenting style, per se, or to specific practices parents use to promote academics (helping with
homework). This confounding of parenting practice and style also makes it impossible to test Darling &
Steinberg’s (1993) hypothesis that parenting style influences developmental outcomes primarily
indirectly by moderating the effectiveness of specific parenting practices and be influencing children’s
openness to socialization. (For a full discussion of this and other issues raised by the distinction
between parenting style and practice, see Darling & Steinberg, 1993.)
The Parenting Style Inventory (PSI-I) was designed to assess the construct of parenting style
independently of parenting practice. Because one purpose of the measure was to allow comparisons of
the association of parenting style with child outcomes across diverse population and a relatively large
age range, the measure was designed to be short, easy to understand, and reliable. Based upon
previous literature (i.e. Schaeffer, 1965; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1987), three subscales, of five-
items each, were developed to assess the three dimensions of maternal parenting style: demandingness,
emotional responsivenss, and psychological autonomy-granting. Although initial reliability tests in
samples of high school seniors and college students yielded acceptable levels of reliability
(demandingness, "=.69; responsiveness, "=.87; autonomy-granting, "=.82), tests of the measure in a
population of 7th graders were more problematic (demandingness, "=.68; responsiveness, "=.62;
autonomy-granting, "=.58) and showed a strong, positive skew.
Because of these limitation, a revision of the measure was undertaken. The goal of the revision
was to increase the internal consistency and the variability of the items while maintaining the conceptual
clarity of the constructs and the short format. The PSI-pilot II represents a modification of the original
PSI-I instrument. Two major changes were made. First, additional items were written that would
decrease positive response bias and capture a broader range of the demandingness construct. Second,
the instrument was changed from a four-response format, in which students were forced to choose
between a positive and negative presentation of their parents, to a five-response format, which allowed
for neutral responses. This five-response option had been used in the initial development of the PSI-I
and appeared to allow more range of response, especially in the younger students. The PSI-pilot II is
presented in Appendix 1.
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Method:
Sample: Data for this study were collected from 318 6th-, 7th-, and 8th-graders in a public
middle school in a rural/suburban, southern Pennsylvanian community. Many of the 8th graders in this
school had previously participated in the testing of the PSI-I. Students were administered the PSI-pilot
II as part of a larger study of parenting, leisure, and psychosocial development.
Procedure: Each subscale was analyzed separately. Item selection involved two stages: the
identification of several possible 5-item subscales for each construct and examination of the
psychometric properties of each individual subscale and the interrelationship among the subscales.
Step One: For both the Psychological Autonomy-Granting and Emotional Responsiveness
scales, the analyses proceeded in two stages. First, individual item means and variances were
examined and subscale alphas with and without each individual item were calculated. From these
analyses, several possible 5-item scales were developed that represented different acceptable
combinations of high internal consistency, high variability, and lack of skew. In order to reduce the
number of items in the Demandingness Subscale, a series of principal component analyses were
performed using a varimax rotation. Two main factors emerged: ‘clear high standards’ and
‘consequences of misbehavior’. The 8 items loading most highly on these factors were maintained as
potential scale items. As with the other two sub-scales, several possible 5-item scales were developed
that represented different advantages and disadvantages.
Step Two: Four criteria were used to select the final set of items: (1) Cronbach's alpha; (2)
variance and skewness; (3) inter-correlations among the subscales; and (4) predictive validity of
outcome variables (i.e., intrinsic motivation, parental involvement, school-related variables such as
GPA, attitude toward school, bonding with teachers, and value toward school).
Results:
The final items and subscale reliabilities are reported in Table 1. All alphas reached acceptable
levels (demandingness, "=.72; responsiveness, "=.74; autonomy-granting, "=.75). There were no
differences in the reliability of scales in the 6th, 7th, and 8th grade samples. Descriptive statistics for the
items are reported in Table 2. Although each scale is positively skewed, the relatively well-functioning
nature of the sample and the relatively higher variability showed this to be an improvement over the
original instrument. Inter-correlations among the three subscales are reported in Table 3. As has been
shown in other studies of parenting, the different aspect of parenting style tend to be intercorrelated.
Most problematic is the correlations between psychological autonomy-granting and responsiveness
(R=.46). The two main constructs - responsiveness and demandingness - show a moderate correlation
of .34. This is consistent with their interrelationship in other studies of parenting style and may reflect
adolescents’ interpretation of parental rule-setting as an expression of their emotional attachment. (This
hypothesis is currently under investigation.)
