Design for Resilience: Traditional Knowledge in Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment

Abstract

Design is a loaded term that encompasses diverse viewpoints. Loon
(Inter-organizational design: a new approach to team design in architecture and
urban planning. In Proceedings of the 5th Design & Decision Support Systems
Conference in Architecture and urban Planning. Nijkerk, Netherlands. August,
2000) interprets the term ‘designer’ to include anyone who has an impact on design,
irrespective of the individual’s professional background. It follows then that optimum
design is the consensual design solution that is considered optimum for the
largest number of people. People will have diverse responses to what constitutes
optimum. These responses are likely to be dependent on a host of factors including
gender, profession, occupation, health, race, religion, age, environmental experience
and attitudes, to name just a few. Thus, ‘optimum’ will not necessarily be the
‘best looking design’ or the ‘most economic design’ or even the ‘most functional
design’; it will be the solution that best balances issues considered important to the
largest section of people. Such a solution should ideally ensure maximum comfort
and sense of well-being for all participants. This chapter looks at design within the
domain of traditional knowledge systems and shows how communities residing in
some of the most disaster-prone areas in the world, such as the Himalayas, have
“designed” resilient environments that have withstood the ravages of hazardous
events, for example, earthquakes. Unfortunately, these traditional design skills
which were handed down through generations are no longer evident in their places
of origin. The easy availability and economy afforded by reinforced concrete in
even the most remote parts of the country, along with the associations of permanence
(of the home) and prosperity (of the family) with this material, have resulted
in the hybridization of traditional masonry constructions in different seismic
zones of India.
Experiences from several past earthquake.s have shown that in many cases, traditional
structures have performed remarkably well, while newer, “engineered”
structures have not. Traditional construction, in this discussion, does not refer to historic structures—though there are many examples of good earthquake performance
in this category of buildings—but rather encompasses the vernacular residential
constructions made with locally available materials and using indigenous
knowledge. A number of such traditional earthquake-resistant practices exist in the
Himalayan region, one of the most tectonically active in the world. Some of the
most effective of these are Dhajji-diwari and Taq, around the Srinagar area in
Kashmir, Ikra construction in Assam, and Shee-Khim, in Sikkim. This chapter
describes some of these traditional construction techniques and shows how these are
effective as earthquake-resilient systems.
Keywords Earthquake resilience • Traditional knowledge • Design typologies

Full text

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
Springer Geography
MainakGhosh Editor
Perception, Design
and Ecology of the
Built Environment
A Focus on the Global South

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
Springer Geography
Advisory Editors
MitjaBrilly, Fac. Civil & Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
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University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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University,Kennesaw, GA, USA
MichaelLeitner, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State
University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
MarkW.Patterson, Dept. Geography & Anthropology, Kennesaw State University,
Kennesaw, GA, USA
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Szombathely, Hungary

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mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
Mainak Ghosh
Editor
Perception, Design
and Ecology of the Built
Environment
A Focus on the Global South

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic)
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Editor
Mainak Ghosh
Department of Architecture
Jadavpur University
Kolkata, India
, corrected publication 2020

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
v
Foreword
The particular issues of the Global South need urgent attention for a pluralistic
multifaceted vision of improvement and sustainable development. This book is an
attempt to address this difcult and interdisciplinary topic. Why do the architecture
and built environment of the Global South remain so vastly different from those of
the North, often despite the rich heritage values and signicant spatial inheritance
of the past? The arc of progress seems to have dampened with time and accelerated
during the colonization and after the industrial revolution. Today, globalization,
aided by scientic and technological worldviews, has made the world a smaller,
more known, and accessible place. However, as the chapters in this book show, the
differentiators need careful appraisal. The various divides that exist among territo-
ries marked by political, cultural, and socioeconomic boundaries have impacted
everything that human civilization had ever produced. With the growing intellectual
exchange and media access, there is every reason to assume that these differentia-
tors can be better understood.
The growing usage of the terms Global North and Global South, today, is largely
an attempt to bridge the gaps rather than reinforcing and accepting modes of dif-
ferentiation in the world. There is a need to address a multiplicity of views, and
cross-sectional knowledge needs to be dissipated about the characteristics and crite-
ria of the Global South, so that, rst, the awareness is raised, and, second, forces and
parties join hands to solve problems to make the world a better place to live and
grow in the future. Many of the chapters of this book have been framed in the form
of stories from different parts of the world. These depictions are specic but are
ubiquitous in the developing countries of the world. The presentation of the book is
vivid and catches the attention of the reader, each case study painting a conceptual
picture of typical Global South scenario, irrespective of place specicity. Having
been born and brought up in a developing country and now living in a Global North
country in the Southern Hemisphere for many years, I could relate to this book in a
manner of dual readership, experiencing both dichotomy andunison.
This book is an excellent resource for architects, designers, planners, environ-
mentalists, sociologists, and policy-makers, for it projects the setting of built envi-
ronment in the Global South. Though the book is academic- and research-driven,

