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fnagi-12-00155 June 1, 2020 Time: 18:8 # 1
CLINICAL TRIAL
published: 03 June 2020
doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00155
Edited by:
Woon-Man Kung,
Chinese Culture University, Taiwan
Reviewed by:
Lee Wei Lim,
The University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong
Hirokazu Kawagishi,
Shizuoka University, Japan
*Correspondence:
Chin-Chu Chen
gkbioeng@grapeking.com.tw
David Pei-Cheng Lin
pcl@csmu.edu.tw
Received: 26 February 2020
Accepted: 07 May 2020
Published: 03 June 2020
Citation:
Li I-C, Chang H-H, Lin C-H,
Chen W-P, Lu T-H, Lee L-Y,
Chen Y-W, Chen Y-P, Chen C-C and
Lin DP-C (2020) Prevention of Early
Alzheimer’s Disease by Erinacine
A-Enriched Hericium erinaceus
Mycelia Pilot Double-Blind
Placebo-Controlled Study.
Front. Aging Neurosci. 12:155.
doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00155
Prevention of Early Alzheimer’s
Disease by Erinacine A-Enriched
Hericium erinaceus Mycelia Pilot
Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled
Study
I-Chen Li1, Han-Hsin Chang2, Chuan-Han Lin3, Wan-Ping Chen1, Tsung-Han Lu3,
Li-Ya Lee1, Yu-Wen Chen1, Yen-Po Chen1, Chin-Chu Chen1,4,5,6*and
David Pei-Cheng Lin3,7*
1Biotech Research Institute, Grape King Bio Ltd., Taoyuan City, Taiwan, 2Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical
University, Taichung City, Taiwan, 3Department of Medical Laboratory and Biotechnology, Chung Shan Medical University,
Taichung City, Taiwan, 4Institute of Food Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan,
5Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Nutraceutical Biotechnology, Shih Chien University, Taipei City, Taiwan,
6Department of Bioscience Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan, 7Department
of Ophthalmology, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung City, Taiwan
Objective: To investigate the efficacy and safety of three H. erinaceus mycelia (EAHE)
capsules (350 mg/capsule; containing 5 mg/g erinacine A active ingredient) per day for
the treatment of patients with mild Alzheimer’s Disease (AD).
Methods: This study comprised a 3-week no-drug screening period, followed by
a 49-week double-blind treatment period with 2-parallel groups in which eligible
patients were randomized to either three 5 mg/g EAHE mycelia capsules per
day or identical appearing placebo capsules. Cognitive assessments, ophthalmic
examinations, biomarker collection, and neuroimaging were followed throughout
the study period.
Results: After 49 weeks of EAHE intervention, a significant decrease in Cognitive
Abilities Screening Instrument score was noted in the placebo group, a significant
improvement in Mini-Mental State Examination score was observed in the EAHE group
and a significant Instrumental Activities of Daily Living score difference were found
between the two groups. In addition, EAHE group achieved a significantly better contrast
sensitivity when compared to the placebo group. Moreover, only the placebo group
observed significantly lowered biomarkers such as calcium, albumin, apolipoprotein E4,
hemoglobin, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor and significantly elevated alpha1-
antichymotrypsin and amyloid-beta peptide 1–40 over the study period. Using diffusion
tensor imaging, the mean apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values from the arcuate
fasciculus region in the dominant hemisphere significantly increased in the placebo
group while no significant difference was found in the EAHE group in comparison to
their baselines. Moreover, ADC values from the parahippocampal cingulum region in the
dominant hemisphere significantly decreased in the EAHE group whereas no significant
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Li et al. Prevention of Early AD by EAHE
difference was found in the placebo group when compared to their baselines. Lastly,
except for four subjects who dropped out of the study due to abdominal discomfort,
nausea, and skin rash, no other adverse events were reported.
Conclusion: Three 350 mg/g EAHE capsules intervention for 49 weeks demonstrated
higher CASI, MMSE, and IADL scores and achieved a better contrast sensitivity in
patients with mild AD when compared to the placebo group, suggesting that EAHE
is safe, well-tolerated, and may be important in achieving neurocognitive benefits.
Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT04065061.
Keywords: erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus mycelia, Alzheimer’s disease, pilot study, prevention, magnetic
resonance imaging
INTRODUCTION
The pace of population aging across the world over the past half-
century is increasing dramatically, triggering a Silver Tsunami of
chronic age-related diseases. Among these diseases, Alzheimer’s
Disease (AD) is the fifth-leading cause of death among adults
aged 65 years and older and is also a leading cause of disability
and morbidity (Alzheimer’s Association, 2019). Unlike other
major diseases for which there have been steady progress in
the development of novel therapies, no new pharmacologic
treatment for AD has been approved since 2003 (Hung and
Fu, 2017). One theory as to why many intervention trials have
failed is that the pathophysiological process of AD is thought
to begin many years before the onset of clinical symptoms,
and the use of interventions later in the disease may not
effectively slow its progression due to established pathological
burden (Sperling et al., 2011). As a result, there has been a
shift in the clinical research field, with the focus to develop
safe and effective interventions in early and presymptomatic AD
stages (Graham et al., 2017). To date, several prevention trials
have been carried out and shown promising results, suggesting
the potential feasibility of implementing non-pharmacological
approaches, including dietary interventions (Ngandu et al., 2015;
Andrieu et al., 2017).