The relationship between each subscale and adolescent outcomes, maternal monitoring and
involvement in education, and legitimacy of authority are reported in Table 4. In each case, the
relationship between positive parenting (high responsiveness, demandingness, and psychological
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autonomy-granting) and adolescent outcomes, parenting practices, and perceived legitimacy of
authority was in the expected magnitude and direction.
Conclusion:
The PSI-II appears to have adequate internal consistency, variability, and predictive validity and shows
a marked improvement over the PSI-I in this sample of 6th, 7th, and 8th graders. Data collection is
under way which will allow additional validation of this measure. Planned work includes a) calculating
1-year test:retest reliability on a subsample of students currently in the 9th grade, b) comparisons of the
reliability of measures of fathers’ and mothers’ parenting style, c) extending the age range of the sample
to a sample of 9th - 12th graders who were oversampled for less optimal parenting, d) modification of
the instrument for mother and father self-report and mother and father reports of their partners’
parenting, and e) comparison of adolescent reports with parent self-reports. This work should be
complete by August, 1997.
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Table 1 Final Items for Parental Style Inventory-II
Responsiveness Subscale (alpha = .74; n = 318)
*B. My mother doesn’t really like me to tell her my troubles.
*G. My mother hardly ever praises me for doing well.
R. I can count on my mother to help me out if I have a problem.
AA. My mother spends time just talking to me.
CC. My mother and I do things that are fun together.
Autonomy-granting Subscale (alpha = .75; n = 318)
*D. My mother tells me that her ideas are correct and that I shouldn’t question them.
F. My mother respects my privacy.
H. My mother gives me a lot of freedom.
*L. My mother makes most of the decisions about what I can do.
P. My mother believes I have a right to my own point of view.
Demandingness Subscale (alpha = .72; n = 318)
A. My mother really expects me to follow family rules.
*I. My mother really lets me get away with things.
J. If I don’t behave myself, my mother will punish me.
T. My mother points out ways I could do better.
*BB. When I do something wrong, my mother does not punish me.
Note. Asterisks indicate reversed items.
Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations of PSI Subscales
Means (SD)
Boys Girls Total
(n=141) (n=177) (n=318)
Responsiveness 3.86 (.72) 3.95 (.82) 3.91 (.77)
Autonomy-granting 3.55 (.81) 3.49 (.86) 3.52 (.84)
Demandingness 3.70 (.77) 3.64 (.69) 3.67 (.72)
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Table 3 Correlation Coefficients among PSI Subscales
Responsiveness: Demandingness .34
Responsivenss: Autonomy-Granting .46
Demandingness: Autonomy-Granting -.11
Table 4 Correlation Coefficients between PSI-II Subscales and Adolescent Outcomes and
Parenting Measures
Responsiveness Demandingness Autonomy-Granting
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
Self-Esteem .41 .28 .34 .21 .17 .19 .29 .23 .25
Intrinsic Motivation .27 .23 .25 .09 .22 .15 .23 .19 .21
GPA .30 .27 .28 .10 .05 .07 .17 .30 .23
Try in School .29 .20 .24 .33 .24 .27 -.04 .11 .02
Bonding w/
Teachers .44 .46 .44 .30 .14 .21 .23 .37 .29
Value School .55 .45 .49 .41 .28 .33 .27 .34 .30
Problem Behavior -.34 -.18 -.26 -.26 -.21 -.22 -.14 -.09 -.10
Substance Use -.32 -.12 -.21 -.21 -.19 -.19 -.14 .01 -.04
Monitoring .49 .55 .52 .38 .23 .30 .17 .25 .21
School Involvement .45 .56 .51 .53 .51 .52 .05 .17 .12
Perceived
Legitimacy of
Parental Authority
.34 .24 .28 .32 .21 .26 .12 .14 .13
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Appendix 1: Parenting Style Inventory - Pilot II
How much do you agree or disagree with this sentence?
Response options: strongly disagree, disagree, I’m in between, agree, strongly agree
A. My mother really expects me to follow family rules.
B. My mother doesn’t really like me to tell her my troubles.
C. My mother expects me to dress and act differently in places like church or a restaurant than I
do when I’m with my friends.
D. My mother tells me that her ideas are correct and that I shouldn’t question them.
E. Hard work is very important to my mother.
F. My mother respects my privacy.
G. My mother hardly ever praises me for doing well.
H. My mother gives me a lot of freedom.
I. My mother really lets me get away with things.
J. If I don’t behave myself, my mother will punish me.
K. My mother expects me to do what she says without having to tell me why.
L. My mother makes most of the decisions about what I can do.
M. It is important to my mother that I do my best.
N. My mother encourages me to talk to her honestly.
O. My mother doesn’t ask me to change my behavior to meet the needs of other people in the
family.