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
vi
an overall read would not be too strenuous for the interested reader or a student
curious to learn about the built characteristics of the developing world. With my
research area encircling around computational techniques in architecture and urban-
ism, I have been fascinated by the simplicity with which the key features of built
environment has been postulated in this book, namely, the environment (ecology),
perception, and design. Overall, the book has harnessed on one or more of these
themes in different chapters of the book fashioning a subtle integration. The inter-
woven characteristics of these themes, with multitude of places and different styles
of writing by the different chapter authors, have given it a form which resonates
with the essence of how the Global South actually exists– diverse, rustic, vibrant,
and perhaps chaotic.
I would contend that this book is but a tiny grain of sand compared to the vast-
ness of the Global South. Large and overwhelmingly diverse, difcult to research
and document, the book is a timely compilation on this important subject matter.
I am certain that this is a ripple which would ambitiously multiply over the coming
years.
SambitDatta Professor, Curtin University
Perth, WA, Australia
Foreword

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
vii
Acknowledgment
The countless anonymous people around me, passer-by encountered while living
my day-to-day life in a developing country, gave me the impetus to frame the book.
Observing the habits and habitat of my fellow inhabitants in the Global South
charged me with the thought that more needed to be explored and documented on
this front. Hence, this is to acknowledge those whom I do not know by name but are
part of this same world, living a life of difference in a substantially dissimilar envi-
ronment than that of the developing nations.
We all reside in a zone of interface of place and people; without place, we do not
exist, and places get their meanings because of people. And this place is to convey
my special humble acknowledgment to the important people in my life supporting
this work.
My sincere expression of gratefulness to all the chapter contributors of this book
from different countries of the world. Without the support and cooperation from all
the authors, it would have been impossible to give a shape to this thought which is
vast and obscured. Discussion with colleagues and friends about the idea of the
book helped me get clearer perspectives: Professor Souvanic Roy had played an
important role in formulating the title of the book and Professor Keya Mitra, Neeta
Das, and Venance in connecting up with the authors from other countries. Thanks
are also due to Professor Sanjib Nag for his support.
I have been fortunate to receive the foreword from Professor Sambit Datta, Curtin
University, who is fondly keen on the developments of the Global South. With his
extended travel experience and expertise on the subject, living in Global North but
originally from Global South, he is perhaps the best person who could review this
book.
My students have been the constant source of inspiration, and I nd it interesting
to learn from them. I especially thank my research scholars, Farha Shermin and
Shreeja Ganguly, for helping me with some of the copy editing part.
I am obliged to the infrastructural support provided by Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India, where I am attached professionally at present to teach and
research. Also, thanks to my university colleagues and staff. Professor Samantak

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
viii
Das from the Department of Comparative Literature has been a source of great
encouragement.
I hereby express my humble gratitude and regards to my parents who have been
the silent supporters in all my pursuits. I have lost my mother, Mohua Ghosh, during
the book project. I am grateful to the publisher and authors for staying by my side
patiently, despite the delay in the book project. I dedicate this book to my mother.
I thank my family, Sudipta and Anthea, for their cooperation.
Acknowledgment

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
ix
Contents
1 Built Environment in Response to the Ecology, Design,
and Perception of the Global South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Mainak Ghosh
2 Urban Transformations of Residential Settlements in Colonial
Towns: Case Study of Chandernagore and Serampore . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Ruchira Das, Sanjib Nag, and Keya Mitra
3 Transformation of Commercial Centres and Urban
Development Process in Global South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Sanghamitra Sarkar, Mainak Ghosh, and Sanjib Nag
4 Issues and Challenges for Transit-Oriented Development
in the Scenario of a Developing Country: The Case
of Kolkata Metropolitan Area, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Subrata Kr. Paul, Abhinanda Chatterjee, and Souvanic Roy
5 Transportation and Built Environment: Bus-Sense for Global
South Based on a Case for Bringing Back Life in Bus Transport . . . 91
Yogesh Dandekar
6 From Grey to Green: Rethinking Setback and MGC Rules
as a Sustainable Growth Strategy of Residential Areas – A Case
Study of Anannya Residential Area of Chittagong, Bangladesh . . . . 107
Rezuana Islam, Kanu Kumar Das, and Samira Binte Bashar
7 Coastal Climate Readiness and Preparedness: Comparative
Review of the State of Florida and Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Haris Alibašiü and John D. Morgan
8 Post-tsunami Reconstruction and Panchayats: Political Economy
Barriers to Effective Implementation. Independent Consultant and
Urban Environmental Specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Savitha Ram Mohan

