The Relationship Between Student Teachers’ Career Choice Motives and Stress-Inducing Thoughts: A Tentative Cross-Cultural Model

Abstract

The present study compares student teachers’ career choice motives and their relationship with stress-inducing thoughts across five European countries. A previously established factorial structure for career choice motives embedded within self-determination theory was supported. The factors consist of intrinsic motives, such as interest in educational work with children, and extrinsic motives, such as financial security. Furthermore, differences in the importance of these factors in choosing the teaching profession across countries were found. Results further revealed evidence for a link between extrinsic motives and stress-inducing cognitions. Conclusions and implications for teaching practice are discussed.

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https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020927016
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DOI: 10.1177/2158244020927016
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Original Research
Becoming a teacher represents a professional goal many
students in various European and non-European countries
pursue. In numerous countries in Europe, around 10% of all
students complete programs in teacher training and educa-
tion science (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development [OECD], 2016). Due to the popularity of the
profession, researchers have investigated the motives that
lead students to study teaching. Over the decades, this field
of research has revealed insights into motivational and
other personal factors influencing these decisions (Johnson
& Kardos, 2008; Richardson & Watt, 2006, 2016; Zumwalt
& Craig, 2008). As researchers from a growing number of
countries have been involved in this field of research
over the years, international comparisons are on the rise
(Bastick, 2000; Heinz, 2015; Scharfenberg et al., 2018;
Suryani et al., 2016).
However, despite the popularity, teachers across countries
report high job demands and the resulting stress they experi-
ence at work (Dicke et al., 2014; Richards, 2012). Research
investigating this perceived stress among teachers is based on
the assumption that different people perceive specific occupa-
tional requirements inducing stress in differing ways (Lazarus,
1993, 2006). Consequently, studies on factors related to
teacher stress focus on personal characteristics, such as self-
efficacy, and stress-inducing thoughts (Cascio et al., 2014;
Montgomery & Rupp, 2005; Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008).
Stress-inducing thoughts, also called dysfunctional cognitions
in the scientific literature, are particular dysfunctional auto-
matic patterns of thought that effect a person’s behavior and
emotional state in a negative way. Numerous such thoughts
have been investigated, including avoidance of risk or perfec-
tionism (Beck et al., 1979). Thus, it would be relevant to know
more about links between stress-inducing thoughts and the
personal traits of future teachers.
So far, only a few studies have brought career choice
motives and concepts like stress-inducing thoughts together
(Scharfenberg, in press). Investigating relationships between
career choice motives and stress-inducing thoughts, the
goal of the present study, enables more precise insight into
career-decision-making processes and, in consequence,
might help creating (preventive) measures for people with a
specific set of career choice motives. Using cross-country
comparisons for this research topic can reveal additional
reasons and explanations for both career choice motives and
stress-inducing thoughts as country-specific structural con-
ditions and culturally shaped differences can be taken into
927016SGOXXX10.1177/2158244020927016SAGE Open Tillmann et al.
research-article20202020
1Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany
2Zurich University of Teacher Education, Switzerland
3Stockholm University, Sweden
Corresponding Author:
Jonas Scharfenberg, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich,
Leopoldstr. 13, 80802 Munich, Germany.
Email: jonas.scharfenberg@edu.lmu.de
The Relationship Between Student
Teachers’ Career Choice Motives and
Stress-Inducing Thoughts: A Tentative
Cross-Cultural Model
Teresa Tillmann1, Sabine Weiß1, Jonas Scharfenberg1,
Ewald Kiel1, Manuela Keller-Schneider2, and Meeri Hellsten3
Abstract
The present study compares student teachers’ career choice motives and their relationship with stress-inducing thoughts
across five European countries. A previously established factorial structure for career choice motives embedded within
self-determination theory was supported. The factors consist of intrinsic motives, such as interest in educational work with
children, and extrinsic motives, such as financial security. Furthermore, differences in the importance of these factors in
choosing the teaching profession across countries were found. Results further revealed evidence for a link between extrinsic
motives and stress-inducing cognitions. Conclusions and implications for teaching practice are discussed.
Keywords
career choice motives, self-determination theory, dysfunctional cognitions, international comparison, cluster analysis

2 SAGE Open
account as a rationale. By studying one country only, there
is no way to decide whether observed effects are induced by
certain conditions within this country or whether they are an
issue across countries. Considering more countries, espe-
cially those differing in structural conditions and cultural
contexts, allows conclusions on the interplay of motivation
and stress-inducing thoughts in a certain framework.
Following this goal, we first compare the career choice
motives of future teachers from five European countries
(Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Romania, and Ukraine).
These countries were selected because they differ signifi-
cantly with regard to teachers’ working conditions and cul-
tural backgrounds. This applies, for example, for the salaries
teachers earn, working conditions, teacher–student ratio, and
workload (Eurydice, 2013, 2016; OECD, 2005). In a second
step, we analyze how these motives are related to stress-
inducing thoughts to gain insight into the interplay of motives
and such thoughts. In the following, we discuss the impor-
tance of structural conditions and cultural backgrounds.
Existing Research on Career Choice
Motives and Stress-Inducing Thoughts
Theoretical Considerations and Research on
Career Choice Motives
Career choice motives can be defined as career-related
thought processes that cause a person to act in a specific way
(Richardson & Watt, 2006, 2016; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Drawing on general theories of motivation (e.g., Atkinson,
1964; McClelland, 1961), the field of work and organiza-
tional psychology has developed a broad range of theoretical
models that describe career development and career choice
either as a dynamic process (e.g., theory of circumscription
and compromise, Gottfredson, 2005) or as a singular deci-
sion based on personal traits (e.g., theory of vocational
personalities and work environments, Holland, 1997):
In many ways, the career development process and the
literature devoted to its understanding resemble a giant jigsaw
puzzle. [. . .] The greatest challenge, as with all jigsaw puzzles,
lies in fitting the many different pieces together to form a
coherent picture. (Lent, 2005, p. 101)
When it comes to the career choice motives of teachers,
this coherent picture consists of a range of career choice
motives that tend to recur in studies done within different
countries, with differing methodologies, and with different
instruments (Scharfenberg, in press). Although the research
landscape is very heterogeneous and only a few instruments
have been used more than once (Richardson & Watt, 2016;
Scharfenberg, 2018), Heinz (2015) and Rothland (2014)
describe that many studies find comparable motives that
include, among others, child-centered motives, like the joy
of “working with children”; subject-centered motives, like
the “interest in their subject”; altruistic reasons, like “to con-
tribute to society”; and extrinsic reasons, like “job security,
hours, pay, status,” the idea of teaching as a “fallback career,”
and a significant “influence of family members” (all Heinz,
2015, p. 265 f.).
There are various ideas about how to group the revealed
motivational factors based on a number of theoretical mod-
els. Expectancy-value theory, one such theoretical model,
assumes that choices are dependent on values and expec-
tancies. Within this framework, career choice is seen as the
result of an assessment that takes both the value of expected
outcomes and the probability to achieve these outcomes
into consideration (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Factors
Influencing Teaching Choice (FIT-Choice), the most
renowned expectancy-value-based model for measuring
career choice motives of teachers, considers task demands
and task returns of the occupation; self-perceptions of
(future) teachers; intrinsic values; personal utility values,
like job security; and social utility values, like the social
contribution a teacher can make (Richardson & Watt, 2006,
2016; Watt & Richardson, 2007). Furthermore, it includes
socialization influences and the option to choose teaching
as a fallback career.
A second well-accepted theory of motivation is self-deter-
mination theory, created by Deci and Ryan (2000, 2012).
Within their theory, Deci and Ryan focus on three psycho-
logical needs, autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In
particular, Ryan and Deci (2000) define two types of motiva-
tion: “intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something
because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic
motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads
to a separable outcome” (p. 55). Based on the degree to
which those needs are fulfilled, Ryan and Deci (2000) further
differentiate extrinsic motives, based on the degree of per-
sonal autonomy involved.
Career choice motives of future teachers can be differenti-
ated based on the degree of self-determination and autonomy
involved, too. Many researchers differentiate between intrin-
sic and extrinsic motives (for an overview, see Heinz, 2015).
Whereas intrinsic motives relate directly to work tasks or
work outcomes of teachers (e.g., imparting knowledge),
extrinsic motives see an occupation as instrumental to achieve
external goals like a decent salary or a high job security.
Intrinsic career choice motives that involve high levels of
self-determination and autonomy, and are often named by
student teachers, include imparting knowledge, supporting
children in their development, interest in particular subject
matter, and contributing to society (Heinz, 2015; Liu, 2010;
OECD, 2005; Sinclair, 2008). Sometimes, these (or some of
these) motives are named altruistic as well. However, there is
no consensus regarding the differentiation between intrinsic
and altruistic motives in the field (Bastick, 2000; Kyriacou
et al., 2003; Rinke, 2008). Various findings focus on the dif-
ferences in intrinsic career choice motives and professional
expectations among student teachers for various school types.

Tillmann et al. 3
The results have revealed that elementary school student
teachers report child-centered motives to be more important,
whereas prospective teachers on secondary schools perceive
subject-related factors to have more significant effects on
their career choice (Weiß & Kiel, 2013; Brookhart & Freeman,
1992). Similar patterns can be found when focusing on gen-
der differences (Bruinsma & Jansen, 2010). However, as the
gender of prospective teachers is highly correlated with the
type of school those teachers are going to work at later on,
those two factors can be hard to differentiate: whereas male
teachers tend to work in secondary schools (and, subse-
quently, have a higher focus on subject-centered motives), in
many countries the workforce of primary school teachers is
mainly female (Jungert et al., 2014).
Motivational factors, like financial and occupational
security, the compatibility of profession and family, and
recommendations made by others are often called extrinsic
motivational factors (Richardson & Watt, 2006; Wilhelm
et al., 2000). With regard to self-determination theory, it is
important to consider the different levels of self-determina-
tion within the field of extrinsic motives. In line with the
second research question of the present article, a classifica-
tion of motives and levels of self-determination will be
described in more detail later in the article (see Results sec-
tion and Figure 1). Most results reveal that intrinsic motives,
which involve highly self-determined behavior, are more
important for student teachers than extrinsic motives. Only
a small number of studies show greater significance on the
part of extrinsic motives, such as status and money (Bastick,
2000; Heinz, 2015; Zumwalt & Craig, 2008).
Several studies point to country-specific differences in
the motive patterns of (prospective) teachers (Bastick, 2000;
Heinz, 2015; Kyriacou et al., 2003). Diverging political sys-
tems and administrative frameworks can be particularly
important in this regard, for example differences regarding
teacher salaries, working conditions, teacher-student ratio,
and workload (Eurydice, 2013, 2016; OECD, 2005). Whereas
the salary of teachers in Eastern European countries, like
Ukraine or Romania, is quite low (i.e., a Romanian teacher
earns between US$4,000 and US$11,500 per year; Eurydice,
2017b), it is rather high in Western countries, including
Switzerland and Germany (a German teacher earns between
US$51,000 and US$88,000 per year; Eurydice, 2017a). In
addition, in some countries, such as Germany or Romania,
teachers are governmental employees and cannot be laid off
except for criminal misdemeanor. In comparison, in other
European countries, including Sweden and Switzerland,
teachers can be hired and fired like regular employees.
A third discriminating factor is the regulation of the work-
day. Whereas teachers work 45.50 hr a week during a school
year in Sweden, German and Romanian teachers for the most
part have only to be in school to teach and can arrange some
parts of their remaining work time rather flexible (i.e., 16–24
lessons per week in Romania, accounting for a nominal
workload of 40 hr a week; Eurydice, 2017a, 2017b, 2017c,
2017d). However, qualitative parameters of the teaching pro-
fession, such as social status and reputation, are harder to
compare. Although research findings are ambiguous, the job
reputation of teachers seems to be a major issue in many
countries (see Bertilsson, 2014, for Sweden; see Institut für
Demoskopie Allensbach, 2013, for Germany). Finding a
sample of countries that would represent this heterogeneity
of characteristics within the teaching profession was one of
the goals of this study.
Figure 1. Career choice motives mapped onto the concept of self-determination by Deci and Ryan (2000).

4 SAGE Open
Although the teaching profession seems to be an attrac-
tive course of study, teachers from different countries repeat-
edly state difficult job demands and the resulting stress they
experience at work (Admiraal et al., 2000; Dicke et al., 2014;
Johnson & Birkeland, 2003; Kittel & Leynen, 2003;
Richards, 2012). In addition to differences in the workplace,
other factors, particularly related to teachers’ personality, are
responsible for the problem of teacher ill-health and early
retirement. One frequently investigated factor, particularly in
line with the onset of depression, are stress-inducing thoughts
(Brown & Beck, 2002). Although first research findings sug-
gest a relationship between motivation and stress-inducing
thoughts, studies on the relationship between career choice
motives and stress-inducing thoughts are still scarce (Baker,
2004; Moneta & Spada, 2009). In the following paragraph,
existing research on stress-inducing thoughts and teacher
health is introduced, which will subsequently lead to the
present study’s research goals and analyses.
Existing Research on Teacher Stress and Stress-
Inducing Thoughts
Within the last decades, a field of research concerning fac-
tors related to perceived stress has developed, and various
findings have been published with regard to teachers. In
addition to certain personality characteristics that are gener-
ally positively related to stress and psychological ill-health,
such as neuroticism and social introversion (Mohiyeddini
et al., 2015; Schneider, 2004; Uliaszek et al., 2010), coping
strategies (Admiraal et al., 2000; Chan, 1998; Hillert et al.,
2014) and self-efficacy (Cascio et al., 2014; Schwarzer &
Hallum, 2008) are important resources. This list of personal
characteristics has been broadened by and empirically sup-
ported with conceptualizations of stress-inducing thoughts
(for a meta-analysis investigating a number of variables,
see also Montgomery & Rupp, 2005). Those are defined as
“pervasive and systematic negative bias in information pro-
cessing” (Brown & Beck, 2002, p. 232) and include a wide
range of thought patterns, ranging from dependency and risk
avoidance to perfectionism (Beck et al., 1979).
Significant relationships between stress-inducing thoughts
and mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety dis-
orders, traumas, and higher levels of perceived stress have
been found (Hinds et al., 2015; Karekla & Panayiotou, 2011;
Norberg et al., 2007). In one study, for example, people with
high levels of dependency were more prone to the develop-
ment of physical illnesses (Bornstein, 1995). Furthermore,
automatic thoughts about avoiding social support have been
interpreted as harmful to a person’s health because social sup-
port has been proven to encourage appropriate reactions to
stress (Burke et al., 1996). With regard to stress-inducing
thoughts, various researchers in the German-speaking area
have validated different scales measuring a number of stress-
inducing thoughts. Among others, Trageser has validated a
set of more generally worded items that are fit for the use with
teachers (Kiel et al., 2016; Trageser, 2010).
The analysis of a possible connection between automatic
thought processes and career choice motives is assumed as
an approach that could reveal important additional insights.
There are two reasons that support the importance of this
approach: first, it is assumed that those thoughts hinder peo-
ples’ ability to react to stressful situations in a favorable way.
At the same time, these thoughts make it difficult for people
to access and make use of their resources (Beck et al., 1979).
Thus, considering such thoughts is an essential part of
research on teacher health.
Second, there is first evidence relating stress-inducing
thoughts to career choice motives. Specifically, intrinsic
motives are related to a lower level of perceived stress (Baker,
2004), whereas extrinsic motives are related to avoidance
coping behaviors (Moneta & Spada, 2009) and depression in
the workplace (Lu, 1999). This has been investigated using
various samples, showing the association between extrinsic
motives and inappropriate work-related coping behaviors
(Baker, 2004; Reichl et al., 2014). Furthermore, this is in line
with the established relationship between self-determination
and psychological well-being, as suggested by Deci and Ryan
(2000, 2012), who claim that high levels of self-determina-
tion, which are related to intrinsic motivational factors, can
predict subjective well-being (Olesen et al., 2015).
Research Questions
As described above, the motivational factors responsible for
choosing a particular course of study or profession are com-
plex. The final decision can be seen as an alignment of per-
sonal goals or interests and occupational demands. A misfit
between the environment, including related external expec-
tations and demands, and a person’s abilities will lead to
stress (Edwards et al., 1998). Answers to questions regarding
the link between career choice motives and personal charac-
teristics, which are assumed to play an important role in the
development of stress and stress-inducing thoughts in future
work life, are essential. But research investigating this rela-
tionship is still rare, and only found with regard to specific
educational areas (Kiel et al., 2016). The present study,
therefore, aims to analyze this particular connection.
The motives investigated in the present study are based
on the self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan (2000).
This has already been realized in a previous study based on
a sample of future early childhood educators (Weiß et al.,
2018), which has been extended to include a broader sample
from four additional European countries (Switzerland,
Sweden, Romania, and Ukraine). Those countries represent
a heterogeneity of work-related environmental conditions
that is as broad and diverse as possible within the European
context (see Table 1 in the Method section).
After motivational factors are extracted based on the total
sample, the study examines whether those factors can be

Tillmann et al. 5
grouped into clusters. Furthermore, it investigates how these
motivational clusters differ regarding the presence of stress-
inducing thoughts to reveal evidence for personal risk factors
that are independent of particular conditions but might be
related to career choice motives. In addition, the distribution
of different motivational clusters across those countries is
another focus and aim of the present study. This part is par-
ticularly important in line with the exploratory assumption
made in the present study, assuming country-specific work-
related conditions to be (at least partially) responsible for the
differences in motivation. Due to the scant research in this
area, the study has an exploratory goal and seeks to address
the following research questions:
Research Question 1: Which factors in career choice
motives can be extracted based on a sample of student
teachers from five European countries?
Research Question 2: How can the resulting factorial
structure be integrated into a theoretical structure based
on self-determination theory?
Research Question 3: Which homogeneous groups of
student teachers can be extracted through cluster analyzes
on the basis of career-choice-motive factors?
Research Question 4: How are the five different coun-
tries distributed across the obtained clusters of career
choice motives?
Research Question 5: How do the clusters differ with
regard to stress-inducing thoughts?
Research Question 6: How can the revealed clusters be
characterized by taking into account motives and stress-
inducing thoughts?
Method
Project Context
The present study is included in the STeaM research project,
conducted by the chair of school and teacher Research at the
University of Munich in Germany in collaboration with
other higher education institutions in Switzerland, Sweden,
Romania, and Ukraine. The project aims to compare the
career choice motives and personal characteristics in the
field of teacher education and teacher well-being. The find-
ings will be used as an empirical basis for recommendations
and counseling instruments for student teachers.
Table 1. Cultural and Structural Contexts of the Countries and Higher Education Institutions Involved (Eurydice, 2017a, 2017b, 2017c,
2017d; Hofstede Insights, 2019).
Higher education institution/country Cultural/structural context (country) Cultural/structural context (institution)
LMU Munich, higher education
institution, Germany
The socioeconomic conditions for teachers are
rather good
Teacher training is regulated by state laws and
differs between states
LMU Munich is a large university with a big teacher
education program in the state of Bavaria
Teacher education programs include training for all
school types except “Berufsschule” (secondary,
vocational, and job-oriented schools)
Södertörn Högskola, higher
education institution, Sweden
The working conditions of teachers can vary
significantly on a local level as teachers are
employed by municipalities
Sweden is a very egalitarian country without
significant social hierarchies. The relationship
between students and teachers is very informal
Data were collected at a university with a high
rate of students with immigrant background
The university is specialized in education
programs for the public sectors (e.g.,
teachers and police officers)
PH Zurich, higher education
institution, Switzerland
As in Sweden, the working conditions of
teachers can vary on a local level between
municipalities and even between schools
Cultural contexts can vary between the
German, French, Rhaeto-Romanic, and Italian
speaking parts of Switzerland
Data were collected at PH Zurich, a university
that is specialized in teacher training
programs
The data collection was conducted in the
German-speaking part of Switzerland
Universitatea de Vest din Timișoara,
Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai, higher
education institutions, Romania
Minorities have the right to be educated in their
own language, usually in their own schools and
by their own teachers
There is a strong social hierarchy (teachers are
addressed as “professors” by their students)
and high levels of uncertainty avoidance
Data were collected at a teacher training
program in Romanian and a teacher training
program for teachers of the minorities
Especially, the teacher training programs for
the minorities are small in size and offer a
very personal experience
Vinnytsia State Pedagogical
University, higher education
institution, Ukraine
Ukraine is, like Romania, defined by a high
uncertainty avoidance, a high power distance
and very formalized relations
Even though being historically closely related to
Russia, Ukrainian policy has increasingly focused
on the European Union during the past years
The data were collected in Western Ukraine
The State Pedagogical University hosts a broad
variety of programs from science, history,
and language to music and arts