P. My mother believes I have a right to my own point of view.
Q. If I don’t act according to my mother’s standards, she will do things to make sure I do in
the future.
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R. I can count on my mother to help me out if I have a problem.
S. I would describe my mother as a strict parent.
T. My mother points out ways I could do better.
U. My mother pushes me to do my best in whatever I do.
V. It’s clear to me when my mother thinks I have done well.
W. My mother pushes me to think for myself.
X. My mother is strict about how I behave when I’m in stores, the library, or some place
where there are mostly adults.
Y. My mother makes it clear when I have done something she doesn’t like.
Z. I can tell when my mother thinks I could have done better.
AA. My mother spends time just talking to me.
BB. When I do something wrong, my mother does not punish me.
CC. My mother and I do things that are fun together.
DD. My mother sets high standards for me to meet.
EE. My mother gives me chores to do around the house.
FF. When my family does things together, my mother expects me to come.
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Background In the present study, we focused on examining the relationship between parenting styles, self-concept, and grit. We conceptualized self-concept as a three-dimensional variable with cognitive, emotional, and conative dimensions. Parenting style was defined using emotional relationships and autonomy granting. The optimal parenting style in our view entails a combination of parental responsiveness (fostering a positive relationship) with an appropriate degree of autonomy granting (defined as providing relative freedom). We hypothesized that adolescent grit and parenting style are related to a positively defined self-concept. Participants and procedure The present study included 1,483 participants (55.5% female) aged 10-20 years (M = 15.00, SD = 2.60). All participants attended primary and secondary education (ISCED 2 and 3) across five regions in Slovakia. The research methods consisted of administering the Self-Concept Questionnaire-18 (DOS-18), the Parenting Style Inventory PSI-II, and the Grit Scale. Results We observed different predictors of self-concept for boys and girls. Shared predictors of self-concept for both sexes included mother’s responsiveness, passion, and perseverance as components of grit. The differences were in the non-significance of father’s responsiveness and the significance of autonomy granting by the father in relation to self-concept of boys. Conclusions The results of the present research suggest that different parenting approaches may be beneficial for boys and girls. In particular, the role of the father and his ability to support the relative autonomy of the son appears to be important, as evidenced by the fact that boys’ self-concept is typically more positive than that of girls.
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Chapter
  • Jan 2025
Parent-adolescent conflict over mobile phone use has emerged as a major concern in recent years, and parenting style has been suggested as a crucial factor in adolescent development and may impact parent-adolescent conflicts. This study thus investigated whether parenting styles had differential effects on parent–child conflicts over mobile phone use for male and female adolescents. A sample of 751 middle school students aged 12–17 years from an eastern province of China participated in the study. Results showed a significant difference in the relationships between four parenting styles and parent-adolescent conflict regarding mobile phone use. Moreover, the relationships between parenting styles and parent–child conflicts over mobile phone use varied by gender. Specifically, male adolescents with permissive parents had fewer conflicts than those with other parenting styles, while female adolescents with uninvolved parents had the least conflicts. Additionally, both male and female adolescents with authoritarian parents had more conflicts than those with authoritative, permissive, or uninvolved parents. These findings suggest that parenting style is crucial in reducing conflicts between parents and their children over mobile phone use, and gender is an important factor to consider when addressing these conflicts.
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The Effects of Mothers’ Parenting Styles on Their Daughters’ Mental Health
Article
  • Jan 2023
Background: Parenting is an effortful and serious task that has a significant impact on the mental health and personality of children. Previous studies in other countries have identified parenting style as a contributing factor to the mental health of their children. There is no study available on the impact of parenting on the mental health of children in Afghanistan. The current study aimed to explore the effects of mother’s parenting styles on their daughters’ mental health. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted among students of Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Kabul University from April to June 2022 and a total of 102 female students aged between 18-26 years participated in this study. To collect the necessary data, two questionnaires were administered including a general health questionnaire (GHQ-28) and parental authority questionnaire (PAQ). Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 21. Findings: The results indicated that permissive parenting has a positive effect on mental health. In addition, it was found that a high number of participants (62.7%) had symptoms of mental health disorders. The number of participants suspected to have severe symptoms of psychological disorders was high (21.6%) in social dysfunction compared to anxiety, somatic symptoms, and depression (13.7 %, 10.8% and 4.9%), respectively. Moreover, according to the findings authoritative parenting was the dominant style, followed by authoritarian and permissive parenting. Conclusion: Parents must be educated about the consequences of their upbringing style on their children’s mental health and future research must include males, fathers, and a larger sample to get a more clear picture of the impact of parenting on children’s mental health.
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