In a recent study, the lifestyle of 633 Chinese seniors living
in Singapore between 2011 and 2017 was analyzed, and it was
revealed that various mushrooms have therapeutic effects in
combatting AD by exerting neuroprotective and antioxidant
effects (Feng et al., 2019). Mushrooms and their extracts have
been well-known for their nutritional and culinary values, which
may be regarded as novel nature-based nutraceuticals to mitigate
AD and other age-related neurodegenerative disorders. In fact,
a number of mushrooms including Hericium erinaceus (Bull.:
Fr.) Pers., Dictyophora indusiata (Vent.) Desv., Grifola frondosa
(Dicks.: Fr.) S.F. Gray, Tremella fuciformis Berk, Tricholoma sp.,
Termitomyces albuminosus (Berk.) R. Heim, Lignosus rhinocerotis
(Cooke) Ryvarden, Cordyceps militaris (L.:Fr.) Link, Pleurotus
giganteus (Berk.) Karunarathna and K.D. Hyde, Ganoderma
lucidum P. Karst, and Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki have
been reported to have activities related to nerve and brain health
(Phan et al., 2017). Among these, the neurohealth properties
of Hericium erinaceus (Bull.:Fr.) Pers., or its common names
Lion’s mane or Monkey’s head mushroom, have been most
extensively studied.
Hericenones and erinacines are the two important classes
of constitutes isolated from the fruiting body and mycelium of
H. erinaceus, respectively (Kawagishi et al., 1991, 1992, 1994,
1996a,b;Lee et al., 2000). Both hericenones and erinacines are
low-molecular weight, relatively hydrophobic compounds, and
proven to stimulate nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis and
promote NGF-induced neurite outgrowth in nerve cells in vitro
(Lai et al., 2013). However, hericenones failed to promote NGF
gene expression in 1321N1 human astrocytoma cells (Mori et al.,
2008) while erinacine A successfully upregulated the NGF level
in the locus coeruleus and hippocampus of rats (Shimbo et al.,
2005). To date, only erinacines A (unpublished results) and S (Hu
et al., 2019) but not hericenones have been verified to cross the
blood-brain-barrier, suggesting a greater of likelihood of them
targeting the central nervous system. Furthermore, the in vivo
neuroprotection of erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus (EAHE)
mycelia has been demonstrated in several studies against stroke,
Parkinson’s disease, AD, depression, and aging (Li et al., 2018b).
Based on these findings, it is highly suggestive that erinacine A is
one of the key components responsible for the neurotrophic and
neuroprotective activities of H. erinaceus.
A previous human pilot study has been carried out to
investigate the efficacy of oral administration of H. erinaceus
with 50- to 80-year-old Japanese men and women diagnosed
with mild cognitive impairment. The subjects in the H. erinaceus
group took four H. erinaceus tablets three times a day for
16 weeks and showed an improvement in cognitive functions
(Mori et al., 2009). However, in this study, the active constituents,
representative markers, and major chemical constituents of
H. erinaceus tablets have not been extensively addressed. While
there is still a controversy regarding whether hericenones in
the H. erinaceus fruiting body have neuroprotective activities
in vivo, erinacine A in the H. erinaceus mycelia, on the other
hand, confers neuroprotective effects and attenuates the oxidative
stress against stroke (Lee et al., 2014), AD (Tzeng et al.,
2018), Parkinson’s disease (Kuo et al., 2016), depression (Chiu
et al., 2018), and aging (Li et al., 2019) in mouse models. As
there is an urgent need to translate basic discovery research
to clinical evaluation, this is the first clinical investigation of
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Li et al. Prevention of Early AD by EAHE
three H. erinaceus mycelia capsules (350 mg/capsule; containing
5 mg/g erinacine A active ingredient) per day for the treatment of
patients with early AD.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample Preparation and
High-Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC) Analysis
Hericium erinaceus mycelia enriched with 5 mg/g erinacine A
were prepared and evaluated according to a procedure described
previously (Li et al., 2014b). In brief, EAHE mycelia was grown in
a submerged liquid medium comprised of 0.25 % yeast extract,
4.5% glucose, 0.5% soybean powder, 0.25 % peptone, and 0.05
% MgSO4with an initial pH set to 4.5 at 26◦C for 5 days. This
process is then scaled up in 500-L and 20-ton fermenters for
5 days and 12 days, respectively. Following mass production, the
mycelia were lyophilized, extracted with methanol, and analyzed
by HPLC to quantify 5 mg/g erinacine A in EAHE mycelia. For
study’s intervention, 350 mg EAHE mycelia were encapsulated in
each gelatin capsule and used as treatments.
Study Design
The present study was a 1-year, double-blind, randomized,
placebo-controlled, fixed-dose intervention pilot trial conducted
at Chung Shan Medical University in patients with mild AD.
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review
Board of Chung Shan Medical University and registered with
ClinicalTrials.gov under the number NCT04065061. This study
comprised of a 3-week no-drug screening period, followed
by a 49-week double-blind treatment period with 2-parallel
groups in which eligible patients were randomized to either
three 350 mg/capsules containing 5 mg/g erinacine A per
day or identical appearing placebo capsules with meals. This
dose was chosen according to a previous study design (Li
et al., 2019) and converted to human dose as specified by
FDA guidelines (FDA, 2005). Cognitive assessments, ophthalmic
examinations, biomarker collection, and neuroimaging were
followed throughout the study period. Written informed consent
from all patients or their legal representatives was obtained before
their enrollment.
Participants, Randomization, and
Blinding
The inclusion criteria for enrollment included patients with
age >50 years and diagnosis of probable AD according to
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(fourth edition, DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association,
2013) and National Institute of Neurological and Communicative
Disorders and Stroke–Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders
Association (Mckhann et al., 1984) criteria. The exclusion criteria
included patients with severe somatic or psychiatric comorbidity
as they may significantly impair cooperation with the study. Once
a participant met the study’s eligibility criteria, a baseline visit was
planned, and thorough somatic and neurological examinations
were carried out.
