Concurrent strength and sprint training increases resting metabolic rate in masters road cyclists

Abstract

High-intensity concurrent sprint and strength training has been shown to provide a strong physiological training stimulus in young adult endurance athletes. However, the effect in veteran endurance athletes remains unknown. This study examined if replacing a portion of endurance training with concurrent sprint and strength training influenced resting metabolic rate (RMR) and lean mass (LM) in veteran endurance cyclists. Eighteen well-trained male veteran road cyclists (55.2 ± 8.4 years; 7.9 ± 1.1 training hrs/wk; 323 ± 53 W peak ) were allocated to a concurrent strength and sprint training group (CT, n = 9) or control group (CON, n = 9). The CT group completed a 12-weeks of sprint and strength training while the CON group maintained their normal endurance training. RMR and LM were measured before and after the 12-week training intervention. CT training significantly (p < 0.05) increased both RMR (+14.2%, 1600 ± 244 to 1828 ± 207 kcal/day) and LM (+2.0%, 61.8 ± 5.5 to 63.1 ± 5.4 kg) pre to post-intervention. No significant changes from pre- to post-training were observed in the CON group. These findings suggest replacing a portion of endurance training with sprint and strength training may preserve, and even increase, LM and RMR in veteran road cyclists.

Full text

ARTICLE
Concurrent strength and sprint training increases resting metabolic
rate in masters road cyclists
Luke Delvecchio
1,2,*
, Peter Reaburn
3
, Jarrod Meerkin
4
, Marko T. Korhonen, Nattai Borges
7
, Campbell
Macgregor
2,5,6
, and Mike Climstein
1,8
1
Southern Cross University, School of Health and Human Sciences, Bilinga, Qld, Australia
2
Central Queensland University, School of Medical and Applied Sciences, Rockhampton, Australia
3
Bond University, Institute of Health and Sport, Gold Coast, Australia
4
MeasureUp, Sydney, Australia
5
Toi Ohomai Institute of Technology, Faculty of Education, Health, Nursing and Social Science, Tauranga, New Zealand
6
University of Jyvaskyla, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Gerontology Research Centre, Jyvaskyla, Finland
7
University of Newcastle, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Ourimbah, Australia
8
University of Sydney, Physical Activity, Lifestyle, Ageing and Wellbeing Faculty Research Group, Sydney, Australia
Received 9 January 2020, Accepted 25 March 2020
Abstract -- High-intensity concurrent sprint and strength training has been shown to provide a strong
physiological training stimulus in young adult endurance athletes. However, the effect in veteran endurance
athletes remains unknown. This study examined if replacing a portion of endurance training with concurrent
sprint and strength training influenced resting metabolic rate (RMR) and lean mass (LM) in veteran endurance
cyclists. Eighteen well-trained male veteran road cyclists (55.2 ±8.4 years; 7.9 ±1.1 training hrs/wk;
323 ±53 W
peak
) were allocated to a concurrent strength and sprint training group (CT, n = 9) or control
group (CON, n =9). The CT group completed a 12-weeks of sprint and strength training while the CON group
maintained their normal endurance training. RMR and LM were measured before and after the 12-week training
intervention. CT training significantly (p <0.05) increased both RMR (+14.2%, 1600 ±244 to 1828 ±207 kcal/
day) and LM (+2.0%, 61.8 ±5.5 to 63.1 ±5.4 kg) pre to post-intervention. No significant changes from pre- to
post-training were observed in the CON group. These findings suggest replacing a portion of endurance training
with sprint and strength training may preserve, and even increase, LM and RMR in veteran road cyclists.
Keywords: masters athlete, cyclist, resistance training, endurance training, sprinting, basal metabolism,
body composition, DXA scan
Résumé --L’entraînement simultané en force et en sprint augmente le métabolisme de repos chez
des cyclistes masters sur route. L’entraînement en sprint et en force à haute intensité constitue un puissant
stimulus physiologique et, est couramment utilisé dans les programmes d’entraînement des jeunes athlètes
d’endurance adultes. Les adaptations potentielles de l’ajout d’exercices de sprint/de force au régime
d’entraînement des athlètes d’endurance vieillissants sont mal connues. La présente étude examine si le
remplacement d’une partie de l’entraînement en endurance par un entraînement simultané en force et en sprint,
influence le métabolisme au repos (RMR) et la masse maigre (LM) chez les athlètes d’endurance masters.Dix-huit
cyclistes sur route bien entraînés (55.2 ±8,4 ans; 7,9 ±1,1 heures d’entraînement/semaine; Pmax = 323 ±53 W)
ont été affectés à un grouped’entraînement en force et sprint(CT, n = 9), ou à un groupe de contrôle groupe(CON,
n = 9). Le groupe CT a réalisé un entraînement spécifique de 12semaines alors que le groupe CON maintenait son
entraînement d’endurance normal. RMR et LM ont été mesurés avant et après l’entraînement. L’entraînement
par a augmenté de façon significative le RMR de 14.2% (1600 ±244à1828±207 kcal/jour, p <0,05) et la LM de
2.0% (61.8 ±5.5 à 63,1 ±5,4 kg, p <0,05)entre avant et après l’entraînement. Aucunchangement significatif entre
avant et après l’entraînement n’a été observédans le groupe CON. Ces donnéessuggèrent que remplacer une partie
de l’entraînement en endurance par des sprints et des exercices de force pourrait aider à préserver, voire même
augmenter, la masse maigre et le métabolisme de repos chez les cyclistes masters.
Mots clés : athlètes masters, exercices d’endurance, métabolisme basal, composition corporelle, DEXA
*Corresponding author: Luke.DelVecchio@scu.edu.au
Movement & Sport Sciences - Science & Motricité
©ACAPS, 2020
https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/2020007
Science Motricité
Movement Sport Sciences
Available online at:
www.mov-sport-sciences.org