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x
9 Design for Resilience: Traditional Knowledge in Disaster
Resilience in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
K. Mitra
10 Sustainable Planning Interventions in Tropical Climate
for Urban Heat Island Mitigation – Case Study of Kolkata . . . . . . . . 167
Santanu Bajani and Debashish Das
11 Factors Leading to Disposal of Toxic and Hazardous Sacred
Waste and Its Effect on Urban River Contamination: Case
of Adi Ganga, Kolkata, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Srijita Chakrabarty
12 Spatial Evaluation Supporting Sustainable Tourism
Development in Riverine Global South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Shreeja Ganguly, Mainak Ghosh, and Joy Sen
13 Between Mountain and River: A Vernacular
Settlement-Architectural Concept in Indonesian Archipelago . . . . . . 295
Indah Widiastuti
14 Reflection on Rhetorics, Appropriate Building Materials,
and Domestic Utilities Towards Reduction of Housing Costs
in Africa: A Case of Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Moses Felician Moses and Livin Henry Mosha
15 Design, Form, and Ecological Characteristics of the Traditional
Cunda Houses in Anatolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Ayten Erdem
16 Regionalising Contemporary Architecture in a Case
of Global South: Masjid Raya Sumatra Barat
in West Sumatra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Feni Kurniati
17 Spatial Growth of Religious Architecture: Case
of Indian Temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Soumen Mitra and Mayukh Ch. Sadhukhan
18 Co-existence: Migrated Settlement Redefining Cultural
Heritage – A Case from Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Mohaimeen Islam, Huda Mohammed Faisal, and Md. Tawhidur
Rashid
19 Altered Perception of Culture: Based on Features
of Pedestrian Experience and Aesthetic Regeneration
of Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Tanima Bhattacharya, Suparna Dasgupta, Tushar Kanti Saha, and
Joy Sen
Contents

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xi
20 Gerontology and Urban Public Spaces of Global South:
Case of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Saptarshi Kolay
21 Living in Alleys: A Story of Kampung Kota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Achmad Syaiful Lathif
22 Connecting the Past and the Present for a Better Future
of Historic City of Developing Country: Case of Heritage
Walks of Hyderabad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Madhu Vottery
23 Understanding ‘Rural’ and Village Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Abhishek Bhutoria
24 Lively Urban Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Mariana de Cillo Malufe Spignardi
25 The Smart City in Relation to Its Environment, Perception,
and Urban Planning Process: Lessons for
Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Vasiliki Geropanta
26 The Road Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Uttaran Dutta and Mainak Ghosh
Correction to: From Grey to Green: Rethinking Setback and MGC
Rules as a Sustainable Growth Strategy of Residential
Areas – A Case Study of Anannya Residential Area
of Chittagong, Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Contents

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149© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
M. Ghosh (ed.), Perception, Design and Ecology of the Built Environment,
Springer Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25879-5_9
Chapter 9
Design forResilience: Traditional
Knowledge inDisaster Resilience
intheBuilt Environment
K.Mitra
Abstract Design is a loaded term that encompasses diverse viewpoints. Loon
(Inter-organizational design: a new approach to team design in architecture and
urban planning. In Proceedings of the 5th Design & Decision Support Systems
Conference in Architecture and urban Planning. Nijkerk, Netherlands. August,
2000) interprets the term ‘designer’ to include anyone who has an impact on design,
irrespective of the individual’s professional background. It follows then that opti-
mum design is the consensual design solution that is considered optimum for the
largest number of people. People will have diverse responses to what constitutes
optimum. These responses are likely to be dependent on a host of factors including
gender, profession, occupation, health, race, religion, age, environmental experi-
ence and attitudes, to name just a few. Thus, ‘optimum’ will not necessarily be the
‘best looking design’ or the ‘most economic design’ or even the ‘most functional
design’; it will be the solution that best balances issues considered important to the
largest section of people. Such a solution should ideally ensure maximum comfort
and sense of well-being for all participants. This chapter looks at design within the
domain of traditional knowledge systems and shows how communities residing in
some of the most disaster-prone areas in the world, such as the Himalayas, have
“designed” resilient environments that have withstood the ravages of hazardous
events, for example, earthquakes. Unfortunately, these traditional design skills
which were handed down through generations are no longer evident in their places
of origin. The easy availability and economy afforded by reinforced concrete in
even the most remote parts of the country, along with the associations of perma-
nence (of the home) and prosperity (of the family) with this material, have resulted
in the hybridization of traditional masonry constructions in different seismic
zones of India.
Experiences from several past earthquake.s have shown that in many cases, tra-
ditional structures have performed remarkably well, while newer, “engineered”
structures have not. Traditional construction, in this discussion, does not refer to
K. Mitra ()
Department of Architecture, Town and Regional Planning, Indian Institute of Engineering
Science and Technology, Shibpur, Howrah, West Bengal, India
e-mail: keyamitra@arch.iiests.ac.in