Following the baseline assessments, participants were
randomly assigned to receive either the placebo or three EAHE
mycelia capsules per day according to a randomization list
produced by a computerized random-number generator. Except
for two trial-independent statisticians that were unmasked, all
patients, caregivers, raters, and investigators were blinded to the
interventions until the database was finalized. The schedule of
trial enrollment, interventions, and assessments according to the
Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional
Trials (SPIRIT) Statement (Chan et al., 2013) is presented
in Figure 1.
Efficacy and Safety Parameters
All participants received either three EAHE mycelia capsules
per day or placebo for 49 weeks and were assessed by a
rater at 0, 13, 25, and 49 weeks after commencing the
treatment. The efficacy of EAHE mycelia was determined by
the mean change from baseline to the final analysis and was
evaluated by a comprehensive battery, which included cognitive
assessments, ophthalmic examinations, biomarker collection,
and neuroimaging.
The cognitive assessments were performed at baseline, week
13, week 25, and week 49. Reference measures for cognition
included the Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI) (Cummings et al.,
1994), Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI) (Teng
et al., 1994), Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) (Folstein
et al., 1975), and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL)
(Nygard, 2003). These standard tests are used extensively in both
clinical practice and research to measure treatment effects in
patients with mild to moderate dementia.
A complete ophthalmologic examination including the
measurement of best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and
contrast sensitivity (CS) was conducted at baseline, week 25, and
week 49. Monocular and binocular best-corrected distant visual
acuity were determined using a standard clinical Snellen eye chart
at a 5-meter distance from the chart. The contrast sensitivity
test was performed with a standard Pelli-Robson chart under the
same conditions for all the patients.
Blood biomarkers were collected at baseline, week 25, and
week 49. After overnight fasting, blood samples from each patient
were drawn through 22-gauge needles and transferred into either
ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid-potassium (EDTA-K2) tubes
for hematological analysis or stored in tubes without anti-
coagulants for biochemical analysis. For hematological analysis,
homocysteine (Hcy) and hemoglobin (Hb) were measured
using an automated hematology analyzer (Gen-STM, Beckman
Coulter, Inc., United States) while the serum biochemistry
parameters including albumin and calcium were performed
using an automated biochemistry analyzer (LXR
-20, Beckman
Coulter, Inc., United States). Quantitative determination of
other blood biomarkers such as alpha1-antichymotrypsin
(α-ACT; ab171574, Abcam, United Kingdom), amyloid-
beta peptide 1–40 (β-amyloid; CEA864Hu, Wuhan USCN
Business Co., Ltd., China), apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4; K4699,
BioVision Inc., United States), dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate
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FIGURE 1 | Schedule of enrollment, interventions and assessments (SPIRIT Figure).
(DHEAS; ab108669, Abcam, United Kingdom), brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF; KA0329, Abnova, Taiwan),
and superoxide dismutase (SOD; #19160, Sigma-Aldrich,
United States) were measured using commercially available
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits.
Neuroimaging such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
assessment was performed before and after the intervention
period. All subjects had brain imaging using diffusion tensor
imaging (DTI) through a Siemens Magnetom Skyra three-
tesla (3T) scanner. Diffusion datasets were collected with the
following parameters: repetition time (TR) = 4800 ms, echo
time (TE) = 97 ms, field of view (FOV) = 25 cm, image
matrix = 128 ×128, slice number = 35, thickness = 4 mm,
flip angle = 90◦, 4 b-values = 0, 1000, 1500, 2000 s/mm2,
diffusion direction = 64, and bandwidth = 1562 Hz/pixel. The
fiber number, the fractional anisotropy (FA), and the apparent
diffusion coefficient (ADC) from the arcuate fasciculus (ARC),
parahippocampal cingulum (PHC), inferior fronto-occipital
fasciculus (IFOF), and uncinate fasciculus (UNC) regions in
the dominant and non-dominant hemispheres were determined
based on the diffusion tensor analyzed through using the
specialized software nordicICE v4.0.2.
Safety was evaluated by monitoring adverse events according
to the Food and Drug Administration regulations (Behrman
Sherman et al., 2011). Moreover, adverse event reporting was
also reviewed by an independent safety monitoring committee
systematically throughout the study.
Sample Size and Statistical Analysis
Considering this study is a pilot study to assess the cognitive
efficacy of EAHE mycelia in patients with mild AD and the
feasibility of a further larger clinical trial, a total of at least 60
people were recruited based on a simulation study to maintain
adequate power while keeping the overall sample size of the
pilot and main trial together to a minimum (Teare et al., 2014).
Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software (version
18). Data are presented as means ±standard deviation (SD). The
Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare the data between
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FIGURE 2 | CONSORT diagram.
the two study groups while the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was
used to compare variables before and after the intervention. The
statistically significant value was set at p<0.05.
RESULTS
Participants
A total of 68 participants who had been diagnosed with mild AD
were recruited in this study. Participants were randomly assigned
to either the EAHE intervention group or the placebo control
group. Of the 68 patients who participated in the surveillance, 19
declined to participate due to personal reasons (n= 5) and non-
compliance (n= 14). Forty-nine participants were randomized,
of whom seven subjects withdrew consent and one subject lost
to follow-up. In the end, 41 subjects completed the study, and the
data from 17 male and 24 female study participants were analyzed
(Figure 2). Demographic and baseline characteristics are shown
in Table 1. There were no statistical differences between the
EAHE group and the placebo group in gender, age, and education
characteristics at baseline.