1 Introduction
Despite other widely known performance and health
benefits of endurance training in healthy older adults (Oja,
Kelly, Pedisic, Titze, Bauman, Foster, & Stamatakis,
2017), previous research has reported master athletes
(individuals typically over the age of 35 who train
[exercise] on a regular basis to compete in organized
competitive sport) involved in endurance sports retain
age-related losses in lean mass (LM) and muscular
strength when compared to sedentary, age-matched
adults (Del Vecchio, Stanton, Macgregor, Doering,
Korhonen, & Reaburn, 2016;Harridge, Magnusson, &
Saltin, 1997). This loss of muscle mass, in addition to
compromising exercise performance and function, may
predispose veteran endurance athletes to similar age-
related declines in muscular function experienced to that
which are sedentary individuals, such as sarcopenia
(Tanaka, 2017).
Resting metabolic rate (RMR) is known to decline with
advancing age (Lemmer, Ivey, Ryan, Martel, Hurlbut,
Metter, & Hurley, 2001). For example, Luhrmann et al.
(2010) investigated 513 individuals with an average age of
67.4 ±5.5 years and reported that RMR decreased by
34.1 Kj (4.1–5.2%) per year in males and noted a further
decrease in a 10-year follow-up. The age-related decrease
in RMR is associated with reductions in mitochondrial
membrane proton permeability (Wilson & Morley, 2003),
Na
+
-K
+
pump activity (Dolezal & Potteiger, 1998;
Luhrmann, Bender, Edelmann-Schafer, & Neuhauser-
Berthold, 2009).
Preventing an age-related decline in RMR is important
because a low RMR is a risk factor for future weight gain
(Johnstone, Murison, Duncan, Rance, & Speakman,
2005), sarcopenia and frailty (Soysal, Ates Bulut, Yavuz,
& Isik, 2019). A decline of RMR may also be a negative
consequence during periods of detraining in older athletes.
Furthermore, the loss of LM with age may in turn lead to
further, cyclical reductions in RMR in a cyclical manner
(Luhrmann et al., 2009).
Previous research has suggested that high levels of
aerobic capacity and endurance training undertaken by
veteran athletes may improve RMR over time. For
example, in a previous study by Sullo et al. (2004) veteran
athletes with high aerobic power exhibited 9.4% higher
RMR than age-matched veteran athletes with lower
aerobic power. In contrast, the results of previous studies
examining the effects of endurance training on RMR in
sedentary older adults are equivocal. Some research
suggests endurance training maintains (van Pelt, Din-
neno, Seals, & Jones, 2001) or increases RMR in healthy
older adults (Poehlman & Danforth, 1991), whilst other
research shows endurance training does not impact
positively on RMR (Antunes, Santos, Boscolo, Bueno, &
Mello, 2005).
Given RMR may be influenced by sympathetic tone
(Curry, Somaraju, Hines, Groenewald, Miles, Joyner, &
Charkoudian, 2013) and the maintenance of LM (Antunes
et al., 2005) others have suggested strength training
interventions which increase sympathetic tone and LM
may reduce the age-related decline in RMR among healthy
older adults (Pratley, Nicklas, Rubin, Miller, Smith,
Smith, & Goldberg, 1994). For example, Campbell et al.
(1994) have reported significant 6.8% increases in RMR
following 12 and 16 weeks of strength training in sedentary
older adults.
Collectively, the above data suggest both endurance
and strength training may increase RMR in older adults.
However, the effect of concurrent strength sprint and
endurance training on RMR, particularly in well-trained
veteran athletes that may have an above average RMR, is
not yet known. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
examine the effects of 12 weeks concurrent sprint and
strength training on RMR and LM in veteran road
cyclists. Investigating the effects of concurrent sprint and
strength training in veteran road cyclists is important
because further adaptations in RMR among aging
endurance athletes who have not previously engaged in
sprint or strength training may be possible.
2 Methods
2.1 Participants
Eighteen healthy male veteran endurance road cyclists
aged 40 years and older with no background of strength
training were recruited and provided written informed
consent. All participants were required to be currently
involved in regular cycling training, completing ≥8.0 hours
endurance training per week and competing in Veteran/
Masters competition for a minimum of two years (Tab. 1).
All participants underwent a pre-exercise screening to
Table 1. Physical and training characteristics of participants.
CT Pre (n= 9) CT Post (n= 9) CON Pre (n= 9) CON Post (n=9)
Age (years) 54.3 ±8.9 –58.0 ±8.2 –
Stature (m) 1.77 ±0.10 –1.73 ±0.10 –
Body mass (kg) 81.3 ±6.7 83.1 ±6.7†81.4 ±7.6 81.1 ±7.8
Body mass index (kg/m
2
) 26.1 ±1.8 26.6 ±2.0 27.2 ±1.6 27.1 ±1.8
Percent fat (%) 19.3 ±4.8 18.4 ±4.4†20.1 ±2.4 20.2 ±2.2
Training hours (h/week) 8.2 ±1.0 –8.1 ±1.3 8.0 ±1.2
W
peak
(watts) 342 ±57 340 ±57 305 ±44 290 ±47
W
peak
: cycle ergometer peak power output. Values are mean ±SD; †: significant pre to post effect (p<0.05).
2 L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot

ensure they had no established cardiovascular, metabolic
or respiratory disease (nor) signs (or) symptoms that
would exclude them from participating in intensive
exercise training (Norton, Norton, & Australia, 2011).
The study was approved by the Central Queensland
University Human Research Ethics Committee.
Random allocation of participants into training groups
was not possible due to work and family commitments
that limited their availability to participate in the CT
program. As a result, participants were allocated to either
a control group (CON, n= 9) or concurrent strength and
sprint training group (CT, n= 9) based upon their
availability.
2.2 Experimental overview
Initially, peak power output (VO
2
peak) was deter-
mined by a ramp test on an electronically-braked cycle
ergometer, completed between three and five days prior to
initial RMR and LM testing. Subsequently, participants
were instructed to attend the laboratory following an
overnight fast, avoid consuming caffeinated beverages for
at least 12 hours, and to abstain from physical activity for
at least 48 hours prior to the testing sessions. Adherence to
these guidelines was confirmed before all testing took
place. Testing sessions were carried out between 07:00 and
09:00 hours in the following order:
–standard anthropometric measures whereby stature and
body mass were measured (Seca, Birmingham, UK);
–RMR assessment;
–dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) assessment
for LM.
Following initial testing, the CT group completed a 12-
week exercise intervention while the CON group contin-
ued their normal endurance-training regime, which did
not include any sprint or strength training. Post-
intervention, the experimental testing was again complet-
ed as previously undertaken. Each measurement was
performed by the same trained researchers on both
occasions at approximately the same time of the day.
2.3 Peak power output
A graded maximal exercise test to measure peak power
output (W
peak
)was completed on an electrically-braked,
computer-controlled cycle ergometer (Velotron Dynafit
Pro, RaceMate, Seattle, USA). Expired gas analysis (O
2
,
CO
2
and ventilation) was undertaken during the graded
maximal exercise test using a Fitmate Pro (Cosmed,
Rome, Italy). The FitMate Pro has been previously shown
to be valid and reliable in measuring both peak oxygen
consumption and RMR (Nieman, Austin, Benezra,
Pearce, McInnis, Unick, & Gross, 2006). The cycle
protocol started following a 5-minute warm-up at a self-
selected cadence at 50 watts. Following the warm-up
period, the graded incremental exercise test started at
50 watts with work increments increased by 15 W ·min
1
until volitional exhaustion. Participants were required to
maintain a pedalling cadence of 90 rpm throughout the
test. W
peak
was calculated from the last completed work
rate, plus the fraction of time spent in the final non-
completed work rate multiplied by 25 watts (Hawley &
Noakes, 1992).
2.4 Resting metabolic rate
RMR measurements took place between 07:00 and
09:00 hours and were measured using the FitMate
TM
metabolic system (Cosmed, Rome, Italy). Upon arrival,
participants assumed a supine position for 20 minutes in a
quiet room at a temperature between 22 °Cto24°C
(Compher, Frankenfield, Keim, & Roth-Yousey, 2006).
During the procedure, participants were relaxed and
stable with a face mask sealed around their nose and
mouth to measure oxygen consumption for 15 minutes.
RMR was then calculated using the modified Weir
equation (Amirkalali, Hosseini, Heshmat, & Larijani,
2008):
REE ¼02consumed litreðÞ3:941 þproducedCO2litreðÞ½
1:111440min=d:
2.5 Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (Hologic
Discovery-W, Bedford, MA) was used to measure LM as it
is recognized as the gold standard for body composition
(Buckinx, Landi, Cesari, Fieding, Visser, Engelke, &
Kanis, 2018;Scafoglieri & Clarys, 2018). A certified
clinical densitometrist (CM) performed all DXA data
collection and analysis procedures. Prior to each measure-
ment session, the DXA was calibration to assess and
maintain the measurement precision and accuracy of the
scanner. During the procedure, participants were motion-
less in a supine position on a padded exam table, while an
X-ray fan array passed above the table. LM and FM was
determined using manufacturer-supplied software (APEX
version 4.0, Hologic Discovery). All participants were
scanned according to Australian Institute of Sport best
practice protocols for a total body scan (Nana, Slater,
Hopkins, & Burke, 2012).
2.6 Concurrent training program
The CT group who was completing five weekly
endurance cycling training sessions; replaced four of these
sessions with two groups, track sprint-cycling training
sessions, and two morning gym-based group strength
training sessions per week. All four training sessions were
supervised by the same accredited strength and condi-
tioning coach (LD). Strength training sessions were
conducted on alternate days to the track sprint training
days. During each strength training session, participants
completed exercises in the following order: double- and
single-leg hopping (2–3 sets of 10–20 hops), box jumps, leg
press throws, single-leg leg presses, seated hip flexions, leg
curls, leg extensions, seated calf-raises, supine hip
L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot 3

extensions, chest presses, bench rows, abdominal curl ups
and lower back extensions. Recovery was two minutes
between sets, and exercises were strictly controlled with
the strength training sessions lasting approximately
90 minutes. The progressive strength training program
utilised training intensities that ranged from 50 to 95% of
one-repetition maximum and was periodised to reduce
both the potential for overtraining and to optimise
neuromuscular adaptation (Tabs. 2a,2b,2c)(Del
Vecchio, Stanton, Reaburn, Macgregor, Meerkin, Ville-
gas, & Korhonen, 2019). Participants completed electron-
ic training logs describing all training parameters (number
of repetitions, sets, loads, track and road training
distances, track sprint cycling times) to monitor progress
and to provide feedback and motivation for maximal effort
during the entire training program (Tab. 3)(Del Vecchio
et al., 2019). The CON group were asked to maintain their
normal endurance cycling training for the 12-weeks
intervention period.
2.7 Statistical analysis
Data were analysed using SPSS (version 22.0, SPSS,
Armonk, NY) and are reported as mean ±standard
deviation (SD). Normality was assessed by Shapiro Wilk’s
test and skewness and kurtosis z-score (Kim, 2013). Two-
way repeated measures ANOVA were used to determine
group (CT, CON) time (Pre, Post) interactions, or main
effects where no interaction effect was observed. If an
interaction effect was noted, Student’st-tests were used to
for post-hoc analysis. A Pearson’s correlational analysis
between changes in LM and relative RMR was performed.
Alpha was accepted at p<0.05. t-tests (2-tailed) were
used to compare the within-group changes (pre to post)
and Cohen’sdeffect sizes were calculated to compare the
differences (pre to post) between groups. Threshold values
for small, moderate and large effects were 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8,
respectively (Sullivan & Feinn, 2012).
3 Results
3.1 Participants
A total of 18 (CT = 9, CON = 9) healthy male veteran
road cyclists aged 55.2 (±8.4 years) volunteered and
completed the study. There was no dropout of participants
during the study. There were no significant between-group
differences between age, height, body mass index,
VO
2
peak, peak watts or training hours (Tab. 3). There
were significant differences (p<0.05) in CT pre to post in
both mass (+2.2%) and percent fat (-2%). There were no
other significant changes in participant’s demographics
pre- to post-test in CT or CON.
3.2 Exercise compliance
The overall training adherence rate in the CT group
was 83%. The CT participants completed 85% (±4) of the
track-sprint cycling sessions and 82% (±5) of the strength
training sessions across the 12-week period. The CON
group completed 100% of their usual training sessions.
Neither group reported any adverse effects or events
associated with their training or the testing procedures.
3.3 Body mass
Following completion of the 12 weeks training, CT
significantly increased total body mass by 2% compared to
CON who demonstrated a negligible, non-significant
weight loss (-0.3%). There was a significant two-way
interaction between group and time (F(1, 16) = 8.323,
p= 0.011). Post-hoc analysis revealed that only the CT
group had a significant increase in body mass over the
12 week intervention (T(8) = 3.427, p= 0.009; d= 0.24)
(Tab. 4).
3.4 Adiposity
There was a significant (p= 0.15) decrease in percent
body fat in the CT group (-4.7%) following the 12 weeks of
training however there was no change (p= 0.85) in
adiposity seen in the CON group.
3.5 Lean mass
The CT group demonstrated a significant (p<0.05)
increase in LM over the 12 weeks of 2% compared to the
CON group, which actually lost a non-significant amount
of LM over the same period (-0.9%). There was a
significant two-way interaction between group and time
(F(1, 16) = 5.589, p= 0.031). Post-hoc analysis revealed
that only the CT group increased lean mass (+1.8 kg) over
the intervention (T(8) = 3.296, p= 0.011; d= 0.24). In
contrast, there was a small, non-significant, loss (-0.3 kg)
in lean mass within the CON (T(8) = -0.876, p= 0.407;
d= -0.09).
3.6 Resting metabolic rate
There was a significant increase in RMR in the CT
group (+14%) following the concurrent strength and
sprint training. In contrast, the CON actually demon-
strated a decrease in RMR over the 12-week intervention
period (-12%). There was a significant two-way interac-
tion between group and time (F(1, 16) = 7.215, p= 0.016).
Post-hoc analysis revealed that the CT group increased
absolute RMR by 227 kcal/day (+14%) over the interven-
tion period (T(8) = 3.691, p= 0.006; d= 1.00). In contrast,
a non-significant decrease of similar magnitude was
observed (-220 kcal/day) within the CON (T(8) = 1.422,
p= 0.193; d= -0.80).
4 Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of
12 weeks concurrent sprint and strength training on RMR
and LM in veteran road cyclists. The results of this study
show for the first time that replacing a portion of
endurance training with concurrent strength and sprint
4 L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot

Table 2a. Weeks 1–4 hypertrophy phase.
Day 1 Hypertrophy phase Day 2 Hypertrophy Phase
Weeks 12 34Weeks 12 34
Warm up 5 minutes stationary bike Warm up 5 minutes stationary bike
Plyometric exercises Plyometric exercises
Ankle hops 2 8210 2 12 2 10 Ankle hops 2 8210 2 12 2 10
Side to side ankle hops 2 8210 2 12 2 10 Side to side ankle hops 2 8210 2 12 2 10
Standing jump and reach 2 8210 2 12 2 10 Standing jump and reach 2 8210 2 12 2 10
Strength exercises Strength exercises
Leg press 50% 2 12 60% 2 10 65% 2 10 60% 2 12 Leg press 50% 2 12 60% 2 10 65% 2 10 60% 2 12
Seated hip flexion 50% 2 12 60% 2 10 65% 2 10 60% 2 12 Seated hip flexion 50% 2 12 60% 2 10 65% 2 10 60% 2 12
Hypertrophy exercises Hypertrophy exercises
Leg curls 40% 12 4 50% 12 4 55% 12 4 45% 12 4 Leg curls 40% 12 4 50% 12 4 55% 12 4 45% 12 4
Leg extensions 40% 12 4 50% 12 4 55% 12 4 45% 12 4 Leg extensions 40% 12 4 50% 12 4 55% 12 4 45% 12 4
Seated calve raise 40% 12 4 50% 12 6 55% 12 4 45% 12 4 Calve raise standing 40% 12 4 50% 12 4 55% 12 4 45% 12 4
Chest press* 40% 12 4 50% 12 7 55% 12 4 45% 12 4 Shoulder press 40% 12 4 50% 12 4 55% 12 4 45% 12 4
Trunk stability Trunk stability
Plank 2 20 seconds 2 3 0 seconds 1 60 3 30 seconds Plank 2 20 seconds 2 3 0 seconds 1 60 3 30 seconds
Prone back extensions 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12 Prone back extensions 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12
Recovery and cool down Recovery and cool down
Static stretching 2–330 seconds holds all muscle groups Static stretching 2–330 seconds holds all muscle groups
Foam roller 3–5 minutes foam-rolling over all major muscle groups Foam roller 3–5 minutes foam-rolling over all major muscle groups
L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot 5

Table 2b. Weeks 5–8 strength phase.
Day 1 Strength phase Day 2 Strength phase
Weeks 9 101112Weeks 9101112
Warm up 5 minutes stationary bike Warm up 5 minutes stationary bike
Plyometric exercises Plyometric exercises
Front box jump 2 10 2 12 2 15 2 12 Front box jump 2 10 2 12 2 15 2 12
Jump from box 2 10 2 12 2 15 2 12 Jump from box 2 10 2 12 2 15 2 12
Lateral box jump 1 5262826 Lateral box jump 1 5262826
Explosive strength exercises Strength exercises
Single leg press throw 20% 2 5 30% 2 5 40% 2 5 30% 3 5 Single leg press throw 20% 2 5 30% 2 5 40% 2 5 30% 3 5
Strength exercises Strength exercises
Single leg, leg press 70% 3 8 75% 3 8 80% 3 6 75% 3 8 Single leg, leg press 70% 3 8 75% 3 8 80% 3 6 75% 3 8
Seated hip flexion 70% 3 8 75% 3 8 80% 3 6 75% 3 8 Seated hip flexion 70% 3 8 75% 3 8 80% 3 6 75% 3 8
Hypertrophy exercises Hypertrophy exercises
Leg extensions 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 65% 10 3 55% 12 3 Leg extensions 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 60% 10 3 55% 12 3
Leg extensions 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 65% 10 3 55% 12 3 Leg curls 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 60% 10 3 55% 12 3
Calve raise 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 65% 10 3 55% 12 3 Calve raise standing 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 60% 10 3 55% 12 3
Chest press 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 65% 10 3 55% 12 3 Chest press 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 60% 10 3 55% 12 3
Prone row 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 65% 10 3 55% 12 3 Prone row 50% 12 3 60% 10 3 60% 10 3 55% 12 3
Trunk stability Trunk stability
Abdominal curl up 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12 Abdominal curl up 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12
Bird dog 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12 Bird dog 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12
Recovery and cool down Recovery and cool down
Static stretching 2–330 seconds holds all muscle groups Static stretching 2–330 seconds holds all muscle groups
Foam roller 3–5 minutes foam-rolling over all major muscle groups Foam roller 3–5 minutes foam-rolling over all major muscle groups
6 L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot

Table 2c. Weeks 9–12 power phase.
Day 1 Power phase Day 2 Power phase
Weeks 9 101112Weeks 9101112
Warm up 5 minutes stationary bike Warm up 5 minutes stationary bike
Plyometric exercises Plyometric exercises
Alternating step push offs 1 10 1 15 1 20 2 15 Alternating step push offs 1 10 1 15 1 20 2 15
Single leg box push offs 1 10 1 15 1 20 2 15 Single leg box push offs 1 10 1 15 1 20 2 15
Squat depth jumps 2 10 2 15 2 20 2 15 Squat depth jumps 2 10 2 15 2 20 2 15
Explosive strength exercises Strength exercises
Single leg press throw 45% 3 5 50% 3 5 60% 3 5 55% 3 5 Single leg press throw 45% 3 5 50% 3 5 60% 3 5 55% 3 5
Strength exercises Strength exercises
SL leg press 85%, 3 5 90%, 3 3 95% 3 2 90% 4 3 SL leg press 85%, 3 5 90%, 3 3 95% 3 2 90% 4 3
Seated hip flexion 85%, 3 5 90%, 3 3 95% 3 2 90% 4 3 Seated hip flexion 85%, 3 5 90%, 3 3 95% 3 2 90% 4 3
Hypertrophy exercises Hypertrophy exercises
Leg curls 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2 Leg curls 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2
Leg extensions 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2 Leg extensions 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2
Seated calve raise 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2 Calve raise standing 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2
Chest press 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2 Chest press 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2
Prone row 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2 Prone row 60% 12 2 70% 10 2 75% 10 2 70% 12 2
Trunk stability Trunk stability
Advanced curl up 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12 Advanced curl up 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12
Back extension bench 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12 Back extension bench 2 10 2 12 2 15 3 12
Recovery and cool down Recovery and cool down
Static stretching 2–330 seconds holds all muscle groups Static stretching 2–330 seconds holds all muscle groups
Foam roller 3–5 minutes foam-rolling over all major muscle groups Foam roller 3–5 minutes foam-rolling over all major muscle groups
L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot 7

training significantly increased RMR, and that this
increase in RMR was accompanied by a significant
increase in LM.
According to Kennis et al. (2014), middle-aged men
typically lose 1 to 2% of their LM per year after the age
of 50 years. However, in our active participants who
underwent CT training for 12 weeks, we found a
significant increase in LM of 2% (∼1.2 kg), whereas
CON had a negligible, age-related decline of 0.9%
(∼0.6 kg). A meta-analysis of 49 studies on the effect of
resistance training on LM in older men and women (age
range 50–83 years, n= 1328) revealed that training for
an average of 20.5 ±9.1 weeks (2.8 ±0.4 times per week)
resulted in a significant 1.1 kg increase in LM (Peterson,
Sen, & Gordon, 2011). Although the CT participants in
the present study completed only 12 weeks of concur-
rent strength and sprint training, it appears the
stimulus was adequate to induce significant increases
in LM.
Candow et al. (2011) investigated the effects of
strength training on LM and strength in 17 active, older
men aged 60–71 years. They reported 3.4% (∼2.0 kg)
increase in LM following 22 weeks of training, the effect
size was small (0.30), which is similar to the small effect
size we found in our CT group following 12 weeks of
combined sprint cycling and strength training.
We also observed a significant positive correlation
between the change in LM and RMR in the CT group.
Previous researchers (Dolezal & Potteiger, 1998;Pratley
et al., 1994) have reported increases in lean mass in young
and middle-aged males who completed strength training
with commensurate increases in RMR. Dolezal &
Potteiger (1998) concluded that both resistance training
and/or endurance training may significantly increase
RMR in younger individuals. The present study is the
first to observe the same finding in veteran athletes
undertaking CT training consisting of endurance, sprint
and strength training.
Table 3. Flying 200-m Track Cycling Program.
Session 1 Session 2
Weeks 1–4 Warm up:
•15 minutes easy rolling laps (low gear) with
gradual windup from 30 km/h up to 40 km/h
Conditioning phase (@80% of max speed):
•3–5 minutes active recovery between reps
•15 minutes passive recovery between sets
Set 1:
•365 m @ G92 standing start. 1 100 m seated
from 20 kph
Set 2:
•365 m @ G94 standing start. 3 minutes active
recovery between repetitions
•1200 m seated from 20 kph
Set 3:
•365 m @ G96 standing start
•1333 m seated from 30 kph
Cool-down:
•10–15 laps at a very low intensity or 5–
10 minutes on rollers
Warm up:
•15 minutes easy rolling laps (low gear) with
gradual windup from 30 km/h up to 40 km/h
Conditioning phase (@80% of max speed):
•3–5 minutes active recovery between reps
•15 minutes passive recovery between sets
Set 1:
•1Flying 100 m @ G94
•1Flying 100 m @ G96
•1Flying 100 m @G 98
Set 2:
•1flying 33 m @G98
•1flying 33 m @G100
Cool-down:
•10–15 laps at a very low intensity or 5–
10 minutes on rollers
Weeks 5–8 Warm up:
•15 minutes easy rolling laps (low gear) with
gradual windup from 30 km/h up to 40 km/h
•Plyometrics
Conditioning phase (@ 90% max speed):
•3–5 minutes active recovery between reps
•15 minutes passive recovery between sets
Set 1:
•365 m @ G96 standing start
•1100 m seated from 20 kph
Set 2:
•365 m @ G98 standing start
•1200 m seated from 20 kph
Set 3:
•365 m @ G100 standing start
•1333 m seated from 30 kph
Cool-down:
•10–15 laps at a very low intensity or 5–
10 minutes on rollers
Warm up:
•15 minutes easy rolling laps (low gear) with
gradual windup from 30 km/h up to 40 km/h
•Plyometrics
Conditioning phase (@ 90% max speed):
•3–5 minutes active recovery between reps
•15 minutes passive recovery between sets
Set 1:
•1Flying 100 m @ G98
•1Flying 100 m @ G100
•1Flying 100 m @ G102
Set 2:
•1flying 33 m @ G102
•1flying 33 m @ G104
Cool-down:
•10–15 laps at a very low intensity or 5–
10 minutes on rollers
8 L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot

In the present investigation, RMR was increased
significantly by 14% in the CT group, and was considered a
large effect following 12 weeks of CT. This finding is
consistent with the results of two previous studies, which
have reported strength training increased RMR in healthy
older adults (Lemmer et al., 2001;Pratley et al., 1994).
Lemmer et al. (2001) reported RMR was increased by 9%
following 24 weeks of strength training in a group of
previously inactive (>6 months) healthy, older males
(n= 11, 65–75 years). Earlier, Pratley et al. (1994)
reported RMR significantly increased by 7.7% following
16 weeks of strength training in a group of previously
sedentary (>6 months), healthy, older males (n= 13, 50–
65 years). However, our study is the first to have
investigated the effects of CT on RMR in veteran road
cyclists. The present findings suggest a further positive
effect of CT in elevating RMR above aerobic training
alone.
Increases in RMR have also been observed following
aerobic exercise training in healthy older but untrained
adults. For instance, Poehlman & Danforth (1991)
reported a 10% increase in RMR following 8-weeks of
endurance training in a group of healthy older, but
untrained, adults (n= 19, 64.0 ±1.6 years). In contrast to
the population studied by Poehlman & Danforth (1991),
the veteran road cyclists observed in the current study
were highly aerobically fit. Piacentini et al. (2013)
investigated the effects of a concurrent strength and
endurance training program in master endurance runners
(mean age: 44 years). They found following six weeks of
training resulted in 17% improvement in one rep max
(1RM) in the maximal strength training group and 10%
improvement in strength in the resistance group however,
no change in either groups resting metabolic rate (0.0%).
The authors found a negligible (2%) improvement over the
six weeks in fat free mass (FFM) and commented that
FFM was largely related to resting metabolic rate.
In masters endurance athletes, previous cross-sectional
studies have indicated aerobic power is positively
correlated with a higher RMR (Sullo, Cardinale, Brizzi,
Fabbri, & Maffulli, 2004;van Pelt, Jones, Davy, Desouza,
Tanaka, Davy, & Seals, 1997). In the present investiga-
tion, the increases seen in LM may also account for the
increase seen in RMR in our CT group. Indeed, Campbell
et al. (1994) reported that 12 weeks of resistance training
was associated with an increase in LM and RMR in
previously untrained, healthy older males and females
aged 56 to 80 years of age. Moreover, Westcott (2012) has
further added significant increases in RMR have been seen
following several weeks of resistance training and acutely,
an increase in RMR of up to 9% can be seen following a
single session of resistance training. Collectively, the
results of the present and previous studies suggest that
elevating aerobic fitness leads to increases in RMR in older
individuals. Indeed, the current study showed that
replacing endurance training sessions with CT led to even
further changes in RMR in veteran road cyclists who have
not previously engaged in systematic strength or sprint
training.
To the best of our knowledge, no other studies to date
have examined the effect of CT on RMR in healthy older
adults or veteran endurance athletes. However, in healthy
younger adults and obese, middle-aged adults, concurrent
strength and endurance training has been shown to
significantly increase RMR (Dolezal & Potteiger, 1998;
Medeiros Nda, de Abreu, Colato, de Lemos, Ramis,
Dorneles, & Dani, 2015). For instance, Dolezal & Potteiger
(1998) reported 10-weeks of concurrent strength and
endurance training significantly increased RMR by 4.6% a
group of healthy younger adults (n= 10, 20.1 ±1.6 years).
Furthermore, Medeiros Nda et al. (2015) reported a 2.7%
increase in RMR following 26 sessions of concurrent
strength and endurance training, in a group of obese,
middle-aged adults (n= 12, 45.3 ±10.4 years). The 14%
increase in RMR observed in the current study is
surprisingly higher than the results reported by Dolezal
& Potteiger (1998) and Medeiros Nda et al. (2015). These
results might be explained by the different combination of
training stimulus. In the present study we combined
strength training with sprint training, which may promote
summative physiological adaptations, including the ob-
served increase in LM (Cantrell, Schilling, Paquette, &
Murlasits, 2014).
At present the effects of concurrent strength and sprint
training is unknown in master athletes. However,
progressive resistance training to improve endurance
cycling performance has been previously evaluated in
both younger and older healthy adults (Bastiaans, van
Diemen, Veneberg, & Jeukendrup, 2001;Izquierdo,
Hakkinen, Ibanez, Anton, Garrues, Ruesta, & Gorostiaga,
Table 4. Body mass and resting metabolic rate following 12-week intervention.
Concurrent group (n= 9) Control group (n=9)
Pre Post Difference Pre Post Difference ES
Body mass (kg) 81.3 ±6.7 83.1 ±7.7†1.79 ±1.5 81.4 ±7.6 81.1 ±7.8 0.30 ±1.3 1.36
LM (kg) 61.8 ±5.5 63.1 ±5.4†1.2 ±1.1 61.2 ±6.7 60.6 ±6.3 0.6 ±1.9 1.16
RMR (kcal/day) 1600 ±244 1828 ±207†14.2% 1832 ±301 1612 ±242 12.0% 1.27
RMR (kcal/kg/day) 19.7 ±2.7 22.1 ±2.3†11.8% 22.8 ±4.5 17.9 ±6.7 12.0% 1.23
RRMR (kcal/lean kg/day) 25.9 ±3.1 29.0 ±2.7†12.1% 30.3 ±6.1 26.6 ±2.9 12.2% 1.26
Values are mean ±SD or percentage; †: significant pre to post-effect (p<0.05); difference: percentage change from pre to post training;
ES: Cohen’sdeffect size determined from the pre- to post-training differences between groups; RMR: resting metabolic rate; RRMR:
relative lean mass resting metabolic rate; LM: lean mass.
L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot 9