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
150
historic structures—though there are many examples of good earthquake perfor-
mance in this category of buildings—but rather encompasses the vernacular resi-
dential constructions made with locally available materials and using indigenous
knowledge. A number of such traditional earthquake-resistant practices exist in the
Himalayan region, one of the most tectonically active in the world. Some of the
most effective of these are Dhajji-diwari and Taq, around the Srinagar area in
Kashmir, Ikra construction in Assam, and Shee-Khim, in Sikkim. This chapter
describes some of these traditional construction techniques and shows how these are
effective as earthquake-resilient systems.
Keywords Earthquake resilience · Traditional knowledge · Design typologies
Introduction
Anyone who has an impact on design, irrespective of the individual’s professional
background, can be termed a ‘designer’ (Loon 2000). It may be reasonably argued
then that optimum design is the consensual design solution that is considered opti-
mum for the largest number of people. These responses are likely to be dependent
on a host of factors including gender, profession, occupation, health, race, religion,
age, environmental experience and attitudes, to name just a few. Thus, ‘optimum’
will not necessarily be the ‘best looking design’ or the ‘most economic design’ or
even the ‘most functional design’; it will be the solution that best balances issues
considered important to the largest section of people. Such a solution should ideally
ensure maximum comfort and sense of well-being for all participants. This chapter
looks at design within the domain of traditional knowledge systems and shows how
communities residing in some of the most disaster-prone areas in the world have
‘designed’ resilient environments that have withstood the ravages of hazardous
events, for example, earthquakes.
Built Environment andResilience
Earthquake-resistant construction practices are not new to India or, for that matter,
to human civilization. The city of Knossos (the Minoan capital) had in-built disaster
resilience mechanisms such as locating buildings away from the reach of tsunamis,
avoiding valleys for construction purposes on account of their vulnerabilities to
oods and tsunamis and using of timber beams and joints for improving resilience
against earthquakes (Main and Williams 1994). Inca settlements in the Andes
addressed issues of seismic safety through restricting size of settlements, ensuring
that buildings were located well apart from each other to avoid damage due to
pounding, eliminating low walls, interlocking stone blocks for better structural
bonding and other measures (Main and Williams 1994, p.17). In India, as far back
as 1931,S.L.Kumar, a young railway engineer, successfully built several bunga-
lows with earthquake-resistant features. These structures performed well during the
K. Mitra

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
151
1935 earthquake in Quetta, Balochistan, that caused widespread devastation in the
built environment (Jain 2005).
Traditional Knowledge Systems
Traditional knowledge systems (TKS) have been a part of the mainstream narrative
in the elds of medicine, ecology and social sciences. The research literature
acknowledges the importance of the conservation of this knowledge (eg., Gadgil
etal. 1993; Folke 2004). It has been established that, on the one hand, traditional
knowledge and related institutions increase capacity to cope with change, while on
the other, traditional knowledge and beliefs tend to erode with adoption of modern
technology. Drawing a parallel with the built environment, traditional knowledge
systems in the design and construction of the built environment have received some
attention globally, as it has been proven time and again that these are often the most
optimum for the societies where they have evolved. For example, traditional prac-
tices in seismic areas, which have evolved over time, using locally available materi-
als have offered increased seismic resistance along with good climate control. Some
international examples of earthquake-resistant architecture include the Himis style
of construction in Turkey (Gülkan and Langenbach 2004; Güçhan 2007), Bahareque
construction in El Salvador (Bommer etal. 2002; López etal. 2004), timber houses
in Nepal (Dixit 2004; Shakyaa etal. 2012), adobe houses in Yugoslavia and other
parts of Eastern Europe (Dutu etal. 2012; Hrasnica 2009), conned masonry con-
struction in Latin America and Central Europe (Brzev 2007; Langenbach 2007;
Wood etal. 1987; Audefroy 2011) and Dhajji-diwari, Taq, Shee-Khim and Ikra in
different parts of the earthquake-prone Himalayan Belt in India (Jigyasu 2002;
Alkazi 2014).
Traditional Earthquake-Resistant Construction
intheHimalayan Belt
The Himalayan Belt represents the boundary between two major tectonic plates
(Indo-Australian Plate and Eurasian Plate), with the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)
and Main Central Thrust (MCT) coinciding with the Himalayan arc that forms the
northern border of the Indian subcontinent spanning a distance of approximately
3200km, stretching from Kashmir in the north-west to Arunachal Pradesh in the
north-eastern tip of India. This tectonic plate boundary is a convergent boundary
where the Indian Plate (at the north-western tip of the Indo-Australian Plate) is
actively subducting into the Tibetan Plate (part of the Eurasian Plate). This belt has
witnessed some of the largest earthquakes throughout geological time, 1897 Assam
(M8.7), 1905 Kangra (M8.0), 1934 Bihar-Nepal (M8.3) and 1950 Assam-Tibet
9 Design forResilience: Traditional Knowledge inDisaster Resilience intheBuilt…

mainak.ghosh@jadavpuruniversity.in
152
(M8.6), and more recently, 1988 Bihar-Nepal (M6.6), 1991 Uttarkashi (M 6.4),
1999 Chamoli (M6.6), 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6), 2011 Sikkim (M6.9) and 2015
Gorkha Earthquake (M) and its aftershocks. The communities inhabiting these
regions have, over time, developed resilient systems against earthquakes and other
natural hazards (Fig.9.1).
Dhajji-Diwari andTaq
The Dhajji-diwari style of construction is typically found in the Srinagar area of
Jammu and Kashmir, in seismic zone V of the seismic zone map of India (IS1893:Part
2 2016),representing exposure to themost severe seismic hazard. The building typol-
ogy uses three locally available materials, namely, stone, timber and clay bricks, in
different combinations along the height of the building. Thus, stonemasonry is used in
the plinth level, and also sometimes in the lower storeys, whilea combination of brick
masonry conned with timber members is used in the upper storeys.
Kabul,
1505 Jalahabad, 1842
Kashmir 1555
Kashmir 1885 (2000)
Uttarkashi, 1991 (2000)
Chamoli, 1999 (100)
Kumaon 1505
Nepal 1833 (500)
Assam 1950 (1526)
Bhutan 1713,1947
Silchar 1869
Shillong
1897(1542)
Dhaka, 1885
Calcutta
Chittagong, 1769
Andaman, 1941 Pt. Blair
Car Nicobar, 1881
Madras
Cape Comorin
Cochin
Bangalore
Koyna, 1967 (177)
Latur, 1993 (9748)
Broach, 1970 (26)
Dwarka, 0
Dabul, 1524
Anjar, 1956 (113)
Jabalpur, 1997 (38)
Bhuj 2001 (19,000)
Bihar-Nepal 1934 (10700)
Delhi, 1720
Garwhal, 1803
Kangra 1905 (19500)
Chaman, 1892
Mach/Quetta
1931-5(30000)
W.Nepal 1966 (80), 1980 (220)
Udaypur, 1988 (1450)
AllahBund
1819 (2000)
Debil, 1668
Significant earthquake
Major earthquake
tsunami
1881, 1941
Cachar, 1984 (20)
Fig. 9.1 Historical record of earthquakes in the Indian subcontinent showing the locations of three
traditional earthquake-resistant systems. (Adapted from Bilham 2004)
K. Mitra