Cognitive Assessments
The NPI, CASI, MMSE, and IADL tests were performed
at baseline, after weeks 13, weeks 25, and weeks 49 of
supplementation with EAHE. The means scores of each
parameter in the EAHE and placebo group are presented in
Table 2. For the NPI test, the mean NPI scores at all time-points
TABLE 1 | Participant demographics.
Variables EAHE group
(n= 20)
Placebo
group (n= 21)
p-Value
Gender (male/female) 6/14 11/10 –
Age (years) 74.3 ±7.15 77.05 ±8.2 0.261
Education (years) 6.35 ±4.74 6 ±5.36 0.826
Values are given as mean ±SD.
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Li et al. Prevention of Early AD by EAHE
decreased in both the EAHE and placebo groups compared to
the baseline. Although subjects who received EAHE has a lower
mean NPI score than the placebo group at week 49 (0.67 ±1.15
vs. 2.25 ±3.3), the comparison to baseline values showed no
significant difference in both groups (p= 0.077 and 0.163,
respectively). Moreover, when compared to the baseline values
and different time points of CASI scores, subjects in the EAHE
group showed an increasing trend with marginal significance
(71.75 ±17.12 to 75.35 ±15.86; p= 0.058) whereas the subjects
in the placebo group showed a decreasing trend from the baseline
to 49 weeks (73.52 ±14.51 to 69.67 ±16.62; p= 0.064).
However, there was no significance in relation to the intra-group
and inter-group CASI analysis except for the difference between
the baseline and week 25 of the placebo group (p= 0.043).
Furthermore, MMSE scores significantly increased (21.75 ±6.1
to 23.2 ±5.92; p= 0.035) in the EAHE group from the baseline
to week 49 whereas the comparison of all time-points showed
no significant change in the placebo group. Nevertheless, all the
pairwise comparisons of the MMSE test were not statistically
significant (p>0.05). Finally, for the IADL test, no baseline
differences between the EAHE and placebo groups at any time
points were observed except for the pairwise comparison at week
49 which was statistically significant (6.7 ±2.47 vs. 5 ±2.7;
p= 0.012, respectively).
Ophthalmologic Examination
Table 3 summarizes the ophthalmologic examination for the
EAHE and placebo groups after 25 and 49 weeks of intervention.
The analysis of BCVA in OD (right eye), OS (left eye), and
OU (both eyes) of the EAHE and placebo groups showed no
difference from their baselines to the end of the study. Although
significant baseline differences in BCVA of OD, OS, and OU were
found between the groups, these differences remained unchanged
throughout the study period except for BCVA OS at week 25
(p= 0.101). Meanwhile, subjects with EAHE treatment showed
improvements in the mean monocular CS (OD: 0.84 ±0.19 to
0.90 ±0.08; OS: 0.83 ±0.2 to 0.86 ±0.13) and binocular CS
(OU: 0.88 ±0.15 to 0.89 ±0.11) values following 49 weeks
of intervention whereas the placebo group showed an upward
trend in the CS OD (0.72 ±0.32 to 0.77 ±0.27), a downward
trend in the CS OS (0.83 ±0.18 to 0.78 ±0.17), and remained
unchanged (0.85 ±0.19 to 0.85 ±0.08) in the CS OU at the end of
the study. Nevertheless, all these groups did not reach statistical
significance except for the changes in CS OU from baseline to
49 weeks in the placebo group (0.85 ±0.19 to 0.85 ±0.08;
p= 0.033) and differences of CS OS at week 49 between treatment
groups (p= 0.046).
Blood Biomarker Assessments
With further analysis of the blood biomarkers over the 49-
week study period within the groups (Table 4), significant
improvements of Hcy at week 25 and 49 (p= 0.007 and p= 0.012,
respectively) were observed in the EAHE group while significant
negative effects in calcium at week 25 (p= 0.004), albumin at week
49 (p= 0.004), Hb at week 25 and 49 (p= 0.003 and p= 0.009,
respectively), and BDNF at week 25 (p= 0.012) were noted
in the placebo group. Moreover, although both groups showed
significant decreases in SOD and APOE4 as well as significant
increases in α-ACT and β-amyloid (p<0.05), APOE4, α-ACT,
and β-amyloid had an improving trend in the EAHE group than
the placebo group at week 49. No significant difference, however,
was observed for all other parameters.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Assessments
The total fiber number, FA, and ADC values from the ARC,
PHC, IFOF, and UNC regions in the dominant and non-
dominant hemispheres of the EAHE and control group are listed
in Table 5. After 49 weeks of EAHE intervention, the total
fibers were significantly less decreased than those in the placebo
group. Nevertheless, they did not reach statistical significance
between groups (p= 0.715). In addition, compared to their
baselines, the mean ADC values from the ARC region in the
dominant hemisphere significantly increased in the placebo
group while the ADC values from the PHC region in the
dominant hemisphere significantly decreased in the EAHE group
at week 49. No statistically significant differences were found in
other parameters.
Adverse Events
During the study, 1 subject lost to follow-up while 7 subjects
(7/49; 14.3%) left the study. Reasons for dropout that have been
investigated include unsatisfactory efficacy (2 from EAHE group
and 1 from the placebo group) and the presence of side effects
(3 from EAHE group and 1 from the placebo group). Possible or
probable side effects related to the intervention included nausea
in the placebo group and abdominal discomfort, nausea, and skin
rash in the EAHE group.