6 SAGE Open
Participants and Procedure
A total of 2,541 student teachers participated in the study. In
line with the research questions and goals of the study, future
teachers from various countries were involved. The data col-
lection process took place between 2012 and 2015. The coor-
dination of the data collection and analyses was conducted at
the University of Munich in Germany. Altogether, four addi-
tional European higher education institutions were involved
in data collection. Those were located in Switzerland,
Sweden, Romania, and Ukraine as described below. Before
data collection, all higher education institutions participating
held several common meetings to coordinate and adjust the
collections processes to create equal collection conditions.
Framework conditions (e.g., what kind of information about
the project and the questionnaire used would be given to the
student teachers involved) were agreed and set.
In all countries participating in the study, data collection
was embedded in mandatory lectures future teachers needed
to attend. Table 1 introduces the European higher education
institutions that were involved in data collection. Each insti-
tution is briefly characterized by the cultural context of each
university and country.
For the data collection, the future teachers were asked to
complete a questionnaire during a mandatory lecture in their
respective higher education institutions. In a first step, subse-
quent to the data collection process, the original data set was
subject to preliminary analyses based on the number of miss-
ing values in the data set. The researchers decided to exclude
cases that showed more than 5% missing values for either of
the two sets of variables included. Due to this decision, a
total of 211 participants (8.30%) were excluded from further
analyses, leading to a final sample size of 2,330 student
teachers. The distribution of the total sample across the five
country-based subsamples was uneven; whereas the German
sample included the largest number of student teachers (n =
1,488), the Ukrainian future teachers were the smallest group
(n = 96). The Swiss and Swedish samples consisted of 289
and 353 student teachers, respectively. In Romania, 104 stu-
dent teachers participated in the present study. The uneven
distribution is discussed in the Discussion section. In the
final sample, 527 persons were male, and 1,798 were female.
The average number of university semesters was found to be
2.79 (SD = 2.46), as was the number of semesters in a teach-
ing program (M = 2.29, SD = 1.89), which did not include
the Swiss sample due to missing data. Student teachers’ ages
ranged from 17 to 53 years (M = 22.11, SD = 4.67).
Instruments and Preliminary Analyses
Career choice motives. This study used an instrument to mea-
sure career choice motives which had already been designed,
tested, validated, and applied in a previous study (Weiß &
Kiel, 2013). The development of this instrument was based
on existing studies and theories while factors that were
missing were subsequently identified and added by experts
in a second step. The resulting 73 items are rated on a 4-point
Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3
(strongly agree). Various scales and factors have been iden-
tified through factor analyses through studies conducted pre-
viously using international samples (Weiß et al., 2018). A
table containing more detailed information on measures of
internal consistencies of the particular factors that have been
extracted in this study can be found in line with the first and
second research questions in the Results section.
Stress-inducing thoughts. The questionnaire used in the pres-
ent study refers to stress-inducing thoughts, or dysfunctional
cognitions, as defined by Beck and colleagues (1979; Brown
& Beck, 2002). It is based on the Scale of Dysfunctional
Attitudes (Hautzinger et al., 1985), the Irrational Attitudes
Inventory (Plutchik, 1976), the Frost Multidimensional Per-
fectionism Scale (Frost et al., 1990), and a newly developed
scale concerning the Avoidance of Social Support (Trageser,
2010). The questionnaire consists of six dimensions, each
with four items, and had been, as described above, already
successfully validated among samples with teachers (Trage-
ser, 2010). The student teachers in the present study were
asked to rate all 24 items on a 5-point Likert-type scale rang-
ing from 0 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Overall,
the reliability measures of the entire scale and all six sub-
scales, which are displayed in Table 2, represent scores that,
overall, are perceived as good in research in the social sci-
ences (Kline, 1999). Conducting separate reliability analyses
for all country-based subscales revealed similar results.
Table 2 depicts the six scales, with an example item, the
number of items, and the internal consistency measure for all
five countries as an aggregate.
Results
The results are structured in accordance with the research
questions stated above.
Factorial Structure of Career Choice Motives
To determine the number of factors that fit the data, an explor-
atory principal component analysis with a varimax rotation
was conducted on all 73 items of the instrument. The initial
results were inspected and adapted by excluding items with
small (<.40) or inconclusive factor loadings. The reliability
measures of the scales vary between .64 and .88, representing
acceptable to good results (Table 3). When inspecting each
factor in more detail, significant differences can be observed
which can further be attributed to differences in self-regula-
tion and self-determination that will be described in more
detail further below.
In line with the second research question, the motivational
factors have been mapped onto the different levels of self-
regulation and self-determination, applying a theoretical

Tillmann et al. 7
basis based on the self-determination theory by Deci and
Ryan (2000, 2012). Figure 1 depicts the result of this process
for the motive factors. In particular, factors can be divided
into two broader categories: intrinsic motivation and extrin-
sic motivation. These two overarching categories can further
be split into subcategories, represented by factors, which are
shown in Figure 1. For intrinsic motivation, those range from
educational work with children to interest in particular sub-
jects, whereas those assigned to extrinsic motivation range
from flexibility in scheduling work time to recommendations
by others.
Due to similarities regarding the content of those individ-
ual factors, they can be summarized into four broader subcat-
egories: intrinsic pedagogical motives (Factors 1 and 2),
intrinsic motives related to the teaching profession (Factors
3–5), extrinsic motives related to the teaching profession
(Factors 6 and 7), and extrinsic motives related to a lack of
alternatives (Factors 8–10). Those categories are particularly
important to mention at this point as they represent the differ-
ent levels of self-determination, autonomy, and locus of con-
trol, as suggested by Deci and Ryan (2000, 2012).
Determination of Clusters of Career Choice
Motives
Before determining the number of clusters, outliers in the
data set were identified using cluster analysis with the single
linkage approach, which represents a standard and recom-
mended procedure when conducting cluster analyses. The
resulting two outliers (one student teacher from Germany
and one from Ukraine) were taken out before conducting the
final cluster analysis, which resulted in a total sample of
2,328 student teachers. This procedure is important, as clus-
ter analyses represent a data-driven approach, and particu-
larly with hierarchical cluster analysis, clusters are created
based on the similarity of data. Based on this fact, results
Table 2. Scales of Stress-Inducing Thoughts.
Subscale Example item Number of items Cronbach’s α
Dependency I need people to like me. 4 .80
Risk avoidance Taking even a small risk is foolish because the loss is
likely to be a disaster.
4 .76
Depreciation and failure If I fail at my work, then I am a failure as a person. 4 .84
Internalization of failure I usually blame myself if things go wrong. 4 .84
Personal standards
(perfectionism)
I have extremely high goals. 4 .82
Avoidance of social support I can’t stand asking for help. 4 .80
Total scale 24 .90
Table 3. Scales and Subcategories of Career Choice Motives.
Subscale Subcategory Example item No. of items α
Educational work with
children
Intrinsic pedagogical motives . . . because working with children and
adolescents appeals to me.
12 .88
Idealism Intrinsic pedagogical motives . . . because the teaching profession is
important for society.
4 .68
Challenges of the teaching
profession
Intrinsic profession-related
motives
. . . because the intellectual challenge
appeals to me.
5 .68
Interest in facilitation Intrinsic profession-related
motives
. . . in order to help other people. 4 .76
Interest in particular
subjects
Intrinsic profession-related
motives
. . . because I consider my subjects to be
important.
5 .79
Flexibility in scheduling
work time
Extrinsic motives related to the
teaching profession
. . . because as a teacher, I can
independently arrange my work.
4 .73
Financial security Extrinsic motives related to the
teaching profession
. . . because teachers are well-paid. 3 .75
Teaching as a second
choice
Extrinsic motives related to a
lack of alternatives
. . . because I had no opportunity to
pursue my favorite career.
4 .71
Lack of alternatives Extrinsic motives related to a
lack of alternatives
. . . because no other profession appeals
to me.
3 .64
Recommendations by
others
Extrinsic motives related to a
lack of alternatives
. . . because other adults whose opinion
is important to me recommended it.
4 .73