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153
Construction at the foundation and sometimes up to the plinth and even ground
oor levels is with local stones, usually rounded in prole, as they are sourced from
the river beds. The brick masonry in the upper storeys uses a lime-based mortar
(locally known as lime surki), which uses lime and surki, which is an aggregate
made of crushed bricks. These brick masonry panels are conned with timber mem-
bers, placed vertically, horizontally and diagonally. Taq construction techniques are
also seen wherein the vertical and diagonal wooden framing members are not used
and the walls are made of brick with horizontal wooden bands placed at regular
intervals along the entire height of the structure. The sloped roofs are constructed by
putting panels of corrugated galvanized iron (CGI) sheets on a timber framework of
trusses that rest on the conned brick masonry walls. In rural areas, the timber
framework is often topped with thatch, nished with an application of a wet clay
paste. In houses with more than one storey, the intermediate oors are made of tim-
ber planks above a timber oor grid that rests on the walls. Seismic safety can be
achieved in a building through proper conformance to some well-known architec-
tural and structural concepts that have proved to be benecial in improving the
seismic performance of structures.
The wood frame houses in the Srinagar region are typically two to four storeys
tall. Plan congurations are compact and centralized. Floor plans are typically rect-
angular. The main entrance doorway leads into a small, square space which has a
narrow dog-legged staircase opposite to the entrance. In the upper oor, the stair-
case leads to the lobby space with two rooms on either side of it like in the ground
oor.
The foundation is strip foundation with stonemasonry. Often, the plinth masonry
is 900 mm thick and made with locally available large-sized stones, coursed or
uncoursed irrespective of the material used for the walls in the upper storeys (Fig.9.2).
Sometimes the ground oor walls are also of random rubble stonemasonry with a
thickness of 600mm, but usually brick masonry is used above plinth level where the
brickwork is framed within a set of wooden members in the traditional Dhajji-
diwari style.
The plinth masonry is laid in a shallow trench marginally wider than the wall
width and about 600–750 mm deep. The plinth stops at about 600 mm from the
natural ground level. A plinth beam made of timber is placed on the plinth masonry
at plinth level. The plinth beams in two orthogonal directions are secured by nails or
metal plates for better connections (Fig.9.3).
Walls in the ground oor including plinth masonry areoften made of stone-masonry,
both, random rubble and dressed and coursed/uncoursed. In the upper oors, thin
bricks are laid in horizontal courses with horizontal, vertical and diagonal ties that
reduce the area of unreinforced masonry panels and help to conne the inlls
(Fig.9.4) and prevent out of plane collapse during earthquakes.
The thicker walls in the ground storey often do not use diagonal members, while
these are quite common in the thinner walls in the upper storeys, as the drift due to
earthquake shaking increases along the height of a structure (Fig.9.5). Buildings
have CGI roofs on wooden trusses though in earlier times roofs were made of timber
planks. Many variations in geometry are evident for roof design including (a) gable,
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Fig. 9.2 Use of large stones and continuous wooden plinth bands. (Photos: Author)
Fig. 9.3 A metal plate
connecting the timber
plinth beam in two
orthogonal directions.
(Photos: Author)
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Fig. 9.4 Two-storeyed house, rectangular in plan in the ground oor with diagonally placed room
projections on the upper oor. (Photo: C.V.R Murty)
Fig. 9.5 Vertical and horizontal wooden frame members on the upper oor with diagonal framing
at the corners of both faces of the building. (Photo: Author)
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(b) split roof and (c) roof with dormer windows (Fig.9.6). The roof structure is a
truss with closed triangles that are desirable for best performance. Roof bands are
used, and a variant of this is the use of the crossbeam with the roof band.
The suitability of the Dhajji-diwari system for earthquake resistance lies in the
structural integrity that is achieved through the use of timber horizontal, vertical and
diagonal bracing members that can deform without losing their strength and that do
not allow the inll panels to fail out of plane. The strength of the system therefore
lies in the adequacy of the bracing members and their appropriate placement in the
most vulnerable sections of a structure, namely, corners, overhangs, gable ends,
around openings, etc. However,not all Dhajji-diwari buildings have performed well
in past earthquakes. Some common deciencies of poorly constructed Dhajji-diwari
structures include use of low-quality materials, inadequacy of wooden bracing
members in all vulnerable locations, use of incomplete trusses on the roof and lack
of connections between the structural elements such as foundations, walls and roofs.
Need for adequate insulation necessitates the use of double walls, which, in Dhajji-
diwari, are typically brick walls, where baked bricks are used for the external wythe,
while the interior panels are made of unbaked bricks. Lack of connections between
the two wythes contributes to the vulnerability of the system as the walls behave as
independent panels with low out of plane strength and are liable to collapse or get
severely damaged during strong earthquake shaking.
Fig. 9.6 Horizontal, vertical and diagonal bracing members in the upper section of the gable wall
for improving out of plane performance
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Ikra andtheAssam-Type Construction
The typical housing in the hills of the Guwahati Region in northeast India is built
both on at lands and hill slopes. These single-or, at most, two-storeyed structures
are built on raised plinth as a safeguard against surface runoff.
‘Ikra’ structures are built mainly for the residential purposes of the common
people. The so-called Assam-type structures owe their origin to Ikra construction.
Ikra typology makes use of a range of materials used for structures ranging from
non-permanent (kachcha) to semi-permanent to permanent (pucca) structures.
Basic features of the Ikra house are thatched roof, bamboo walls plastered with a
mixture of mud and cow dung and bamboo splints woven together and tted inside
the wooden frame plastered with mud mortar. The bamboo adds stiffness to the
mud, and being a exible material, it also brings ductility to the system.
Ikra houses are usually low-rise structures, not more than two storeys in height
(Figs.9.7 and 9.8). In two-storeyed structures, the ground storey is made of conven-
tional load-bearing construction, while the upper storey has lighter construction
using wooden members. Simple rectangular plans are used for smaller structures,
while L-and C-shaped structures are used for multifamily houses or larger struc-
tures. The sloped roofs with tall gable walls are needed to allow quick runoff during
heavy rainfall. Roofs are usually sloped with a high gable to drain off the heavy
rainfall.
Fig. 9.7 Single-storeyed Ikra structure. (Photo: Author)
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Ikra structures are made largely using wood-based materials. A weed, called
‘Ikra’, grows wildly in river plains and adjoining lakes across the state of Assam,
and this material is extensively used in the walls and roof (Fig.9.9). The wall panels
are made of bamboo with inll panels made of vertically oriented, mud-plastered
shoots of the Ikra reed (Fig.9.10). The covering on the roof truss is a thick stack of
Ikra reed or, for the more afuent, metal sheets.
The wooden framework for the Ikra panels is made of either bamboo or wood.
The wooden frames are plastered on both the sides with mud mortar. Three layers
of plaster are applied one after another, waiting for a coat to dry before application
of the next coat. After all the layers of plasters are xed and rm, a nal nishing is
given with a coating of a liquid mixture of mud and cow dung (Fig.9.11).
These structures have no formal foundations, as such. The main wooden verticals
of the superstructure continue below the ground to depths of about 600–900mm. In
more formal constructions (so-called Assam-type structures), the main wooden posts
of the house are supported on masonry or plain concrete pillars constructed over the
ground up to plinth or sill level (Fig.9.12). The connections between wooden posts
and the pillars are achieved using steel bolts and U-clamps. Later foundations were
made of plain concrete mats (generally in plain cement concrete (PCC) of grade
1:3:6) over which pedestals of same grade were raised up to plinth level of buildings.
Wooden posts were xed to these pedestals with the help of iron clamps (Fig.9.13).
Fig. 9.8 Double-storeyed Ikra house. (Photo: Hemant Kaushik)
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An important aspect of this typology is the joinery between the various ele-
ments– the posts, wall panels, roof truss and roong elements. In Assam-type struc-
tures, connections were achieved with nails and bolts. In the informal construction,
coir ropes are used to connect the various elements. The latter raises concerns on
durability of the connection materials and thereby on the safety of the house. One of
the most important connections is at the plinth level between the vertical main posts
and the supporting pedestal. The connection is achieved by U-clamps and bolts.
Fig. 9.9 Bundles of ‘ikra’
TIMBER FRAM
E
BAMBOO SPLINT
‘IKRA’
Fig. 9.10 Schematic
sketch of Ikra panel
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Due to unavailability of the sufcient length of vertical posts, it is sometimesnec-
essary to join two elements together (splicing), using bolts (Fig.9.14a). In some
cases, the main or intermediate vertical posts are embedded inside the plain con-
crete pedestals discussed earlier and shown in Fig.9.11. The vertical intermediate
posts are connected with the horizontal wooden members at oor level, sill level,
lintel level and eaves level using nails, steel clamps and bolts. The main vertical
posts are continued till the roof level and connected to the horizontal rafters and
other truss members of the roof using nails, bolts and steel clamps (Fig.9.14b–g).
The wooden planks used for slabs are supported on intermediate rafters, which
in turn are supported on main wooden beams at ends that transfer the load to the
main vertical posts. The empty space between the slab and the roof truss is generally
used as storage. The truss is made of wooden members that support the tin or asbes-
tos roong.
Ikra structures are known to have a number of strengths that inuence earth-
quake safety of the house. These include:
(a) Architectural aspects: good plan shape, small openings, appropriate location of
openings, e.g. away from corners, and small projections and overhangs
(b) Structural features: light mass of walls and roofs, good wall-to-wall connection
(in case of formal construction), good quality and strength of materials used
(c) Flexible connections (bolting, nails, grooves, etc.) between various wooden ele-
ments at different levels
Fig. 9.11 Ikra wall panels with mud plaster
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Moreover, in Ikra, bamboo is used as the main structural element. Bamboo
imparts ductility in the system leading to good earthquake performance. The lightweight
material, owing to lower seismic weight, helps to reduce the earthquake-induced
inertia forces in the structure leading to better seismic performance.
The system does, however, have a number of shortcomings. The choice of wood
as the basic construction material and thatch (in rural areas) as roong material of