DISCUSSION
Diet is an important modifiable risk factor for AD (Sindi et al.,
2018) as it is able to modulate structural brain connectivity
(Park et al., 2018), cause positive changes in brain function
and behavior (Bolton and Bilbo, 2014), as well as help regulate
cognition and emotion (Spencer et al., 2017). As benefits of
EAHE associated with brain and nerve health have been well-
studied (Li et al., 2018b), this is the first study to endorse its
potential in mitigating neurodegenerative disorders. Based on
the results of this pilot, randomized, double-blinded, controlled
study, subjects with mild AD showed a significant benefit in
reducing cognitive decline and improving contrast sensitivity
after oral administration of three 5 mg/g EAHE mycelia capsules
per day for 49 weeks when compared with placebo.
In this study, through random allocation, the baseline
demographic information including age, gender, and education
level between EAHE and placebo groups showed no significant
differences before the intervention. Nevertheless, after the
intervention, a significant deterioration in CASI from baseline
to week 25 was noted in the placebo group, a significant
improvement in MMSE from baseline to week 49 was observed
in the EAHE group, and a significant IADL difference at week
49 were found between the two groups. Higher CASI and
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TABLE 2 | Comparison of cognitive assessments between EAHE and placebo groups.
EAHE group (n= 20) Placebo group (n= 21)
Variables Value Intragroup p-value Value Intragroup p-value Intergroup p-value
NPI
Baseline 4.21 ±6.62 – 3 ±5.2 – 0.696
Week 13 0 ±0 0.306 1.33 ±1.53 0.812 0.259
Week 25 1.5±2.12 0.439 1.33 ±2.31 0.087 0.989
Week 49 0.67 ±1.15 0.077 2.25 ±3.3 0.163 0.129
CASI
Baseline 71.75 ±17.12 – 73.52 ±14.51 – 0.804
Week 13 72.74 ±15.83 0.246 70.71 ±19.3 0.13 0.881
Week 25 73.8±17.15 0.313 69.62 ±16.07 0.043*0.368
Week 49 75.35 ±15.86 0.058 69.67 ±16.62 0.064 0.315
MMSE
Baseline 21.75 ±6.1 – 21.33 ±5.74 – 0.629
Week 13 22.58 ±5.6 0.065 20.95 ±6.47 0.616 0.4
Week 25 22.55 ±6.24 0.23 21.05 ±5.5 0.686 0.353
Week 49 23.2±5.92 0.035*20.67 ±6.17 0.661 0.261
IADL
Baseline 6.35 ±2.81 – 5.71 ±2.65 – 0.25
Week 13 6.37 ±2.31 1 6 ±2.07 0.484 0.423
Week 25 6.45 ±2.58 0.705 5.57 ±2.29 0.634 0.11
Week 49 6.7±2.47 0.157 5 ±2.7 0.075 0.012*
Values are given as mean ±SD. NPI = Neuropsychiatric Inventory; CASI = Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument; MMSE = Mini mental state Examination;
IADL = Instrumental Activities of Daily Living. *p<0.05.
MMSE scores represent better cognition, and higher IADL
scores represent a lower level of dependence (Chiu et al., 2016).
Although there were no significant differences in CASI and
MMSE between the EAHE and placebo groups, the scores were
higher in the EAHE group compared to those in the placebo
group for participants with mild AD, implying that subjects could
achieve more benefits from the intervention.
To date, human studies on H. erinaceus are scarce. Only three
trials were found to examine the efficacy of oral administration
of H. erinacues for improving brain pathology. In one double-
blind placebo-controlled study, 50- to 80-year-old Japanese
men and women (n= 30) diagnosed with mild cognitive
impairment showed marked improvement in cognitive function
when compared to controls, using a cognitive function scale
based on the revised Hasegawa Dementia Scale and following
the effects of oral intake of four 250 mg tablets containing
96% of H. erinaceus fruiting body dry powder three times a
day for 16 weeks (Mori et al., 2009). In another randomized,
double-blind placebo-controlled study, administration of 0.5 g
H. erinaceus fruiting body in cookies over 4 weeks showed
a reduction in anxiety and depression in menopausal women
(n= 30) compared to those taking placebo, as measured by
the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale and
Indefinite Complaints Index (Nagano et al., 2010). In the
third randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled parallel-
group comparative study, the consumption of cookies containing
0.8 g of H. erinaceus fruiting body dry powder alleviated the
deterioration of short memories and improved the cognitive
functions in 31 participants with an average age of 61.3 years
old over the period of 12 weeks, as measured by MMSE
(Saitsu et al., 2019). Prior studies have reported that NGF
could enhance neurogenesis-inducing effects, which led to
antidepressant and antianxiety activities (Shohayeb et al., 2018).
Although hericenones C and D from the fruiting body of
H. erinaceus have shown to induce neuroprotective properties
(Kawagishi et al., 1991) in rats by stimulating NGF synthesis
via activation of the c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway,
they failed to promote NGF gene expression in 1321N1 human
astrocytoma cells (Mori et al., 2008). This result suggested that
H. erinaceus fruiting body may contains other active compounds
and/or hericenones that can potentially improve mild cognitive
impairment as well as reduce depression and anxiety.
On the contrary, erinacines isolated from the mycelium of
the mushroom are able to pass through the brain-blood barrier
into the brain (Hu et al., 2019) to promote NGF synthesis
in vivo (Shimbo et al., 2005). During normal physiological
conditions, NGF is released by the postsynaptic cortical and
hippocampal neurons to activate further signaling cascades that
include cell survival, maintenance, and proliferation (Biane et al.,
2014). However, NGF has been found to be reduced during
the pathological conditions of AD, resulting in induced loss
of cortical synapses and atrophy of cholinergic neurons in the
basal forebrain (Iulita and Cuello, 2014). Moreover, analyzing
AD11 anti-NGF transgenic mice that express NGF antibodies
in the brain, it was observed that NGF deprivation leads to
early inflammation and Alzheimer’s neurodegeneration (Capsoni
et al., 2011). In this regard, as erinacine A has been proven
to promote NGF synthesis in vivo, it may contribute to the
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TABLE 3 | Comparison of ophthalmologic examination between EAHE and placebo groups.
EAHE group (n= 20) Placebo group (n= 21)
Variables Value Intragroup p-value Value Intragroup p-value Intergroup p-value
BCVA OD
Baseline 0.83 ±0.24 – 0.59 ±0.33 – 0.013*
Week 25 0.8±0.27 0.552 0.59 ±0.33 0.814 0.026*
Week 49 0.83 ±0.2 0.545 0.57 ±0.28 0.258 0.005*
BCVA OS
Baseline 0.82 ±0.25 – 0.63 ±0.27 – 0.024*
Week 25 0.77 ±0.27 0.153 0.67 ±0.23 0.633 0.101
Week 49 0.82 ±0.24 0.824 0.64 ±0.23 0.201 0.025*
BCVA OU
Baseline 0.9±0.22 – 0.75 ±0.23 – 0.017*
Week 25 0.89 ±0.26 0.923 0.74 ±0.21 0.472 0.027*
Week 49 0.88 ±0.22 0.948 0.69 ±0.2 0.104 0.005*
CS OD
Baseline 0.84 ±0.19 – 0.72 ±0.32 – 0.249
Week 25 0.86 ±0.19 0.257 0.75 ±0.29 0.187 0.212
Week 49 0.9±0.08 0.257 0.77 ±0.27 0.582 0.089
CS OS
Baseline 0.83 ±0.2 – 0.83 ±0.18 – 0.323
Week 25 0.82 ±0.25 0.85 0.82 ±0.11 0.227 0.155
Week 49 0.86 ±0.13 0.606 0.78 ±0.17 0.13 0.046*
CS OU
Baseline 0.88 ±0.15 – 0.85 ±0.19 – 0.28
Week 25 0.88 ±0.2 0.739 0.86 ±0.09 0.405 0.069
Week 49 0.89 ±0.11 0.68 0.85 ±0.08 0.033*0.056
Values are given as mean ±SD. BCVA = best-corrected visual acuity; CS = contrast sensitivity; OD = oculus dexter; OS = oculus sinister; OU = oculus uterque. ∗p<0.05.
survival and regeneration of cholinergic neurons as well as
revive cholinergic signaling in the cortex and hippocampus,
thereby improving the cognitive ability in subjects with mild
AD. However, the precise mechanism of its action needs
further investigation.
Not only could NGF markedly protect degenerating neurons
in the brain, studies have also shown that NGF administration
could modulate the development and differentiation of the retina
and the optic nerve, as well as promote the survival and recovery
of retinal ganglion cells (Aloe et al., 2012). To our knowledge,
this is the first study to examine the efficacy of EAHE on
visual acuity and contrast sensitivity. No significant differences
were observed in the ophthalmologic examination in this study
except for a higher CS OS at week 49 after EAHE treatment.
This finding of EAHE as a NGF stimulator in improving
CS but not VA in subjects with mild AD is consistent with
previous studies. They have found that contrast sensitivity was
significantly reduced in patients with AD compared to elderly
control subjects while no significant difference in visual acuity
were found between the patients with AD and control subjects
(Crow et al., 2003) suggesting that EAHE targeting astrocytes
only responded to an injury or damaged area by maintaining
neurogenesis as a mechanism of repair (Poulose et al., 2017).
Future studies, however, are required to further explore this
possible mechanism.
With EAHE consumption, it is important to note that an
altered diet or a multiplicity of environmental changes could
change the blood proteome as well as ions (Te Pas et al.,
2013). In different studies, EAHE treatment was accompanied
by improvements in blood biomarkers in subjects with mild
AD. Biomarkers monitoring based on biochemical analysis
of blood during or after the intervention period could
offer considerable promise for improving the treatment of
AD (Cummings et al., 2019). Recent studies have identified
a biomarker panel that included blood-based markers that
significantly increased alpha-1-Antichymotrypsin, β-amyloid,
superoxide dismutase, and homocysteine levels as well as
decreased calcium, albumin, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate,
apolipoprotein E, hemoglobin, and BDNF levels in AD (Dekosky
et al., 2003;Laske et al., 2011;Doecke et al., 2012;Ng et al.,
2019;Pan et al., 2019). Consistent with the current study,
biomarkers such as calcium, albumin, APOE4, Hb, and BDNF
were significantly lowered while α-ACT and β- amyloid were
significantly elevated during the study period in the placebo
group. However, there were no significant changes in calcium,
albumin, Hb, and BDNF compared to the baseline and a
trend toward improving SOD, APOE4, and α-ACT levels
were observed in the EAHE group, indicating that EAHE
may have possible effects in arresting or delaying further
neurodegenerative processes.
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TABLE 4 | Comparison of blood biomarkers between EAHE and placebo groups.
EAHE group (n= 20) Placebo group (n= 21)
Variables Value Intragroup p-value Value Intragroup p-value Intergroup p-value
Calcium
Baseline 9.15 ±0.29 – 9.23 ±0.33 – 0.407
Week 25 9.05 ±0.34 0.406 9.06 ±0.4 0.004*0.743
Week 49 9.08 ±0.2 0.238 9.12 ±0.47 0.23 0.545
Albumin
Baseline 4.62 ±0.29 – 4.35 ±0.23 – 0.297
Week 25 4.35 ±0.24 0.336 4.28 ±0.31 0.387 0.503
Week 49 4.28 ±0.26 0.657 4.14 ±0.22 0.004*0.136
Hb
Baseline 13.35 ±1.93 – 13.82 ±1.55 – 0.251
Week 25 13.04 ±1.6 0.102 12.73 ±3.27 0.003*0.411
Week 49 13.29 ±1.58 0.822 13.4±1.69 0.009*0.611
Hcy
Baseline 11.44 ±4.52 – 11.39 ±4.6 – 1
Week 25 9.23 ±2.96 0.007*10.11 ±3.57 0.099 0.449
Week 49 9.42 ±3.05 0.012*11.85 ±6.56 0.794 0.225
SOD
Baseline 66.94 ±10.43 – 62.39 ±11 – 0.411
Week 25 66.63 ±13.89 0.737 65.52 ±13.98 0.274 0.917
Week 49 48.39 ±19.28 0.001*52.1±17.76 0.021*0.715
BDNF
Baseline 16817.78 ±7269.27 – 14146.35 ±5248.59 – 0.235
Week 25 14790.69 ±13578.16 0.117 9725.25 ±6780.67 0.012*0.335
Week 49 17943.1±7356.27 0.654 13793.27 ±5545.83 0.821 0.068
DHEAS
Baseline 1.45 ±1 – 1.11 ±0.99 – 0.211
Week 25 1.45 ±0.97 0.627 1.08 ±0.76 0.59 0.211
Week 49 0.91 ±1.07 0.167 0.87 ±0.82 0.689 0.465
α-ACT
Baseline 201499.24 ±183201.7 – 205721.68 ±186042.47 – 0.766
Week 25 5438979.8±5500347 0.001*4130525.7±4307187.3 <0.001*0.584
Week 49 367337.35 ±263536.7 0.019*426465.17 ±267768.25 0.017*0.175
APOE4
Baseline 141.45 ±137.36 – 144.47 ±230.67 – 0.167
Week 25 33.52 ±28.7 0.01*29.81 ±29.63 0.073 0.549
Week 49 30.19 ±35.04 0.001*20.52 ±20.01 <0.001*0.511
β-amyloid
Baseline 125.47 ±86.34 – 104.11 ±73.49 – 0.404
Week 25 156.24 ±94.38 0.086 124.59 ±74.04 0.244 0.397
Week 49 313.32 ±122.45 0.015*317.77 ±124.98 0.001*0.531
Values are given as mean ±SD. Hb = hemoglobin; Hcy = homocysteine; SOD = superoxide dismutase; BDNF = brain-derived neurotrophic factor;
DHEAS = dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate; α-ACT = alpha 1-antichymotrypsin; APOE4 = apolipoprotein E4; β-amyloid = amyloid-beta peptide 1–40. *p <0.05.
The effects of EAHE on the rate of neurodegeneration
could also be detected using advanced MRI, such as DTI, to
probe human brain microstructures (Cho et al., 2008). DTI
provides quantitative measures of FA and ADC, which enable the
assessment of the cellular microstructure and fiber tract integrity
in live tissues. Fiber tracts such as PHC and UNC contribute to
learning and memory, and IFOF and AF contribute to language
functioning (Mcdonald et al., 2008). These were evaluated in
each subject to depict their global white matter status. In this
study, although a statistical significance was not found between
the groups, the total fibers of six fiber tracts calculated were
significantly less decreased than those in the placebo group after
EAHE intervention, suggesting that EAHE ameliorates the loss
of fiber numbers by stimulating NGF synthesis and inducing
neurogenesis. Moreover, within the six fiber tracts, the mean
ADC values from the ARC region in the dominant hemisphere
significantly increased in the placebo group while no significant
difference was found in the EAHE group in comparison to their
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TABLE 5 | Comparison of MRI assessments between EAHE and placebo groups.
EAHE group (n= 20) Placebo group (n= 21)
Variables Value Intragroup p-value Value Intragroup p-value Intergroup p-value
Total fibers
Baseline 43523 ±8327.67 – 41463.43 ±8868.05 – 0.44
Week 49 40085.21 ±9124.5 0.001*38512.2±11643.18 0.008*0.715
D.ARC.FA
Baseline 0.45 ±0.03 – 0.43 ±0.03 – 0.05
Week 49 0.45 ±0.03 0.421 0.43 ±0.04 0.205 0.148
N.ARC.FA
Baseline 0.45 ±0.03 – 0.45 ±0.03 – 0.86
Week 49 0.46 ±0.02 0.144 0.46 ±0.03 0.469 0.704
D.PHC.FA
Baseline 0.39 ±0.02 – 0.4±0.03 –
Week 49 0.4±0.02 0.609 0.4±0.03 0.756
N.PHC.FA
Baseline 0.38 ±0.03 – 0.36 ±0.1 – 0.797
Week 49 0.4±0.03 0.266 0.38 ±0.03 0.861 0.272
D.IFOF.FA
Baseline 0.47 ±0.02 – 0.44 ±0.03 – 0.024*
Week 49 0.47 ±0.02 0.879 0.44 ±0.05 0.513 0.014*
N.IFOF.FA
Baseline 0.46 ±0.03 – 0.43 ±0.03 – 0.011*
Week 49 0.46 ±0.03 0.276 0.43 ±0.04 0.095 0.006*
D.UNC.FA
Baseline 0.41 ±0.03 – 0.4±0.03 – 0.704
Week 49 0.4±0.04 0.463 0.4±0.04 0.828 0.483
N.UNC.FA
Baseline 0.4±0.03 – 0.4±0.03 – 0.955
Week 49 0.4±0.03 0.421 0.4±0.03 0.962 0.493
D.ARC.ADC
Baseline 103.63 ±6.59 – 106.18 ±7.52 – 0.233
Week 49 104.29 ±8.84 0.711 109.02 ±10.63 0.033*0.105
N.ARC.ADC
Baseline 103.44 ±8.65 – 106.66 ±8.8 – 0.101
Week 49 103.85 ±11.09 0.372 106.56 ±10.44 0.365 0.112
D.PHC.ADC
Baseline 125.51 ±9.66 – 127.98 ±12.15 – 0.32
Week 49 123.12 ±7.68 0.03*123.82 ±7.82 0.446 0.8
N.PHC.ADC
Baseline 126.43 ±8.8 – 116.56 ±32.15 – 0.406
Week 49 120.39 ±3.74 0.05 124.43 ±7.6 0.6 0.097
D.IFOF.ADC
Baseline 116.76 ±7.87 – 121.56 ±7.97 – 0.17
Week 49 118.02 ±7.72 0.36 121.82 ±9.75 0.748 0.226
N.IFOF.ADC
Baseline 117.71 ±7.16 – 122.23 ±9.8 – 0.239
Week 49 118.08 ±7.23 0.744 120.33 ±8.19 0.171 0.405
D.UNC.ADC
Baseline 117.06 ±3.93 – 119.19 ±8.82 – 0.579
Week 49 119.57 ±7.68 0.469 119.06 ±5.96 0.741 0.849
N.UNC.ADC
Baseline 117.82 ±5.57 – 119.48 ±8.72 – 0.933
Week 49 117.58 ±5.89 0.307 120.05 ±7.61 0.276 0.511
Values are given as mean ±SD. D = dominant; N = Non-dominant; ARC = arcuate fasciculus; PHC = parahippocampal cingulum; IFOF = inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus;
UNC = uncinate fasciculus; FA = Fractional Anisotropy; ADC = apparent diffusion coefficient. *p <0.05.
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Li et al. Prevention of Early AD by EAHE
baselines, implying that there was a greater disorganization in
the neural structure observed in the placebo group. Moreover,
ADC values from the PHC region in the dominant hemisphere
significantly decreased in the EAHE group whereas no significant
difference was found in the placebo group when compared to
their baselines, indicating that there was a more well-organized
neural structure noted in the EAHE group. These results tie
well with a previous study wherein the ADC values increased
in the ARC and PHC of patients with mild AD when compared
with a control group (Mayo et al., 2019), signifying that EAHE
could improve structural deterioration of ARC and PHC in
patients with mild AD.
Lastly, despite four subjects who dropped out during the
study period due to reported adverse events such as abdominal
discomfort, nausea, and skin rash, no other adverse event were
reported. The overall incidence was 8.2% during the entire 49-
weeks. However, due to the increasing trend in clinical practice to
treat elderly patients with multiple medications (Poleksic and Xie,
2019), it remains a challenge to identify if these adverse events
were caused by EAHE consumption. Yet, reports on genotoxicity
(Li et al., 2014a), acute toxicity (Li et al., 2018a), 28 days
subchronic toxicity (Li et al., 2014b) 90 days subchronic toxicity
(Lee et al., 2019) and teratotoxicity (Li et al., 2018a) have been
conducted in animals and showed no adverse effects. Moreover,
no adverse events have been reported after the launch of EAHE
products into the Taiwanese market since 2015 (Li et al., 2018b).
Nevertheless, further studies, especially the serum biochemical
and hematological data along with urinalysis values after long-
term consumption in humans, are important to consider.
In comparison to the placebo group, the intake of EAHE
for 49 weeks showed higher CASI, MMSE, and IADL scores
and achieved a better contrast sensitivity in patients with mild
AD. The benefit of EAHE in reducing cognitive decline may
be associated with improved blood biomarkers such as calcium,
albumin, Hb, Hcy, SOD, BDNF, APOE4, and α-ACT, as well as
reduced structural deterioration in the ARC and PHC regions
of patients with mild AD. However, further studies on the
mechanism of action of EAHE at the biochemical and molecular
levels are necessary. In addition, although EAHE is safe and well-
tolerated, a larger study is required to determine the benefits of
EAHE consumption for patients with MCI or mild AD.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All datasets generated for this study are included in the
article/supplementary material.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review
Board of the Chung Shan Medical University and registered
with ClinicalTrials.gov under the number NCT04065061. The
patients/participants provided their written informed consent to
participate in this study.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
I-CL analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. H-HC, C-HL,
and T-HL conceived and performed the experiments. W-PC,
L-YL, Y-WC, and Y-PC provided the reagents. C-CC and DP-CL
provided the expertise and feedback.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Hsin Yun Yang for editing the manuscript.
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Conflict of Interest: Grape King Bio Inc., provided support in the form of salaries
for the authors I-CL, W-PC, L-YL, Y-WC, Y-PC, and research materials, but did
not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis,
decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of
any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential
conflict of interest.
Copyright © 2020 Li, Chang, Lin, Chen, Lu, Lee, Chen, Chen, Chen and Lin. This
is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums
is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited
and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
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