8 SAGE Open
(i.e., number of clusters and the assignment of participants to
individual clusters) can be significantly influenced by indi-
vidual outliers. The single linkage approach enables the
identification of those scores that are significantly further
away from the majority of data points and, consequently,
cannot be easily assigned. Therefore, removing outliers can
increase the results’ accuracy (Almeida et al., 2007).
Furthermore, given the small percentage of outliers com-
pared with the total sample, the results are not assumed to
have changed significantly.
In a second step, five clusters were extracted using an
agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward’s
Method and Squared Euclidean Distance. To validate the
number of clusters, we conducted an additional discrimi-
nant analysis with a prior specified number of five clusters
and compared the assignment of participants with particu-
lar clusters of both methods. The resulting adjusted
Pearson’s coefficient revealed a significant (p < .001) score
of .91 between both procedures, which is interpretable as
large. This would, therefore, justify the assumption of a
strong agreement across the two described methods. This
was further supported by comparing variances within and
among clusters.
Related analyses investigating homogeneity of clusters
revealed that roughly 80% of coefficients showed values
lower than 1.00 (Backhaus et al., 2016). The distribution
across the five-cluster solution revealed a highly distin-
guishable pattern with regard to mean scores on the different
factors of career choice motives as well as the numbers of
participants (Ncluster 1 = 449; Ncluster 2 = 744; Ncluster 3 = 269;
Ncluster 4 = 749; Ncluster 5 = 116). Table 4 contains all results
of the analyses of variance, while Figure 2 displays the
mean values of all clusters across the 10 dimensions
graphically.
Significant (ps < .01) differences between clusters were
supported by subsequently conducted Scheffé post hoc tests
across all dimensions. The Scheffé post hoc procedures
are the basis for comparisons between single clusters.
Furthermore, as it is a relatively conservative test, the prob-
ability of overestimating effects is small (Kim, 2015). The
tests revealed that most clusters significantly differ from one
another across the extracted factors, which was further
supported by the medium-to-large effect sizes. However,
some insignificant results were found as well. For example,
Clusters 2 and 3 did not significantly differ from one another
(ps > .05) regarding the factors interest in facilitation, inter-
est in particular subjects, and flexibility in scheduling work
time. Similarly, Clusters 1 and 5 did not differ significantly
regarding the factors interest in facilitation, financial secu-
rity, and recommendations by others. In addition, Clusters 2
and 5 did not differ significantly on teaching as a second
choice and recommendation by others. A comprehensive
description of the clusters, taking into account the stress-
inducing thoughts, is provided in the section “Description of
clusters, taking all variables into account”.
The Distribution of Countries Across All Five
Motive Clusters
As a third step in the analyses, it was examined how stu-
dent teachers from the five countries were distributed
across the clusters and whether specific clusters represent
Table 4. Variance Analytical Comparison of the Motives.
Scale
Cl 1,
M (SD)
Cl 2,
M (SD)
Cl 3,
M (SD)
Cl 4,
M (SD)
Cl 5,
M (SD) F(4, 2322) η2
Educational work with children 2.14 2.63 2.41 2.54 1.59 269.27 .32
(0.41) (0.32) (0.46) (0.31) (0.70)
Idealism 1.60 2.24 2.12 2.00 1.15 230.95 .29
(0.48) (0.43) (0.48) (0.46) (0.63)
Challenges of the teaching profession 1.71 2.32 2.16 2.18 1.26 156.74 .21
(0.59) (0.54) (0.53) (0.51) (0.71)
Interest in facilitation 1.57 2.03 2.05 1.89 1.50 59.72 .09
(0.60) (0.54) (0.55) (0.64) (0.73)
Interest in particular subjects 1.82 2.35 2.26 2.10 0.99 219.18 .27
(0.58) (0.43) (0.52) (0.53) (0.60)
Flexibility in scheduling work time 1.44 2.03 2.00 1.20 0.70 336.71 .37
(0.63) (0.46) (0.52) (0.56) (0.70)
Financial security 0.88 0.31 0.87 0.27 0.84 167.81 .22
(0.66) (0.41) (0.73) (0.36) (0.78)
Teaching as a second choice 0.77 0.57 0.92 0.25 0.49 110.97 .16
(0.58) (0.57) (0.68) (0.35) (0.62)
Lack of alternatives 1.66 1.97 2.16 1.46 0.73 168.34 .23
(0.64) (0.57) (0.56) (0.70) (0.52)
Recommendation by others 0.48 0.39 1.51 0.22 0.48 478.41 .45
(0.50) (0.41) (0.48) (0.32) (0.62)

Tillmann et al. 9
particular countries. A chi-square test revealed evidence
for a significant association between countries and clus-
ters, χ2(16) = 550.13, p < .01. To further explore this
association and draw a conclusion about the relative distri-
bution of the five subsamples, despite uneven sample
sizes, two preliminary steps had to be performed: first, the
number of participants from a particular country within
each cluster had to be calculated in relation to the total
number of future teachers in the specific country-based
subsample. Second, the relative number of participants in
each cluster, as a percentage of the entire sample, had to be
analyzed. To accomplish this step, the percentages calcu-
lated in Step 1 were used as the underlying data set (in the
form of whole numbers).
As shown in Figure 3, the distribution of countries across
all five clusters varies significantly. This is further supported
by the fact that no cluster covers all student teachers from a
particular country, and all clusters are distributed unequally
across countries. Table 5 displays the standard residuals of all
countries across the five clusters, offering further support for
the significant differences described above (Agresti, 2007).
Differences in Career Choice Motive Clusters
With Regard to Stress-Inducing Thoughts
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that clusters dif-
fered significantly concerning stress-inducing thoughts (all
ps < .01), with low-to-medium effect sizes on all factors,
namely, dependency, F(4, 2322) = 13.94, ηp
2 = .02; risk
avoidance, F(4, 2322) = 29,85, ηp
2 = .05; depreciation and
failure, F(4, 2322) = 21.85, ηp
2 = .04; internalization of
failure, F(4, 2322) = 4.00, ηp
2 = .01; and personal stan-
dards (perfectionism), F(4, 2322) = 4.72, ηp
2 = .01. The
respective means and standard deviations for all clusters and
stress-inducing thoughts are listed in Table 6.
A post hoc Scheffé test was conducted as well and
revealed further evidence of significant differences (at
p < .05) regarding particular factors of stress-inducing
thoughts in the clusters. When inspecting the above
numbers, it can be seen that all five clusters followed a
similar pattern across stress-inducing thoughts. The most
significant differences were found regarding the factors
dependency, risk avoidance, depreciation and failure, and
Figure 2. Cluster based on the career choice motive factors.

10 SAGE Open
avoidance of social support. A detailed description is
given in the following section. Effect sizes between clus-
ters (i.e., partial eta squared) reached values up to .10,
which represent medium values (i.e. on the factor risk
avoidance: ηp
2
Cluster 2–3 = .06; ηp
2Cluster 3–4 = .08). Figure 4
displays the resulting distribution of the five revealed
clusters across the stress-inducing thoughts graphically.
Description of Clusters, Taking All Variables Into
Account
In summary, the characteristics of the five clusters can be
described as follows:
Cluster 1 included low intrinsically motivated student
teachers. The first cluster (n = 449, 19%) is represented by
lower values for intrinsic motives, especially for the occupa-
tional idealism motive, as compared with Clusters 2 to 4.
This applies equally to addressee-related and content-related
motivations. All extrinsic motives have medium values as
compared with the other groups, with the exception of teach-
ing as a second choice, which has the second-highest value.
The cluster is further associated with medium levels for all
factors measuring stress-inducing thoughts. The cluster con-
sists of a high number of student teachers from Romania, as
well as from Ukraine and Sweden. The number of Swiss
student teachers is very low.
The student teachers in Cluster 2, a larger group with
n = 744 (32%), show the highest values for all intrinsic
motives. This is also the reason for them being called highly
intrinsically motivated, perfectionistic student teachers in
Figure 3. Distribution of the different countries across clusters (while controlling for the unequal sample size of the subsamples).
Table 5. Standard Residuals for Countries Across Clusters.
Cluster Germany Switzerland Sweden Ukraine Romania
Cluster 1 −0.40 −3.60 2.30 1.30 2.00
Cluster 2 4.20 1.20 −6.20 −5.00 −2.00
Cluster 3 0.00 −0.60 −0.60 1.20 0.90
Cluster 4 −1.20 2.80 2.00 −3.70 −0.40
Cluster 5 −7.00 −2.20 6.80 17.60 0.80

Tillmann et al. 11
the present study. Educational work with children/youth
has the highest value in comparison with all the other clus-
ters. Moreover, flexibility in scheduling work time, an
extrinsic motive related to the teaching profession, is espe-
cially pronounced. Extrinsic motives regarding a lack of
alternatives are evaluated as less important. Compared
with the other clusters, this group has lower values for the
factors risk avoidance, depreciation and failure, and avoid-
ance of social support, but higher levels for the remaining
three dimensions, particularly with regard to personal stan-
dards (perfectionism). Student teachers from Germany and
Switzerland are overrepresented in this cluster, whereas the
number of future teachers from the Ukraine is very small.
Future teachers assigned to Cluster 3 are called highly
extrinsically motivated, dependent student teachers. This
cluster, which is small at 269 (12%) future teachers, shows
values for intrinsic motives that are higher than those of most
other clusters, with the exception of Group 2. All extrinsic
motives are rated at a higher level: recommendation by
others is evaluated as very important; the same applies for
financial security and lack of alternatives. For five of the six
factors measuring stress-inducing thoughts, student teachers
in this cluster present the highest values. In particular, they
had high mean values for the factors internalization of failure
and dependency, which indicate major problems handling
failure. Moreover, student teachers in this cluster seem to
have a stronger fear of being blamed and therefore do not
want to take any risks at all. Cluster 3 comprises student
teachers from all countries, including a large number of
Ukrainian prospective teachers.
Figure 4. Distribution of the clusters across the stress-inducing thoughts.
Table 6. Participants’ Means and Standard Deviations for the Clusters on Stress-Inducing Thoughts.
Dependency
Risk
avoidance
Depreciation
and failure
Internalization
of failure
Personal standards
(perfectionism)
Avoidance of
social support
Cluster M (SD)M (SD)M (SD)M (SD)M (SD)M (SD)
Cluster 1 2.21 (0.93) 1.31 (0.81) 1.11 (0.88) 1.97 (0.92) 1.88 (0.95) 0.85 (0.80)
Cluster 2 2.29 (0.81) 1.01 (0.71) 0.90 (0.72) 1.95 (0.89) 2.02 (0.85) 0.51 (0.63)
Cluster 3 2.46 (0.76) 1.43 (0.89) 1.25 (0.91) 2.14 (0.95) 2.15 (0.93) 0.87 (0.90)
Cluster 4 2.10 (0.82) 0.96 (0.70) 0.83 (0.76) 1.89 (0.93) 1.94 (0.91) 0.54 (0.65)
Cluster 5 1.91 (1.13) 1.22 (0.97) 1.26 (1.16) 1.98 (0.96) 1.92 (0.95) 1.03 (0.95)

12 SAGE Open
The fourth cluster, a larger group of 749 (32%) student
teachers, shows similar characteristics to those of the third
cluster, in particular with regard to intrinsic motives with
only slightly lower values. In addition, and contrary to the
third cluster, it is characterized by relatively low values
for extrinsic motives related to the teaching profession.
Furthermore, future teachers in this cluster show the lowest
values for the second dimension of extrinsic motivation,
measuring the lack of alternatives. This cluster is almost
the exact opposite of Cluster 3 concerning stress-inducing
thoughts: this cluster shows consistently more favorable
attribute levels for stress-inducing thoughts as compared
with the other groups. This is why participants in this cluster
are called highly intrinsically motivated, highly functional
student teachers. The cluster includes many future teachers
from Switzerland.
Finally, participants in Cluster 5 are described as moder-
ately motivated, insecure, and support avoidant student
teachers. Comprising 116 prospective teachers, the fifth
cluster represents the smallest group. This corresponds to a
percentage of only 5%. The resulting profile is different from
those of all other groups with regard to motivation. It is char-
acterized by the lowest values for the two intrinsic motive
dimensions, as well as the dimension measuring extrinsic
motives related to the teaching profession. Within the group
of extrinsic motives related to a lack of alternatives, the score
is relatively high with regard to the motive teaching as a
second choice and drops to an average level for the factors
lack of alternatives and recommendation by others. This
cluster is characterized by the highest levels of depreciation
and failure, as well as avoidance of social support. Student
teachers in this cluster immediately feel responsible if some-
thing goes wrong, and they refuse to make use of social sup-
port in strenuous occupational situations. Ukrainian student
teachers are overrepresented in this cluster.
Discussion
Career Choice Motives of Student Teachers
The factor analysis revealed factors that are similar to extant
findings regarding those measuring intrinsic and extrinsic
career choice motives (Liu, 2010; Sinclair, 2008; Watt et al.,
2012; Watt & Richardson, 2007), which can be mapped onto
the self-determination theory created by Deci and Ryan
(2000, 2012). Findings from the cluster analysis resulted in
five groups of student teachers who differ with regard to
combinations of particular career choice motives. These dif-
ferences are equally reflected in the relative levels of impor-
tance of intrinsic and extrinsic motives. Student teachers
from different European countries are not distributed equally
across all five clusters. Rather, in some clusters, a significant
amount of student teachers from one particular country can
be found.
Furthermore, significant differences regarding various
stress-inducing thoughts are found when comparing the five
clusters in this regard. In particular, dependency, deprecia-
tion and failure, and avoidance of social support differentiate
the groups with effect sizes reaching up to medium levels in
the post hoc tests. Taking these findings together, it can be
said that each cluster is characterized by different attribute
levels of motives and stress-inducing thoughts: for example,
one group is characterized by the lowest levels among all
career choice motives but is, at the same time, associated
with a higher level of stress-inducing thoughts, such as
depreciation and social withdrawal.
Through self-determination theory, created by Deci and
Ryan, various motive structures were revealed in the present
study. Intrinsic motivational factors included items repre-
senting experiences of competency and autonomy. Similarly,
the extrinsic motives found in this study represent varying
degrees of self-determination. These different motive profiles
go hand in hand with diverging levels of stress-inducing
thoughts (Beck et al., 1979; Brown & Beck, 2002). The dif-
ferences showed a relationship between extrinsic motiva-
tional aspects and stress-inducing thoughts, further supporting
existing research on the relationship between career choice
motives and perceptions of stress, as well as behavior in
response to stress (Baker, 2004; Lu, 1999; Reichl et al., 2014).
Occupational demands, challenges, and stress-inducing
situations are subject to individual evaluation processes
(Lazarus, 1993, 2006). Prospective teachers experience stress
in different ways, with stress-inducing thoughts playing an
important role in these processes. Specifically, they determine
whether a certain stressful situation is experienced as more
negative or positive and can increase stress in strenuous situ-
ations (Norberg et al., 2007). Contrary to other factors influ-
encing stress, which are directly related to the school context,
these cognitions are independent of particular environmental
conditions and therefore reveal more general insight into pre-
vention opportunities. However, it is important to keep in
mind that these aspects that are specific to the particular job
and work environment, such as perceived support by col-
leagues, perceived climate, or teachers’ professional compe-
tences, are found to further enhance the prevention of
psychological ill-health (Grayson & Alvarez, 2008; Skaalvik
& Skaalvik, 2009). Therefore, on a more general and basic
level of attention, student teachers with higher levels of stress-
inducing thoughts tend to be more vulnerable to stress and
potentially negative impacts on health and work ability.
Consequently, professional development should include
appropriate measures for those who may have difficulties
handling stressful situations. This could be applied in the con-
text of cognitive behavioral modification (Meichenbaum,
1993, 2003), self-instruction, problem-solving skills, and
appropriate coping strategies.
However, the results show the importance of taking the
characteristics of particular countries into account as well

Tillmann et al. 13
when considering the abovementioned findings. When look-
ing at the distribution of countries in the second cluster, for
example, the values on the factor financial security are rela-
tively high. Student teachers from Germany and Switzerland
are represented more than participants from countries like
Ukraine within this cluster. It is worth noting that the unbal-
anced sample limits the conclusiveness of the observed coun-
try-specific differences. Nevertheless, the findings of this
study seem to be consistent with differences in the structural
conditions between the observed countries. Salaries are higher
in Germany and Switzerland and lower in Ukraine (Eurydice,
2017a, 2017b), but the cost of living, especially in Switzerland
and also in Germany and Sweden, is substantially higher than
it is in countries such as Romania and Ukraine as well.
Therefore, high salary could be an incentive and a necessity to
cover living expenses. Taken as a whole, it appears that struc-
tural conditions within countries seem to be connected with
both career choice motives and stress-inducing thoughts.
However, due to the limitations mentioned above, the precise
nature of this relationship cannot be clearly derived from the
results revealed in the present study and would have to be
investigated in more detail in further studies.
Conclusion: Consequences for Teacher Education
and Conditions of Teaching
When drawing conclusions based on the findings, two fac-
tors must be taken into consideration: first, the relevance of
the country-specific working conditions of teachers (salary
and occupational security) should be considered to interpret
the results appropriately (Eurydice, 2016; OECD, 2005).
This is in line with the discussion on teacher selection in
general (Gore et al., 2016) and the negative selection con-
troversy that is discussed in many countries (Barber &
Mourshed, 2007; Denzler & Wolter, 2009; McKenzie &
Santiago, 2005; Roloff Henoch et al., 2015).
The following two paragraphs discuss two exemplary
issues in more detail. First, we discuss whether the salary of
teachers could be one reason for negative selection, the
notion that the teaching profession attracts those with less
favorable characteristics. Second, we discuss groups of
future teachers with certain constellations of career choice
motives and particular stress-inducing thoughts, which exist
across countries, which indicate the need to develop mea-
sures dealing with these difficulties.
Political issues and conditions related to certain career choice
motives. First, some of the revealed differences seem to
reflect country-specific working conditions and differences
in professional images. The professional images of occupa-
tions can vary over time and do not have to be homogeneous
(for Germany, see Enzelberger, 2007). These variations pre-
vent the formulation of simple, monocausal links between
career choice motives and national specifics, especially in
terms of culture. Whereas some researchers use the
term culture quite freely (Hofstede, 2001), many question
the simplifications, unifications, and isms that the cultural-
ization of national differences implicates (Dale & Robertson,
2009).
At the same time, it is well known that the working condi-
tions and professional images of teachers can be shaped quite
differently in different countries (OECD, 2006) – and the
results of this study suggest that there might be a connection
between them and the career choice motives of future
teachers.
German and Swiss student teachers reported higher
intrinsic motivation, which is associated with higher degrees
of self-determination. In comparison, participants from
Romania and Ukraine are more often found in clusters related
to constellations of career choice motives with a low degree
of self-determination. This corresponds to the comparatively
high level of uncertainty avoidance in those two countries: a
high level of uncertainty avoidance could, especially when
combined with a comparatively high power distance, lead to
people choosing options that are considered safe, predict-
able, or socially acceptable instead of pursuing their own
interests (Hofstede Insights, 2019). Fittingly, in these two
countries, recommendations by others and a lack of alterna-
tives are of higher importance than in the other countries
(Richardson & Watt, 2006, 2016; Wilhelm et al., 2000).
Furthermore, this underlines the observation that their career
choice processes are strongly controlled by external factors
(Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2012). Moreover, it seems that due to
worse occupational conditions in these countries, the teach-
ing profession attracts a greater number of student teachers
who cannot deal with difficult and stress-inducing job-related
situations in an appropriate way. This result underlines a con-
tradiction regarding a severe problem already addressed
above: the assumption of a negative selection bias. In gen-
eral, it seems that not those countries with good working
conditions, but rather those with less favourable ones tend to
suffer more from nevative selection. Salaries in the teacher
profession in Romania, for example, are very low (Eurydice,
2016, 2017b).
The opposite pattern can be found in the fourth cluster,
which includes a high number of prospective Swiss teachers.
Compared with the situation of the Romanian and Ukrainian
student teachers described above, extrinsic conditions play a
less important role. This may be the case as professional con-
ditions in Switzerland can be interpreted as very good, with
a high level of income and occupational security, even when
taking into account the high costs of living in this country
(Eurydice, 2013, 2016; OECD, 2005). The motivational
structure also reflects the fact that future teachers show a
high level of perceived self-determination (Deci & Ryan,
2000, 2012). This can certainly be interpreted as a good rea-
son for entering the profession. Self-determination allows a
positive experience of competency and autonomy, which is
negatively related to job dissatisfaction and attrition (Gagné
& Deci, 2005). Due to good basic conditions, these future

14 SAGE Open
teachers are attracted by the teaching profession and seem to
be prepared for difficult professional circumstances and situ-
ations. Importantly, they seem to be able to handle difficult
occupational demands and failure effectively, perceive them-
selves to be more autonomous, and are willing to make use
of others’ help, to name just a few examples.
Taking the country-specific roles of intrinsic and extrinsic
motives together, further contexts need to be discussed.
Intrinsic motives seem to gain (more) importance when good
workplace conditions are ensured. Valuing intrinsic motives
in career-decision-making might be easier when the chosen
profession entails a (higher) salary: without the need to think
about how to cover the living expenses, it is easier to follow
intrinsic motivations. Therefore, such structural differences
could help shaping the perception of professional images as
well. Moreover, professional images also have a historic
dimension that differs between the involved countries.
Further differences of career choice motives across countries. Sec-
ond, demands and developmental tasks do not only arise from
country-specific conditions. The results suggest that groups
of future teachers with unfavorable constellations of career
choice motives and particular stress-inducing thoughts exist
across countries independently of specific country-related
characteristics and conditions. This leads to the need to imple-
ment arrangements to support affected student teachers, and
strengthen teacher professionalization (van den Berg, 2002).
To do this, it would be helpful to target those clusters that are
characterized by more unfavorable constellations, which
would be Clusters 3 and 5 in the present study. This can be
realized in two ways.
On one hand, particular constellations of career choice
motives must be questioned. Factors that imply lower levels
of intrinsic motivation could affect student teacher selection
processes, potential restriction criteria for applications, and
related assessments, as well as opportunities for counseling
with regard to suitability or potential changes in one’s course
of study. Furthermore, it would be helpful to implement mea-
sures that support student teachers’ self-reflection. In view of
the scarce resources in teacher education programs and
school systems, this may be a suitable way of providing
advice for future teachers regarding their personal (in)con-
gruence with their chosen future profession.
On the other hand, the results also suggest designing and
implementing interventions to support student teachers with
higher levels of stress-inducing thoughts, who will need help
in that regard. This could, for example, be realized by imple-
menting trainings for “at-risk students,” who display disad-
vantageous career-choice-motive profiles and stress-inducing
thoughts. Although it is important to keep in mind that the
results of the present study do not offer a definite prognosis
of a given student teacher’s future success or failure as a
teacher and does not consider other factors that play an
important role, such as specific environmental conditions
and teachers’ competences, it has been found that balanced
and stable teacher personalities are related to teachers’ and
students’ skills and competencies (Pulkkinen et al., 1999).
Therefore, professional teacher educators must carefully
weigh decisions about whether these student teachers should
be closely monitored and supported through additional train-
ing elements, such as supervision or reattribution training
(Beck et al., 1979).
Moreover, early practical experiences should be closely
accompanied by appreciative feedback (Hattie & Timperley,
2007). However, when considering all these practical impli-
cations, the particular conditions of the individual countries
must be kept in mind. This is of particular importance with
regard to the possibilities for, and constraints on, change in
these countries. As described above, in Ukraine, for exam-
ple, such possibilities for change are very limited due to the
financial situation of the profession.
Limitations and Further Research
All measurements used in the present study are exclusively
of quantitative nature and, consequently, involve certain
limitations. Specifically, the predefined set of items limits
the range of potential aspects of the resulting constructs.
Furthermore, there are some limitations regarding the sam-
ple. The participating student teachers were selected from
one higher education institution per country. Thus, the study
is unable to determine whether the results are influenced by
factors that occur on the level of single universities. This,
for example might be the case when the teacher training pro-
grams of a university attract a range of students that is not
representative of the whole group of students within this
country.
In addition, the difference in sample sizes across countries
has to be mentioned. This applies especially, but is not lim-
ited, to the Ukraine from which only less than 100 student
teachers were participating. Next to other biases, sample size
affects the power of a test. Thus, small- or medium-sized
effects might be harder to detect when comparing two coun-
tries with smaller sample sizes. Furthermore, a small number
of participants limit the influence of a country on the con-
struction of clusters within the cluster analysis as well: in
case of country-specific differences, the clusters are there-
fore going to overrepresent specifics of countries with many
participants.
These limiting aspects are to be considered particularly
with regard to the generalizability of the presented findings.
In addition, numerous additional participants from all coun-
tries, particularly from Switzerland, had to be excluded from
the analyses due to missing data. Careful interpretation is
therefore essential, especially when it comes to the results on
Ukrainian student teachers.
This is also supported by the effect sizes revealed based on
the present data set, which in some cases did not reach scores
that can be interpreted as medium in size. Keeping the aspects
mentioned above in mind, future research could address these

Tillmann et al. 15
limitations and fill existing gaps. Both sample and findings
would be more representative if it were possible to expand the
study on more universities/higher education institutions in the
countries involved. As a further long-term enhancement,
projects could include more countries into their analyses. In
particular, comparisons with countries outside of Europe
would lead to a more heterogeneous sample and more detailed
insights into career choice motives and stress-inducing
thoughts across countries. This might also enable researchers
to gather more information about the importance of cultural
backgrounds for career choice decisions.
Despite the aforementioned criticism, the present study
reveals first evidence for the fact that career choice motives
and stress-inducing thoughts are somehow related. Thus,
these findings might be helpful for applications in programs
of intervention and prevention. However, the specific nature
of this relationship should be investigated in more detail in
further analyses.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our colleagues Simona Sava (West
University of Timișoara, Romania) and Ioana Velica (Babes-Bolyai
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania) who are in charge of the
Romanian subproject and provided the Romanian data for this
article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iDs
Teresa Tillmann https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7149-9564
Manuela Keller-Schneider https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4442-2825
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