the house draws high maintenance and is vulnerable to re. To a large extent, the re
hazard to the house is mitigated, when the kitchen is separated from the main house
but placed within the courtyard of the house. But the use of electricity in such
houses leaves possibilities of re due to short-circuit during earthquake shaking. In
urban areas, the roof has long been converted to metal roong; hence this is not an
area of concern.
The mud-dung plaster on walls requires a lot of maintenance and frequent appli-
cation. During summers, it becomes brittle and then falls off easily during the rainy
season. In rural areas, the thatch on the roof is vulnerable to suction under strong
winds.
When the wooden vertical posts are directly plugged into the ground without any
foundations, structures have sunk up to 300mm. Sometimes, differential sinking of
Fig. 9.12 Brick masonry
pedestals supporting the
vertical timber posts
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the vertical posts can lead to lateral sway of the house and tearing. The problem is
aggravated in sites with high water table but can be mitigated by providing the verti-
cal posts with stone piers or plain cement concrete as a foundation.
Use of Ikra-type construction in hill slopes has some inherent problems. On hill
slopes, the unequal lengths of the vertical posts lead to unsymmetrical shaking.
Shee-Khim Construction ofSikkim
Shee-Khim is the traditional style of construction, practiced in Sikkim, and most
prevalent in Upper Sikkim. Shee-Khim houses are of single-storeyed wooden plank
construction. These are made of wooden frames and planks, supported on wooden
posts. Random rubble masonry is used in foundation. The oors and double-pitched
roofs were of timber construction, using single post beam system.
Traditional structure in Sikkim can be classied based on the type of material
used. The two predominant categories are (1) wood houses, e.g. Ikra and Shee-Khim
(Fig.9.15), and (2) masonry houses.
Shee-Khim structures have four types of plinths according to the slope prole.
These are (1) random rubble masonry (RRM) with and without mud mortar; (2) dry
Fig. 9.13 Connection
details between vertical
wooden posts and plain
concrete plinths
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Fig. 9.14 (a) Splicing; (b) connection between vertical posts and horizontal rafters at verandah;
(c) connection between vertical posts and horizontal rafters at eaves level; (d) connection between
vertical post and wooden slab; (e) connection between vertical post, horizontal rafters and inclined
roof member at eaves level from inside; (f) connection between vertical post, horizontal rafters and
inclined roof member at eaves level from outside; and (g) connection between vertical post, hori-
zontal rafters and asbestos sheet used for roong
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dressed stonemasonry; (3) dressed stonemasonry; and (4) dressed stonemasonry
with pointing. In the hilly slopes, tapered stone plinth is preferred, while uniform
masonry made of stone and mud mortar is used in at ground. Both mud and lime-
based mortar are used for bonding. Mud with ne river sand plaster is used in inte-
riors, while the exterior has exposed stone nish without plaster.
Traditional Shee-Khim structures performed excellently in both the earthquakes
of 2006 and 2011 (Kaushik and Dasgupta 2012) due to a number of factors.
Symmetrical and simple geometric conguration in plan is excellent for earthquake
resistance. The horizontal bands help to increase lateral strength capacity, while the
closely packed wooden frames prevent the spread of diagonal crack, while the closely
spaced vertical members also restrict the diagonal shear and out of plane collapse.
The reduction of mass in the upper storey results in lower earthquake-induced iner-
tia forces at roof level.
Concluding Remarks
The traditional earthquake-resistant systems discussed in the preceding sections fall
within a rich sample of such typologies that have evolved over centuries in some of
the most earthquake-prone regions of the world. These can all be said to belong
within the broad umbrella of conned masonry systems with excellent connections,
Fig. 9.15 Shee-Khim house. (Photo: Sutapa Joti)
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exibility and ductility, stability, strength and structural integrity. Earthquake resis-
tance is achieved through damping and shock absorption, horizontal tying actions,
reduction of span between supports, enhancing out of plane stability and conse-
quent containment of masonry. Well-constructed samples of these traditional sys-
tems are amongst the best examples of vernacular earthquake-resistant construction
and may be taken up as models for new vernacular constructions in earthquake-prone
areas. Rural housing programmes such as the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)
initiative, for example, add huge numbers to the housing stock, involving enormous
scal allocations. Aspiring house builders in this owner-driven programme should
be encouraged to construct their houses in these earthquake-resistant technologies,
using locally available materials through the construction of model PMAY houses
in these technologies in district headquarters and by conducting masons’ training
programmes. Traditional housing construction techniques should be brought back
in a signicant way. Appropriate research is required to be undertaken to develop
better understanding on critical aspects of the said traditional housing, especially
the quantitative understanding of the earthquake resistance of such housing. These
practices need to be given wider publicity amongst the various stakeholders– home-
owners, NGOs, governments, artisans, nancial institutions and contractors.
Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges C.V.R Murty, Hemant B Kaushikand
Sutapa Joti for some of the photographs and the support from BMTPC for conducting surveys in
Srinagar and Guwahati.
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K. Mitra