2003;Loveless, Weber, Haseler, & Schneider, 2005;
Ronnestad & Mujika, 2014;Widrick, Trappe, Costill, &
Fitts, 1996). Loveless et al. (2005) reported that eight
weeks of leg strength training significantly improved
cycling peak power in young (mean age 25 y) males.
Izquierdo et al. (2003) found a similar response following
16 weeks of strength training in older (64–74 y) adults. As
noted in our manuscript, we did not find a significant
improvement in peak power output, as has been seen in
younger cyclists. This finding was surprising however this
was commensurate with no change in VO
2
peak. The
Velotron manual cites an accuracy of +0.1% and Astorino
& Cottrell (2012) demonstrated the Velotron has a high
reliability (r= 0.90). We therefore believe our testing
methodology was valid and reliable. We believe the lack of
improvement in peak power output may be related to the
intensity and/or duration of sprint training, which may
not have been of sufficient stimulus to evoke an
improvement in peak power output. The track-cycling
program was not watts based, rather intensity based upon
distance and speed. Therefore, it is quite possible that the
ST group actually was training at a lower intensity, such
that it did not improve the post-intervention peak power
output (i.e., watts).
Our study had a number of strengths. Our participants
in the CT group had no previous strength training
experience and the mean peak power output of both
groups is rated in the 70th percentile of all cyclist in the
cycling analytics data base (Cycling Analytics, 2019).
Lean mass was assessed by DXA, which is recognized as
the gold standard technique for assessing LM. Addition-
ally, we assessed RMR using a technique, which has been
shown to be both valid and reliable. We do acknowledge
the following limitations to the current study. Firstly, the
specialised population (only male master athletes) and
limited participant numbers of this group, limited the
statistical power of this study. Secondly, only two RMR
measurements were taken during the 12-week study, more
frequent measurements may have improved the reliability
of our findings Thirdly, the non-randomised design may
have affected the outcome. Finally, we acknowledge that a
larger sample would be justified given the observed
relatively large inter-individual variability in RMR
response, especially in the CON group.
5 Conclusion
In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggest
that 12 weeks of CT have beneficial effects on RMR and
LM. While single-mode training such as endurance or
strength training has been shown to increase RMR in
healthy older adults, the present study has identified CT
increases both RMR and LM in veteran road cyclists.
Replacing a portion of endurance training with CT may be
of benefit to the veteran road cyclist, by further
stimulating RMR, thus allowing for the intake of more
nutrients, whilst maintaining or even increasing lean
mass.
Acknowledgements. We would like to extend our sincere
thanks to Professor Pat O’Shea, friend, mentor and avid master
athlete for instilling a passion for research; you are sincerely
missed but not forgotten.
Authors contribution statement. All authors contributed to the
design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the
results and to the writing of the manuscript.
References
Amirkalali, B., Hosseini, S., Heshmat, R., & Larijani, B. (2008).
Comparison of Harris Benedict and Mifflin-ST Jeor equations
with indirect calorimetry in evaluating resting energy
expenditure. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences,62(7),
283–290. doi:10.4103/0019-5359.42024.
Antunes, H., Santos, R., Boscolo, R., Bueno, O., & Mello, M.
(2005). Analysis of resting metabolic rate and body composi-
tion in elderly males before and after six months of endurance
exercise. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte,11,
71–75.
Astorino, T.A., & Cottrell, T. (2012). Reliability and validity of
the velotron racermate cycle ergometer to measure anaerobic
power. International Journal of Sports Medicine,33(3), 205–
210. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1291219.
Bastiaans, J.J., van Diemen, A.B., Veneberg, T., & Jeukendrup,
A.E. (2001). The effects of replacing a portion of endurance
training by explosive strength training on performance in
trained cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology,86
(1), 79–84. doi:10.1007/s004210100507.
Buckinx, F., Landi, F., Cesari, M., Fieding, R.A., Visser, M.,
Engelke, K., & Kanis, J.A. (2018). The authors reply: “Dual
energy X-ray absorptiometry: gold standard for muscle
mass?”by Scafoglieri et al.Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia
and Muscle,9(4), 788–790. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12329.
Campbell, W.W., Crim, M.C., Young, V.R., & Evans, W.J.
(1994). Increased energy requirements and changes in body
composition with resistance training in older adults. Ameri-
can Journal of Clinical Nutrition,60(2), 167–175.
doi:10.1093/ajcn/60.2.167.
Candow, D.G., Chilibeck, P.D., Abeysekara, S., & Zello, G.A.
(2011). Short-term heavy resistance training eliminates age-
related deficits in muscle mass and strength in healthy older
males. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,25(2),
326–333. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181bf43c8.
Cantrell, G.S., Schilling, B.K., Paquette, M.R., & Murlasits, Z.
(2014). Maximal strength, power, and aerobic endurance
adaptations to concurrent strength and sprint interval
training. European Journal of Applied Physiology,114(4),
763–771. doi:10.1007/s00421-013-2811-8.
Compher, C., Frankenfield, D., Keim, N., & Roth-Yousey, L.
(2006). Best practice methods to apply to measurement of
resting metabolic rate in adults: a systematic review. Journal
of the American Dietetic Association,106(6), 881–903.
doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.02.009.
Curry, T.B., Somaraju, M., Hines, C.N., Groenewald, C.B.,
Miles, J.M., Joyner, M.J., & Charkoudian, N. (2013).
Sympathetic support of energy expenditure and sympathet-
ic nervous system activity after gastric bypass surgery.
Obesity (Silver Spring),21(3), 480–485. doi:10.1002/
oby.20106.
Cycling Analytics. (2019). How does your cycling power output
compare? Availaible from https://www.cyclinganalytics.
com/blog/2018/06/how-does-your-cycling-power-output-
compare.
10 L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot

Del Vecchio, L., Stanton, R., Macgregor, C., Doering, T.,
Korhonen, M.T., & Reaburn, P. (2016). Lower limb muscular
strength and power characteristics of Veteran road cyclists
and age-matched sedentary controls. Gazzetta Medica
Italiana,175, 123–129.
Del Vecchio, L., Stanton, R., Reaburn, P., Macgregor, C.,
Meerkin, J., Villegas, J., & Korhonen, M.T. (2019). Effects of
combined strength and sprint training on lean mass, strength,
power, and sprint performance in masters road cyclists.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,33(1), 66–79.
doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000001960.
Dolezal, B.A., & Potteiger, J.A. (1998). Concurrent resistance
and endurance training influence basal metabolic rate in
nondieting individuals. Journal of Applied Physiology (1985),
85(2), 695–700. doi:10.1152/jappl.1998.85.2.695.
Harridge, S., Magnusson, G., & Saltin, B. (1997). Life-long
endurance-trained elderly men have high aerobic power, but
have similar muscle strength to non-active elderly men.
Aging,9(1–2), 80–87. doi:10.1007/bf03340131.
Hawley, J.A., & Noakes, T.D. (1992). Peak power output
predicts maximal oxygen uptake and performance time in
trained cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology and
Occupational Physiology,65(1), 79–83. doi:10.1007/
bf01466278.
Izquierdo, M., Hakkinen, K., Ibanez, J., Anton, A., Garrues, M.,
Ruesta, M., & Gorostiaga, E.M. (2003). Effects of strength
training on submaximal and maximal endurance performance
capacity in middle-aged and older men. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research,17(1), 129–139. doi:10.1519/
1533-4287(2003)017<0129:eostos>2.0.co;2.
Johnstone, A.M., Murison, S.D., Duncan, J.S., Rance, K.A., &
Speakman, J.R. (2005). Factors influencing variation in basal
metabolic rate include fat-free mass, fat mass, age, and
circulating thyroxine but not sex, circulating leptin, or
triiodothyronine. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,82
(5), 941–948. doi:10.1093/ajcn/82.5.941.
Kennis, E., Verschueren, S., Van Roie, E., Thomis, M., Lefevre,
J., & Delecluse, C. (2014). Longitudinal impact of aging on
muscle quality in middle-aged men. Age (Dordr), 36(4), 9689.
doi:10.1007/s11357-014-9689-1.
Kim, H.Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers:
assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis.
Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics,38(1), 52–54.
doi:10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52.
Lemmer, J.T., Ivey, F.M., Ryan, A.S., Martel, G.F., Hurlbut, D.
E., Metter, J.E., & Hurley, B.F. (2001). Effect of strength
training on resting metabolic rate and physical activity: age
and gender comparisons. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise,33(4), 532–541. doi:10.1097/00005768-200104000-
00005.
Loveless, D.J., Weber, C.L., Haseler, L.J., & Schneider, D.A.
(2005). Maximal leg-strength training improves cycling
economy in previously untrained men. Medicine and Science
in Sports and Exercise,37(7), 1231–1236. doi:10.1249/01.
mss.0000170071.33880.f8.
Luhrmann, P.M., Bender, R., Edelmann-Schafer, B., & Neu-
hauser-Berthold, M. (2009). Longitudinal changes in energy
expenditure in an elderly German population: a 12-year
follow-up. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition,63(8),
986–992. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2009.1.
Luhrmann, P.M., Edelmann-Schafer, B., & Neuhauser-Bert-
hold, M. (2010). Changes in resting metabolic rate in an
elderly German population: cross-sectional and longitudinal
data. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging,14(3), 232–
236. doi:10.1007/s12603-010-0055-4.
Medeiros Nda, S., de Abreu, F.G., Colato, A.S., de Lemos, L.S.,
Ramis, T.R., Dorneles, G.P., & Dani, C. (2015). Effects of
concurrent training on oxidative stress and insulin resistance
in obese individuals. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular
Longevity, 2015, 697181. doi:10.1155/2015/697181.
Nana, A., Slater, G.J., Hopkins, W.G., & Burke, L.M. (2012).
Effects of daily activities on dual-energy X-ray absorptiome-
try measurements of body composition in active people.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,44(1), 180–189.
doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e318228b60e.
Nieman, D.C., Austin, M.D., Benezra, L., Pearce, S., McInnis,
T., Unick, J., & Gross, S.J. (2006). Validation of Cosmed’s
FitMate in measuring oxygen consumption and estimating
resting metabolic rate. Research in Sports Medicine,14(2),
89–96. doi:10.1080/15438620600651512.
Norton, K.I., Norton, L., & Australia, F. (2011). Pre-exercise
screening: guide to the Australian adult pre-exercise screen-
ing system. Australia: Exercise and Sports Science Australia.
Oja, P., Kelly, P., Pedisic, Z., Titze, S., Bauman, A., Foster, C.,
& Stamatakis, E. (2017). Associations of specific types of
sports and exercise with all-cause and cardiovascular-disease
mortality: a cohort study of 80,306 British adults. British
Journal of Sports Medicine,51(10), 812–817. doi:10.1136/
bjsports-2016-096822.
Peterson, M.D., Sen, A., & Gordon, P.M. (2011). Influence of
resistance exercise on lean body mass in aging adults: a meta-
analysis. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,43(2),
249–258. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181eb6265.
Piacentini, M.F., De Ioannon, G., Comotto, S., Spedicato, A.,
Vernillo, G., & La Torre, A. (2013). Concurrent strength
and endurance training effects on running economy in
master endurance runners. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research,27(8), 2295–2303. doi:10.1519/
JSC.0b013e3182794485.
Poehlman, E.T., & Danforth, E., Jr. (1991). Endurance training
increases metabolic rate and norepinephrine appearance rate
in older individuals. American Journal of Physiology,261(2
Pt 1), E233–E239. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.1991.261.2.E233.
Pratley, R., Nicklas, B., Rubin, M., Miller, J., Smith, A., Smith,
M., & Goldberg, A. (1994). Strength training increases resting
metabolic rate and norepinephrine levels in healthy 50- to 65-
yr-old men. Journal of Applied Physiology (1985),76(1), 133–
137. doi:10.1152/jappl.1994.76.1.133.
Ronnestad, B.R., & Mujika, I. (2014). Optimizing strength
training for running and cycling endurance performance: A
review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in
Sports,24(4), 603–612. doi:10.1111/sms.12104.
Scafoglieri, A., & Clarys, J.P. (2018). Dual energy X-ray
absorptiometry: gold standard for muscle mass? Journal of
Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle,9(4), 786–787.
doi:10.1002/jcsm.12308.
Soysal, P., Ates Bulut, E., Yavuz, I., & Isik, A.T. (2019).
Decreased basal metabolic rate can be an objective marker for
sarcopenia and frailty in older males. Journal of the American
Medical Directors Association,20(1), 58–63. doi:10.1016/j.
jamda.2018.07.001.
Sullivan, G.M., & Feinn, R. (2012). Using effect size-or why the P
value is not enough. Journal of Graduate Medical Education,
4(3), 279–282. doi:10.4300/jgme-d-12-00156.1.
Sullo, A., Cardinale, P., Brizzi, G., Fabbri, B., & Maffulli, N.
(2004). Resting metabolic rate and post-prandial thermogen-
esis by level of aerobic power in older athletes. Clinical and
Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology,31(4), 202–206.
doi:10.1111/j.1440-1681.2004.03979.x.
Tanaka, H. (2017). Aging of competitive athletes. Gerontology,
63(5), 488–494. doi:10.1159/000477722.
L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot 11

van Pelt, R.E., Dinneno, F.A., Seals, D.R., & Jones, P.P.
(2001). Age-related decline in RMR in physically active
men: relation to exercise volume and energy intake.
American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and
Metabolism,281(3), E633–E639. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.2001.
281.3.E633.
van Pelt, R.E., Jones, P.P., Davy, K.P., Desouza, C.A., Tanaka,
H., Davy, B.M., & Seals, D.R. (1997). Regular exercise and
the age-related decline in resting metabolic rate in women.
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism,82(10),
3208–3212. doi:10.1210/jcem.82.10.4268.
Westcott, W.L. (2012). Resistance training is medicine: effects of
strength training on health. Current Sports Medicine Reports,
11(4), 209–216. doi:10.1249/JSR.0b013e31825dabb8.
Widrick, J.J., Trappe, S.W., Costill, D.L., & Fitts, R.H. (1996).
Force-velocity and force-power properties of single muscle
fibers from elite master runners and sedentary men. American
Journal of Physiology,271(2 Pt 1), C676–C683. doi:10.1152/
ajpcell.1996.271.2.C676.
Wilson, M.M., & Morley, J.E. (2003). Invited review: aging and
energy balance. Journal of Applied Physiology (1985),95(4),
1728–1736. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00313.2003.
Cite this article as: Delvecchio L, Reaburn P, Meerkin J, Korhonen MT, Borges N, Macgregor C, & Climstein M (2020)
Concurrent strength and sprint training increases resting metabolic rate in masters road cyclists. Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot, https://
doi.org/10.1051/sm/2020007
12 L. Delvecchio et al.: Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot