No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Plastic Contamination in Brazilian Freshwater and Coastal Environments: A Source-to-Sea Transboundary Approach
Abstract
Plastic debris is ubiquitous in aquatic environments. Freshwater and
estuarine ecosystems are not different, and plastic contamination is abundant. Despite ecological and socioeconomic importance, previous reviews identified a low number of publications regarding these ecosystems. An organized review to provide a comprehensive qualitative overview of the plastic debris pollution in Brazil was conducted, considering the literature available (n ¼ 37) on Brazilian freshwater and estuarine areas. Literature was reviewed analysing the potential sources, distribution and contamination patterns in different environmental compartments aiming at gathering information that will contribute to the understanding of the status of the plastic pollution in these Brazilian systems. Results indicate that research regarding freshwater systems is almost absent, whilst estuaries present studies considering all-sized plastics. Sources of plastic debris varied according to the environmental compartment. Composition and distribution are also dependent of the compartment investigated; however, there is a clear dominance of plastics. Regarding distribution, it is a clear knowledge gap, considering that most studies analysed describe the levels of pollution without concluding about pathways and trajectories. Interaction between plastic debris and biota was highlighted, including benthos, mammals, reptiles, molluscs, and fishes. The source-to-sea approach might be a key approach to comprehensively understand the plastic debris problems within the Brazilian coast.
... Although estuaries are important habitats for several species (Barletta et al., 2019) and crucial for socioeconomic purposes (Malli et al., 2022), there is still little literature about such regions, especially regarding microplastics in the water column (Gallagher et al., 2016). Some advances have recently been made in understanding this coastal compartment, but especially partially mixed estuaries, particularly in South America (Ivar do Sul & Costa, 2007;Lima et al., 2020), remain understudied (Malli et al., 2022). ...
... Degradation processes were not investigated in the present study; thus, future studies should consider investigating such morphological modifications of MPs on the water surface in subtropical estuaries such as the PEC. This kind of investigation should also focus on the sources, pathways, or trajectories of floating litter, including different sizes of plastics, as it can potentially support solutions for the inadequate solid waste management strategies observed in Brazilian estuaries (Lima et al., 2020). ...
... This approach is essential because it considers the origin, transport and final destination of pollutants, allowing for more effective mitigation actions. Specific aspects of the Source-to-Sea approach include: waste management and basic sanitation, interventions in rivers and inland waters (floating barriers), monitoring and modeling, regulation of plastic use and public policies, and last but not least: community involvement and citizen science (Lima et al., 2020). ...
Transitional ecosystems, such as estuaries, are among the most susceptible regions to plastic pollution. The objective of this project is determining the occurrence and spatial distribution of Microplastics (MPs) and the presence of litter windrows as potential hotspots of MPs on the water surface of a subtropical estuarine complex. In 2022, 14 surface water (< 0.20 m) samples were collected with a trawl net called NOIVA. Each trawl was carried out at a speed of 5 km/h, for 5 min, always on the neap tide, along the Paranaguá Estuary Complex (PEC). In the laboratory the samples were sieved through 1 mm stainless steel mesh. The items were visually inspected through a stereomicroscope to select potential microplastics. The hot needle test and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared was applied to confirm the composition of items. Statistical analyses were performed (PERMANOVA and CAP). A total of 40 MPs were found in all sectors. Fragments are the most frequent (70%). Secondary MPs represented 95% of the items, among which the most common are 3–4 mm large (35%) and white (27.5%) particles. Polypropylene (PP) was the most common type (42.5%). The average concentration of MPs in the PEC (0.149 ± 0.37 mp/m3) is comparable to that found in other estuaries. Estuarine litter windrows (ELWs) play an important role in the accumulation of floating MPs in the PEC (1.42 mp/m3). The omnipresence of MPs at a World Heritage Site is alarming. There is an urgent demand for pollution control, especially regarding adequate waste management strategies to reduce the presence of marine litter.
Graphical Abstract
... Plastic waste is one of the world's most pressing environmental problems driven by international mismanagement; accounting for 100 million tonnes found in the oceans (Anderson et al., 2018;Lebreton et al., 2017;Ockelford et al., 2020). Nearly 90% of this waste enters the ocean from land-based sources as estuaries are the main pathway exporting plastics from the land to the sea (Lima et al., 2020). The bi-directional freshwater-seawater flow creates heterogeneous boundaries with potential to accumulate plastics into these systems. ...
... Water quality in estuaries is often defined by local climates, sediment cycles, fluctuation of physicochemical parameters, and human changes (Lima et al., 2020;Seeliger et al., 1998;Ward et al., 2014Ward et al., , 2016. The salinity gradient, which also influences parameters including pH and suspended material (through flocculation), is also acknowledged to induce particle movement in the water column (Niencheski and Windom, 1994). ...
... The sedimentation process is highly influenced by the action of waves, tides, atmospheric pressure and currents (Teasdale et al., 2011;Ward et al., 2014Ward et al., , 2016Lima et al., 2020). As estuaries are very dynamic, sediment deposition is highly influenced by those forces and can vary greatly within the sediment column (Willis et al., 2017b). ...
Plastics can enter biogeochemical cycles and thus be found in most ecosystems. Most studies emphasize plastic pollution in oceanic ecosystems even though rivers and estuaries are acknowledged as the main sources of plastics to the oceans. This review detected few studies approaching the transboundary issue, as well as patterns of estuarine gradients in predicting plastic distribution and accumulation in water, sediments, and organisms. Quantities of plastics in estuaries reach up to 45,500 items m-3 in water, 567,000 items m-3 in sediment, and 131 items per individual in the biota. The role of rivers and estuaries in the transport of plastics to the ocean is far from fully understood due to small sample sizes, short-term approaches, sampling techniques that underestimate small plastics, and the use of site-specific sampling rather than covering environmental gradients. Microfibres are the most commonly found plastic type in all environmental matrices but efforts to re-calculate pathways using novel sampling techniques and estimates are incipient. Microplastic availability to estuarine organisms and rising/sinking is determined by polymer characteristics and spatio-temporal fluctuations in physicochemical, biological, and mineralogical factors. Key processes governing plastic contamination along estuarine trophic webs remain unclear, as most studies used “species” as an ecological unit rather than trophic/functional guilds and ontogenetic shifts in feeding behaviour to understand communities and intraspecific relationships, respectively. Efforts to understand contamination at the tissue level and the contribution of biofouling organisms as vectors of contaminants onto plastic surfaces are increasing. In conclusion, rivers and estuaries still require attention with regards to accurate sampling and conclusions. Multivariate analysis and robust models are necessary to predict the fate of micro- and macroplastics in estuarine environments; and the inclusion of the socio-economic aspects in modelling techniques seems to be relevant regarding management approaches.
... Few studies sampled during flood tide only (Anderson et al., 2018;Rodrigues et al., 2019). Other papers did not specify the tidal stage when sampling took place (Critchell and Lambrechts, 2016;Li et al., 2020;Lima et al., 2020;Pan et al., 2021). In general, more studies with the purpose of investigating the effect of daily tidal cycles on the concentration of MPs in estuaries are needed in order to better understand the variation in MP abundance over a day. ...
... Hence, they remain entrapped in the sediments in the neap tide period. These results are in accordance with the findings of Sadri and Thompson (2014) and Lima et al. (2020) who found that more MPs were suspended in the estuarine water column during the spring tide. The suspended MPs were also large in size due to the turbulent flows associated with the spring tide (Sadri and Thompson, 2014). ...
Despite the importance of estuaries as transition zones between freshwater and marine compartments, their role in the transport of microplastics is still unclear. This review analyzes the findings pertaining to the transport mechanisms and other factors that influence the fate of microplastics in estuaries. It was found that the concentration of microplastics temporally varies under daily tides, monthly tides, and seasonal flows. Moreover, it spatially varies due to density effects, biofouling, aggregation, and salinity. Wind direction and intensity impact the spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics in the water column. Some of these processes transport microplastics to the estuarine sediments. Thereafter, microplastics are prone to resuspension by turbulence and bioturbation. Hence, estuaries act as temporary sinks that retain microplastics before being flushed to the ocean. Finally, a review of highly plastic-emitting rivers shows differences in the factors affecting the transport mechanisms of microplastics, which calls for regionalization when modelling their fate henceforward.
... It was estimated that 3.7 million tons of plastic waste reached the ocean in 2020 due to an inadequate solid waste management in coastal cities, where a significant portion of the population lives (Brooks et al., 2020). In LAC countries, plastic pollution has land and sea-based sources (Lima et al., 2020;Soto et al., 2021). Among the most commonly cited, urban waste disposal, fish farming, marine traffic, continental runoff, tourism, and fishing and harbor activities are mentioned (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020;Lima et al., 2020). ...
... In LAC countries, plastic pollution has land and sea-based sources (Lima et al., 2020;Soto et al., 2021). Among the most commonly cited, urban waste disposal, fish farming, marine traffic, continental runoff, tourism, and fishing and harbor activities are mentioned (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020;Lima et al., 2020). From urban waste, the most common plastic items found in beach clean-ups were beverage bottles, bottle caps, expanded polystyrene food and drink containers, cutlery, grocery bags, straws or stirrers, and food wrappers (Ocean Conservancy, 2017). ...
Plastic use and production have dramatically increased globally over the past 65 years with the improvement of life quality by the daily use of plastic products. Still, around 50% of the plastic produced is disposable products that generate substantial waste. Several reports pointed out the adverse effects of plastic litter in coastal environments in recent years, emphasizing single-use plastics (SUP). In this manner, Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) coastal environments are highly vulnerable due to wastewater treatment facilities scarcity and poor plastic waste management strategies. Since COVID-19 pandemic, the single-use plastic waste/person rate is expected to rise due to the use of personal protective equipment and SUP as health care measures. Based on literature research and the review of plastic waste regulations, this paper will assess the main COVID-19 plastic pollution threats and LAC beaches' regulations to suggest possible measures to abate this problem. The main findings suggest that unifying the ongoing fragmented and overlapped policies is key to abate plastic pollution, including plastic industry regulations and circular economies. In addition, increasing public risk perception about plastic pollution is critical to reducing plastic waste generation. Research advances in the adverse effects of plastic debris could improve the public's perception of plastic pollution risk, pushing forward global marine plastic governance.
... U.S. Microbead-Free Waters act of European Commission, 2018). Therefore, during the 2019 Basel Conference in Geneva, Switzerland, ~180 governments identified plastics as hazardous wastes due to their toxicity, capacity of adsorbing pollutants and of fragmentation (Lima et al., 2020). The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal is an international treaty aiming at reducing the movements of hazardous waste between nations (Niaounakis, 2017;Raubenheimer et al., 2018). ...
... Examples of MF sources are related to the release by washing machines and the use and maintenance of fishing nets, as observed worldwide, especially in underdeveloped countries (Wu et al., 2019;Li et al., 2020). This emphasizes that the widespread global pollution is connected by international impacts (Lima et al., 2014(Lima et al., , 2020Lebreton et al., 2017). ...
Despite their representativeness, most studies to date have underestimated the amount of microfibers (MFs) in the marine environment. Therefore, further research is still necessary to identify key processes governing MF distribution. Here, the interaction among surface water temperature, salinity, currents and winds explained the patterns of MF accumulation. The estimated density of floating MFs is ∼5,900 ± 6,800 items m-3 in the global ocean; and three patterns of accumulation were predicted by the proposed model: (i) intermediate densities in ocean gyres, Seas of Japan and of Okhotsk, Mediterranean and around the Antarctic Ocean; (ii) high densities in the Arctic Ocean; and (iii) point zones of highest densities inside the Arctic Seas. Coastal areas and upwelling systems have low accumulation potential. At the same time, zones of divergences between westerlies and trade winds, located above the tropical oceanic gyres, are predicted to accumulate MFs. In addition, it is likely that the warm branch of the thermohaline circulation has an important role in the transport of MFs towards the Arctic Ocean, emphasizing that surface water masses are important predictors. This study highlights that the Arctic Ocean is a dead end for floating MFs.
... However, there is still limited information on the health risks associated with MPs, especially in milk and drinking water, and more research is needed in this area Mortensen et al., 2021;Pironti et al., 2021;Sánchez et al., 2022). Currently, there are no government-established standards for monitoring the presence of MPs in drinking water, and there are no consistent methods for removing MPs from water Lima et al., 2020). Even with various treatment methods, including advanced membrane technologies, it is unlikely that 100% of MPs can be removed from water. ...
Microplastic (MP) pollution has become a growing concern due to its potential environmental and health impacts. The present study aimed to investigate the presence of MPs in specific brands of drinking water bottle and milk packets. To identify the MPs, researchers employed microscopic techniques, FTIR spectroscopy, and FESEM with EDS. The types of polymers were determined by comparing the obtained values with reference standards. The study also assessed the potential daily microplastic exposure from drinking water and milk consumption. MPs were detected in the samples in three different shapes: filaments, fibers, and fragments. Four types of polymers were identified: polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), polysulfone (PSU), and polyethersulfone (PES). The colors observed included violet, blue, green, red, and black. In the analyzed drinking water samples, a total of 13 MPs sized 1–3 mm and 7 MPs sized 3–6 mm were found. In the milk samples, there were 2 MPs sized 4–5 mm and 4 MPs sized 2–3 mm. The results of the study indicate that MPs are present in the examined drinking water and milk, which are directly consumed by humans. This suggests that microplastic pollution may occur during the manufacturing or packaging processes of these products. The study recommends implementing measures to reduce microplastic contamination at the beginning of the production process for drinking water and milk.
... On a monthly scale, the interplay between spring and neap tides exerts a significant influence on MP dynamics. Although less extensively discussed in the literature, findings suggest that MP abundance is greater in the water column and sediments at spring and neap tides, respectively (Lima et al., 2020;Wu et al., 2020). This pattern indicates that estuaries retain MPs under neap tide conditions, characterized by lower movement of water, which stimulates the settling of particles on sediments via the water column. ...
Microplastic (MP) transport mechanisms refer to the pathways through which MPs migrate within the environment, while MP remediation techniques encompass methods employed to mitigate their presence. Despite prior research efforts investigating various aspects of MPs, knowledge gaps persist in this emerging field. This book chapter contributes a novel perspective by exploring the nexus between MP transport mechanisms and their corresponding remediation strategies. The findings indicate that each environmental compartment is influenced by unique factors, but is interconnected. Airborne MPs are dispersed by wind currents, with their transport influenced by MP characteristics, anthropogenic activities, and climatic conditions. In terrestrial ecosystems, MPs are carried by water and biota, with environmental factors, MP properties, and soil characteristics exerting significant influence. Aquatic systems receive MP inputs from runoff and atmospheric deposition, with organisms, salinity levels, waves, and currents acting as key determinants. Optimal remediation approaches were identified for different settings based on their distinct transport mechanisms. In urban and industrial areas with elevated levels of airborne MPs, air filtration systems or phytoremediation techniques have proven effective. Regions prone to bioturbation by earthworms or other soil organisms may benefit from bioremediation strategies that exploit the metabolic capabilities of these organisms. In coastal and marine environments, where MPs are transported by ocean currents and waves, strategic interventions such as barrier installations or the creation of artificial eddies are vital tools. To effectively address the MP pollution challenge, further research is needed to identify effective remediation techniques for specific environmental compartments.
... While international concerns over mismanaged plastic pollution causing enduring ecological degradation and socio-economic loss are increasing (Andrady, 2011;Wilcox et al., 2015;Lebreton et al., 2017;Blettler et al., 2018;Thiel et al., 2018;Hong et al., 2017;Honingh et al., 2020;Mcllgorm et al., 2020), the understanding of the transport and fate of plastic is still limited (Krelling and Turra, 2019;Meijer et al., 2021;Pinheiro et al., 2021). Although rivers and estuaries are considered the source of marine plastics (Lebreton et al., 2017;Thompson, 2015;Lima et al., 2020), recent observational (van Emmerik et al., 2019a;Tramoy et al., 2020a;Newbould et al., 2021;Ryan and Perold, 2021) and results from simulations (Mai et al., 2020;Bellasi et al., 2020;Meijer et al., 2021) support the hypothesis that most land-based plastics do not simply reach the ocean (van Emmerik et al., 2022a), but are instead partially retained in estuarine systems (Vermeiren et al., 2016;Tramoy et al., 2020b;Chen et al., 2022;Cardoso-Mohedano et al., 2023). This near-shore retention is a leading explanation for why the previous riverine plastic input is an overestimate of the amount in the open ocean (Van Sebille et al., 2020) based on global annual production and disposal (Lebreton et al., 2017;Schmidt et al., 2017). ...
Estuaries can act as plastic retention hotspots, but the hydrodynamic controls on retention are not well understood. This study investigates the retention of river-sourced buoyant plastics in a well-mixed estuary, the Waitematā Estuary, using validated numerical simulations of floats with different tides, winds, and freshwater discharge. The proportion of floats grounded on the shore in all seven simulations is higher than 60 % and over 90 % in five simulations after ten days. <20 % of the floats leave the estuarine mouth in any of the simulations. An increase of two orders of magnitude in freshwater discharge doubles the likelihood for floats to reach the lower estuary. However, we find increased freshwater discharge doubles the lateral circulation towards the shore and results in similar proportions of grounding (90 %) as the low discharge cases. These findings challenge the conventional view that plastics preferentially enter the open ocean after high river discharge.
... In Brazil, there is a major gap in studies addressing plastic sources and pathways. However, isolated reports from different estuarine systems also indicate fishing activities and domestic sources as the main origins, with emphasis on illegal litter dumping and basic sewage system deficiency (Lima et al., 2020). ...
Seabirds are considered good bioindicators for environmental issues, such as contamination, productivity, and health. Fish industry, climate change, bioinvasions, and pollution are the most reported threats to seabird populations. The aim of this review is to address those threats and discuss the health issues that impact seabirds in Brazil through the lens of conservation medicine. In total, 93 records were selected, regarding the previously mentioned threats, as well as the interaction between seabirds and etiologic agents and chemical compounds. The most studied species was the Spheniscus magellanicus and most of the records were published in the last 10 years, which indicates that although the health status of this group is still poorly addressed in Brazil, the studies have been increasing and created a background for the development of new research on this topic. This manuscript also highlights the urgency in performing transdisciplinary studies to better understand the health risks for seabirds and human populations associated with marine ecosystems.
... The main access routes of plastic items to the seas and oceans are rivers and estuaries, which carry terrestrial waste (Lebreton et al., 2017;Lima et al., 2020), with an estimated 1.15 to 2.14 million tonnes of plastic waste entering the oceans through rivers each year (Lebreton et al., 2017). When these items reach the ocean, plastic debris can be transported by wind, currents and wave action over long distances before their deposition (Lobelle and Cunliffe, 2011;Barnes et al., 2009). ...
Plastic bags are among the most discarded waste items as they are generally only used once and are often improperly eliminated and transported by rivers and estuaries to the ocean. We developed an experimental design to mimic the effect of plastic bag deposition in a tropical estuary and investigated its short-term impact on benthic community structure. We observed a significant influence of the presence of plastic bags on the abundance, richness and diversity of benthic fauna after an eight-week exposure period. Plastic bags acted as a barrier and interfered in processes that occur at the water-sediment interface, such as organic matter and silt-clay deposition. Our results indicate that plastic bags, in addition to directly affecting benthic fauna, may alter processes such as carbon burying, known as “blue carbon”, thus making its storage in the sediment more difficult.
... Since marine debris is a worldwide phenomenon, only national practices will not be able to control the problem. Therefore, international cooperation is essential to protect the oceans from dumping and contamination (Lima et al., 2020). ...
Although the assessment of beach cleaning efficiency evaluation would be desirable for management purposes, the practice is not common. This evaluation is crucial for the safety of beachgoers, conservation efforts aiming to preserve ecological services, and the sustainable development of the oceans. The main goal of this work was to assess the efficiency of the beach cleaning method adopted in a Southwestern Atlantic beach, and assess the richness, abundance, and composition of anthropogenic debris in areas of the beach with kiosks or without them. 5,584 debris items distributed in 22 garbage categories were found. Both richness and abundance of debris were higher in the kiosks areas compared to areas with no kiosks, and debris types differed in areas with and with no kiosks. The richness and abundance of debris did not change before and after beach cleaning. Our results highlight the inefficiency of the cleaning operation in the studied beach and point towards an urgent need of change in the cleaning strategy at Camboinhas beach and similarly cleaned beaches to achieve proper beach cleaning.
Estuaries represent a transitional environment between continental and marine areas. Limited studies have evaluated how these complex systems contribute to plastic pollution dynamics at this interface. Here, an in situ experimental study was conducted in the Slack estuary, a small macrotidal estuarine system in northern France, to investigate the mobilization and deposition of plastic debris on an estuarine bank at a daily basis during six complete tidal cycles. To achieve this, plastics (macro, meso and microplastics with size ≥3 mm) of different composition and shape were manually deposited along an estuary bank on three different substrates: vegetation, gravel, and sand. The experimental design aimed to explore the complexity of the mobilization and deposition of plastic debris with regard to hydro-meteorological factors, types of substrates, size and shape of plastics. Results showed that tidal cycles played a significant role in plastic mobilization and deposition on the estuary bank. However, the nature of the substrate directly impacted the mobilization and deposition of plastics and the effect of wind may be particularly important for the deposition of allochthonous plastics. Most plastics (around 94 %, 37.9 ± 1.5 plastics/m²) were found to be mobilized after a complete tidal cycle while an average of 3.33 ± 1.8 plastics/m² was deposited during the same period. Results suggested that in small macrotidal estuaries, the daily net retention is very limited since most plastics were mobilized after a tidal cycle. However, in vegetated substrate, the daily net retention can be 2 to 3 times higher than in other types of substrates (gravel and sand) highlighting the potential of dense vegetation to serve as a retention area for plastic waste.
This is the first report of anthropogenic particles (APs), including microplastics and synthetic, semi-synthetic and anthropogenically-altered natural fibers, in water and sediment of the Chubut River estuary. This river is the main source of freshwater in Chubut Province (Patagonia, Argentina), where wastes and pollutants are poured and finally end in the Atlantic Ocean. The average concentration in surface and bottom water samples was 5.5 items/L, while in sediment was 175.4 items/kg dw. Raman's analysis identified particles dominated by polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (35.5 %), dye signature only (18.5) and anthropogenic cellulose (10 %). Fibers were the prevalent shape (83 %), and the chemical identification evidenced a textile origin. The highest APs concentration was found in sediments from the site with the finest grain size and the greatest amount of organic matter. Present results will provide a baseline for future studies and raise public and governmental awareness.
A Amazônia Azul é a área sob jurisdição brasileira no oceano e, nesse trabalho, objetivou-se estudar a poluição por plástico nesse recorte geográfico. Para isso, foi feito a definição de
plástico, analisado alguns de seus principais impactos no meio marinho e apresentado seu ciclo de vida. Por ser um material de alta durabilidade e de fácil dispersão, acaba por impactar diversas regiões do globo, em termos econômicos, sociais e ambientais, demonstrando a relevância desse tema. Ademais, o advento da Agenda 2030 e da Década da Ciência Oceânica comprovam a tempestividade desse tema, visto que ambas se relacionam ao oceano. Para essa pesquisa, utilizou-se metodologia qualitativa, fazendo-se uma pesquisa exploratória,
bibliográfica e documental, visando analisar os documentos norteadores de políticas públicas brasileiras relacionados ao tema, e a base de dados disponibilizada pelo sistema das Nações Unidas. Observou-se, por meio dessa pesquisa, que o Brasil não se encontra entre os maiores
importadores ou exportadores de plástico, tampouco entre os que mais descartam esse material no oceano, entretanto, é necessário o desenvolvimento de metodologia própria para a construção dos próprios dados, os quais se mostram desatualizados e insuficientes.
The first volume of the book “Plastics in the Aquatic Environment” – “Part I: Current Status and Challenges” – gives insights into the role of environmental science and a global perspective. The volume includes 15 chapters dealing with different methods for sampling, sample preparation and analyses of these methods as well as monitoring studies and risks for organisms. Moreover, case studies about the plastic pollution problem from Asia, Latin America, and Europe are presented which gives the reader an integrated overview of the global scope of this issue.
The book volume “Plastics in the Aquatic Environment – Part I: Current Status and Challenges” gives an overview about the role of environmental science and provides a sense of the global perspective in dealing with plastic pollution. The volume contains 15 chapters, with two additional chapters written by the editors containing introductory remarks and concluding notes on the role of environmental science in tackling the plastic pollution problem. These 15 chapters present and discuss challenges in research, related, for example, to microplastics analysis, impacts of plastic litter on aquatic environments, plastic waste management, bioplastics; they also review case studies of plastic pollution and contamination in the Philippines, Brazil, Albania, Slovenia, Russia and East Asia, as well as the Mediterranean Sea at large. This chapter provides an overview of the conclusions drawn by the authors of the chapters of this book volume and gives an overall final discussion of the challenges discussed herein.
Meteorological and climatic phenomena affect oceanographic characteristics and, consequently, anthropogenic microparticle aggregation. The same phenomena influence the ecology of pelagic fish, but whether there is a connection between meteorological and climatic characteristics and microparticle ingestion remains unknown. In the NW Mediterranean during the springs of 2011–2014, the incidence of contaminated European anchovies (35 ± 17%) and microparticle abundance in the stomach content (0.46 ± 0.25 microparticles ind−1) may have owed to higher concentrations of microparticles due to hydrodynamism. Year 2011 showed a higher fragment contribution (60 ± 17%). The statistical analysis indicated a link between fragment abundance and climatic characteristics, with low North Atlantic Oscillation index values for the previous cold season indicating the transport of water from the polluted Tyrrhenian Sea. Low-density microplastic (polyethylene and polypropylene) was found, a selection due to the pelagic behaviour of anchovy. Fibre abundance remained quite constant throughout the 4-year period, pointing to diffused input not dependent on meteorological forcing. In 2012, anchovies were subjected to bottom-up limitation, due to adverse meteorological forcing (high early spring temperatures, low rainfall). The anchovies mainly ingested fibres through less energy-expensive filter-feeding. Therefore, meteorological and climatic forcing regulates microparticle intake by fish and should be considered for pollution mitigation.
Microplastic is particles of plastic materials smaller than 5mm, numerically known
as the most abundant plastic debris in the ocean. Nowadays, plastic microspheres,
fragments, or microfibres can be found in the seas of the whole planet Earth, coming
from different sources and polymers. Ingestion of these particles by marine fauna has
been widely documented, resulting in the food chain widespread contamination.
Considering the risks associated with its consumption, this paper aims to analyze
and quantify the presence of microplastics in wild commercial bivalves (Perna perna)
present on the coast of Paraná. For this, the methodology of Phuong et al. (2018)
so that the presence of microplastic could be identified or not, using the chemical
reagents KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) and KI (Potassium Iodide). The process consists
of sampling the species and submitting them to digestion processes with KOH (10%).
The individual samples underwent sequential sedimentation processes (10% KOH and
50% KI), and after each step, the supernatant fractions were filtered fiberglass filter GF/
F3(1,2 μm). The filters were stereoscopically analyzed, and the recovered microplastic
particles were counted, photographed, and separated for further qualitative analysis.
The analysis of the filtered material confirmed the existence of plastic fragments in
the shape of fibers, fragments, filaments, and spheres, proving the existence of the
material and bringing data for possible further studies.
One of the most recognized anthropogenic impacts in marine environments is solid waste pollution, especially plastic, which can be ingested by fish, thus interfering with their health. In this context, the aim of this study is to describe the ingestion of plastic fragments and to identify the possible effect of this contamination in the condition factor of Genidens genidens in the Laguna Estuarine System. The stomach contents of 92 G. genidens (26 juveniles and 66 adults) were analyzed. The Index of Relative Importance was performed to identify the contribution of each prey item. Condition factor (CF) was used to analyze the effect of plastic ingestion on the fish’s body condition (by comparing individuals in the same ontogenetic phase). For the juveniles, eight items were observed, the most important of which were Penaeidae, followed by Portunidae and plastic. For the adults, 12 items were observed, the most important of which were Penaeidae, Portunidae, Polychaeta, and plastic. The analysis of CF demonstrated higher values for individuals without plastic in the stomach, which indicated a better health condition. The CF of a fish may be affected by variations in the physiological condition, environmental stresses, and nutritional and biological variations, and could be used to compare the body condition or health of a fish species. The ingestion of plastic could significantly influence the worst body condition of the individuals that were analyzed in the present study. The plastic pollution in marine coastal waters is associated with the appropriate waste management levels.
Single-use plastics, or SUPs (plastic bags, microbeads, cutlery, straws and polystyrene) are substantial sources of plastic marine pollution, yet preventable via legislative and non-legislative interventions. Various international legislative strategies have been reported to address plastic marine pollution from plastic bags and microbeads, but these have since been accompanied by recent increasing public awareness triggered by international agencies and organizations. The Sixth International Marine Debris Conference highlighted increasing intervention strategies to mitigate SUP pollution. This study presents new multi-jurisdictional legislative interventions to reduce SUPs since 2017 and incorporates emergence of new non-legislative interventions to mitigate other types of SUPs at individual and private-sector levels that complement or influence legislative interventions. Further, effectiveness of SUP bag interventions (e.g., bans vs. levies) to help reduce SUP marine pollution are presented and range between 33-96% reduction in bag use.
Plastic pollution is considered an important environmental problem by the United Nations Environment Programme, and it is identified, alongside climate change, as an emerging issue that might affect biological diversity and human health. However, despite research efforts investigating plastics in oceans, relatively little studies have focused on freshwater systems. The aim of this study was to estimate the spatial distribution, types, and characteristics of macro-, meso-, and microplastic fragments in shoreline sediments of a freshwater lake. Food wrappers (mainly polypropylene and polystyrene), bags (high- and low-density polyethylene), bottles (polyethylene terephthalate), and disposable Styrofoam food containers (expanded polystyrene) were the dominant macroplastics recorded in this study. Contrary to other studies, herein macroplastic item surveys would not serve as surrogates for microplastic items. This is disadvantageous since macroplastic surveys are relatively easier to conduct. Otherwise, an average of 25 mesoplastics (mainly expanded polystyrene) and 704 microplastic particles (diverse resins) were recorded per square meter in sandy sediments. Comparisons with other studies from freshwater and marine beaches indicated similar relevance of plastic contamination, demonstrating for the first time that plastic pollution is a serious problem in the Paraná floodplain lakes. This study is also valuable from a social/educational point of view, since plastic waste has been ignored in the Paraná catchment as a pollutant problem, and therefore, the outcome of the current study is a relevant contribution for decision makers.
Plastics in the marine environment have become a major concern because of their persistence at sea, and adverse consequences to marine life and potentially human health. Implementing mitigation strategies requires an understanding and quantification of marine plastic sources, taking spatial and temporal variability into account. Here we present a global model of plastic inputs from rivers into oceans based on waste management, population density and hydrological information. Our model is calibrated against measurements available in the literature. We estimate that between 1.15 and 2.41 million tonnes of plastic waste currently enters the ocean every year from rivers, with over 74% of emissions occurring between May and October. The top 20 polluting rivers, mostly located in Asia, account for 67% of the global total. The findings of this study provide baseline data for ocean plastic mass balance exercises, and assist in prioritizing future plastic debris monitoring and mitigation strategies.
The plastic debris contamination, feeding ecology and habitat use of Cynoscion acoupa, an economically important species, were studied in relation to spatial, seasonal and ontogenetic aspects in a tropical estuary. The human impact on the environment was evident in the studied species, reflecting the high contamination of the diet of these fish with plastic debris. Plastic debris is frequently ingested by C. acoupa, regardless
of season, area or ontogenetic phase. However, a higher frequency and amount of ingestion suggests that this contaminant might also be acquired through direct consumption and biotransference (from contaminated prey). The ontogenetic phases of C. acoupa utilized different estuarine reaches during seasonal fluctuations. This behaviour was strongly influenced by environmental variables, particularly salinity. During all seasons, juveniles used the upper estuary as shelter to avoid marine predators. However, in the early rainy season, the upper estuary was significantly important as a nursery for this species. The sub-adults used the upper estuary as a feeding ground during the year and migrated to the middle estuary during the late rainy season to avoid osmoregulatory stress. Adults were observed only in the coastal waters of the lower estuary. The trophic guild changed during the ontogeny of C. acoupa, and juveniles primarily fed on plastic debris (FO=64%), amphipoda
(FO=34%), mysidacea (FO=17%) and Cathorops spixii (FO=15%). Sub-adults preferred plastic debris (FO=50%) and C. spixii (FO=30%). Both juveniles and sub-adults were classified as opportunistic. Adults were piscivorous, ingesting plastic debris (FO=100%), C. spixii (FO=18%), Achirus lineatus (FO=15%), Stellifer stellifer (FO=15%) and penaeid shrimp (FO=15%).
Lunar influence on the distribution of fish larvae, zooplankton and plastic debris in mangrove creeks of the Goiana Estuary, Brazil, was studied over a lunar cycle. Cetengraulis edentulus, Anchovia clupeoides and Rhinosardinia bahiensis were the most abundant fish larvae (56·6%), independent of the moon phase. The full moon had a positive influence on the abundance of Gobionellus oceanicus, Cynoscion acoupa and Atherinella brasiliensis, and the new moon on Ulaema lefroyi. The full and new moons also influenced the number of zoeae and megalopae of Ucides cordatus, protozoeae and larvae of caridean shrimps, and the number of hard and soft plastic debris, both <5 and >5 mm. Micro and macroplastics were present in samples from all 12 creeks studied, at densities similar to the third most abundant taxon, R. bahiensis. Cetengraulis edentulus and R. bahiensis showed a strong positive correlation with the last quarter moon, when there was less zooplankton available in the creeks and higher abundance of microplastic threads. Anchovia clupeoides, Diapterus rhombeus, U. lefroyi and hard microplastics were positively associated with different moon phases, when calanoid copepods, Caridean larvae and zoeae of U. cordatus were highly available in the creeks. Cynoscion acoupa, G. oceanicus and A. brasiliensis were strongly associated with the full moon, when protozoeae of caridean shrimps and megalopae of U. cordatus were also highly available, as were hard and soft macroplastics, paint chips (<5 mm) and soft microplastics. The results reinforce the role of mangrove creeks as nursery habitats. The moon phases influenced the distribution of fish larvae species, zooplankton and plastic debris by changing their compositions and abundances in the mangrove creeks of the Goiana Estuary when under the influence of different tidal current regimes.
Microplastic pollution is a global issue. It is present even in remote and pristine coastal and
marine environments, likely causing impacts of unknown scale. Microplastics are primaryand
secondary-sourced plastics with diameters of 5 mm or less that are either free in the
water column or mixed in sandy and muddy sediments. Since the early 1970s, they have
been reported to pollute marine environments; recently, concern has increased as soaring
amounts of microplastics in the oceans were detected and because the development of
unprecedented processes involving this pollutant at sea are being unveiled. Coastal and
marine environments of the western tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic Ocean (WTAO) are
contaminated with microplastics at different quantities and from a variety of types. The
main environmental compartments (water, sediments and biota) are contaminated, but the
consequences are still poorly understood. Rivers and all scales of fishery activities are
identified as the most likely sources of this pollutant to coastal waters; however, based on
the types of microplastics observed, other maritime operations are also possible sources.
Ingestion by marine biota occurs in the vertebrate groups (fish, birds, and turtles) using
these environments. In addition, the presence of microplastics in plankton samples from
different habitats of estuaries and oceanic islands is confirmed. The connectivity among
environmental compartments regarding microplastics pollution is a new research frontier in
the region.
Plastics have become the most important marine contaminant of the XXI Century. Benthic fauna is not frequently a concern, but can ingest plastics which suffered fragmentation and chemical contamination accumulated in the sediments. This work approaches the amounts and types of plastic buried in the sediments of an intertidal plain on the Northeast coast of Brazil. During one seasonal cycle, 450 samples of sediment were taken. Sediments were sieved (1mm mesh). Thirty-eight plastic fragments of different sizes and types occurred distributed in space and time. Plastics size varied from 1mm to 160cm 2. All plastics were heavily weatherized. Soft plastics, nylon and hard plastics items were found. The most likely sources of these plastics are the river basin, the communities that inhabit the margins of the estuary, fishery activities and the mangrove forest. A significant difference between the rainy and dry seasons was detected for the amount and type of plastic found (plastic or nylon) among three sampling areas. Nearer to the mangrove forest there was a larger accumulation of plastic items. This estuary is undergoing an intense process of aggradation and there is a possibility of dredging of the main channel and harbor areas. This, plus the disposal of spoils will further spread the plastics once buried. The dredged areas will become a secondary source of plastics as their pollution burden will be, once more, exposed to tidal currents and main channel flow.
Plastics enter the marine environment mostly from land-based sources, often via estuaries. However, studies related to plastic debris pollution remain rare within these environments. An estuarine beach comprised within a Marine Conservation Unit (MCU) in the Northeast coast of Brazil was studied during one year regarding plastic pollution. Petroleum derived products were >95% of all items, as commonly reported for other coastal and marine habitats. Monthly totals of marine debris presented an average of 10.8+/-1.63 items.100m(-2), much lower than reported in the literature for other estuarine beaches. Three main sources were identified: fisheries, local users and human settlements along the river basin. The most frequent (56%) size category was 11-100cm(2), but fragmented items alone were 83% of observed items. The main impact on the estuarine and visiting biota expected is the ingestion of plastic items and fragments, which was corroborated by recent works on estuarine fishes. Interactions with fishing gear are highlighted in the context of this MCU. To protect the traditional livelihoods in the Goiana Estuary, the guarantee of a healthy ecosystem, inclusive free from plastic pollution, must be included in management plans.
The ingestion of plastic fragments by 3 species of Gerreidae (Eugerres brasilianus, Eucinostomus melanopterus and Diapterus rhombeus) in a tropical estuary in Northeast Brazil was assessed for 3 different size classes corresponding to juveniles, sub-adults and adults. In all, 425 individuals were analysed. The gut contents of 13.4% of these individuals contained plastic debris. The only type of debris found was blue nylon fragments originating from ropes used in fishing. Artisanal fishing is the main local activity and was considered to represent the principal source of this marine debris. Significant differences in the number and weight of nylon fragments ingested were found between species and size classes. Moreover, a decrease in the weight of the gut contents was observed in the individuals that had ingested nylon fragments. In addition to the hypothesis that Gerreidae mistakenly identify nylon fragments as prey items, we propose 3 further possible pathways: (1) from fragments that the fishes' prey have already ingested; (2) through ingestion of fragments along with sediment that is sucked in during feeding; and (3) through ingestion of organisms that have aggregated on fragments.
This study investigated use of the Paranaguá Estuary as a foraging habitat by juvenile green turtles Chelonia mydas (L.) by comparing gut contents to available vegetal resources within the estuary. Between June 2004 and July 2007, the carcasses of 80 juvenile green turtles (carapace length range 29 to 73 cm) were found stranded (n = 71) or captured (n = 9) in fishing nets. The digestive tracts of 76 turtles contained food contents which were quantified (ml) and identified (e.g. algae, seagrass, mangrove propagules, mangrove vegetation and shells). Anthropogenic debris was classified by material, colour and size. Green turtles fed primarily on Halodule wrightii (42.9% of total volume), other vegetal resources (Ulva spp.: 6.7%; Avicennia shaueriana propagules: 10.1%) and other items (37.9%); ingested animal matter was seldom recorded (2.4%). The occurrence and/or availability of vegetal resources were assessed throughout the year. H. wrightii was ingested more frequently during the early rainy season, when the index of importance in the diet was higher (feeding index, FI: 97.3). Ulva spp. was ingested principally in the late dry season and A. shaueriana propagules in the late rainy season (FI: 23.9 and 12, respectively), when H. wrightii was not available. Anthropogenic debris was frequently ingested (69.7% of individuals), and was especially important in the late rainy season (FI: 60.3). This study highlights the importance of sheltered ecosystems such as the Paranaguá Estuary and adjacent regions in providing shelter, feeding grounds and resting areas for juvenile green turtles.
A poluição por lixo flutuante nos ambientes marinhos e costeiros é um grave problema em todo o mundo, causado geralmente pela gestão ineficiente de resíduos nas zonas costeiras, gerandosérios impactos na vida selvagem, como, por exemplo, morte por ingestão de lixo. O presente estudo tem como objetivo analisar, sob uma retrospectiva histórica e perspectivas para o futuro, o problema do lixo flutuante na Baía de Guanabara. Como metodologia,a análise do passado foi realizada partir da revisão bibliográfica e documental. A análise do presente foi baseada em dados de campo quanto aos itens de lixo flutuante coletados em estudos realizados nas praias de Icaraí, Charitas e São Francisco, em Niterói, na Praia do Flamengo, no Rio de Janeiro, e no Manguezal do Parque Natural Municipal Barão de Mauá, em Magé, e em informações atuais sobre as ações em relação ao lixo flutuante. As perspectivas para o futuro se baseiam nos planos de saneamento básico dos municípios localizados no entorno da Baía de Guanabara que estipularam metas para a despoluição da Baía. Desta forma, os resultados obtidos demonstram que, apesar dos esforços dos órgãos públicos para despoluir a Baía de Guanabara, o lixo dos municípios do entorno dela continua a chegar ao estuário. Reforça-se, no entanto, que ainda é cedo para determinar se esses programas serão, de fato, eficazes, poishá muitas ações a serem realizadas envolvendo tanto a conscientização da sociedade como a participação de todos os atores sociais envolvidos.
Analyses of thermotolerant coliform and heterotrophic bacteria as well as Escherichia coli and Vibrio species were carried out on plastic samples and in the surrounding waters of Guanabara Bay to evaluate plastic debris as vehicles of bacterial dispersal. Chemical characterizations of plastics were performed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Plastic debris with high coliform contents were found, while their respective water samples had only low titers. No correlations were observed, however, between the amounts of bacteria and the chemical compositions of the plastic debris. Forty-four bacterial strains were PCR-confirmed as E. coli pathotypes, and 59 strains of Vibrio spp. (with 12 being identified as Vibrio cholerae [6], Vibrio vulnificus [5], and Vibrio mimicus [1]). These findings suggest these plastics can function as a substrate for bacterial biofilms (including pathogens). These debris, in turn, can be dispersed in aquatic environments not otherwise showing recent fecal bacterial contamination.
Microplastics (MPs) are contaminants of environmental concern that represent a threat to marine systems. Here we report data on the abundance and characteristics of MPs collected from surface waters of the urban Guanabara Bay. Samples were collected, by horizontal trawling of a plankton net on two occasions (summer of 2016). The MPs were obtained from samples by sieving and particles were manually sorted with microscope. Characterization of MPs was accomplished by gravimetry and digital image processing (for quantification and morphology categorization), and chemical composition identified by infrared spectroscopy and elemental analyses. Total MPs ranged from 1.40 to 21.3 particles/m³, which places Guanabara Bay amongst the most contaminated coastal systems worldwide by microplastics. Polyethylene and polypropylene polymers ≤1 mm were the most abundant particles. Therefore, the occurrence of MPs in Guanabara Bay is relevant to understand ecological hazards of exposition to marine biota and merits further investigation.
Plastic pollution is a pervasive problem to marine life. This study aimed (1) to investigate levels of microplastic in wild and farmed mussels (Perna perna), and (2) to assess the effectiveness of depuration in reducing microplastics. Wild and farmed mussels were sampled from Guanabara Bay (Southwestern Atlantic). Four treatments were compared (N=10 mussels/treatment): wild non-depurated mussels, wild depurated mussels, farmed non-depurated mussels, and farmed depurated mussels. Up to 31.2±17.8 microplastics/mussel (≥0.45μm) were detected (means±SD), and microplastics were present in all 40 individuals analyzed. Nylon fibers were more abundant than polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) fragments. Blue, transparent, and red nylon fibers were more abundant in both wild and farmed mussels. Although 93h-depuration significantly reduced microplastics (ANOVA, p=0.02) in both wild (46.79%) and farmed mussels (28.95%), differences between farmed and wild mussels were not significant (p>0.05). Depuration was more effective in removing blue fibers. Our results highlight the importance of depuration in reducing microplastic pollution in seafood.
The influence of three meteorological/oceanographic conditions-frontal systems (FS), high riverine discharges (HRD) and regular weather conditions (RWC)-over the quantity (Overall Abundance and Richness of types) and quality (composition and most probable source) of marine debris was assessed in sand beaches along three sectors (internal, I; median, M; and external, E) of an estuarine gradient. The highest overall abundance and richness of types were observed in HRD (I and E), while the lowest were observed in RWC (I and M). The external sector showed lowest abundance in FS. Greatest numbers of "domestic" and "sewage related debris" were observed under HRD (I > E > M). Greatest numbers of "fisheries" items were observed in HRD (I and E). For "unknown" sourced items, there was no indication of a single condition with smaller quantities (E > I = M). Results suggest that adopting oceanographical and meteorological conditions for analysis have the potential to detect temporal variations.
Since the mass production of plastics began in the middle of the last century, plastic waste and its accumulationin the marine environment is an issue of major current concern, with significant environmental and economicimpact. These materials continue to accumulate in the environment, mainly in rivers and oceans, in the form ofmacro to nanoplastics. Over the past decade, increased scientific interest has produced an expanding knowledgebase for microplastics. However, analysis of the plastic-associated microbial community (the plastisphere) in theintertidal zone is rare. The aim of the research presented here was to investigate the concentration of micro-plastic in the benthic sediment of Vitória Bay estuarine system (SVB), SE Brazil. The microplastic concentrationsin the Vitória Bay bottom sediments ranged from 0 to 38 particles per sample, with a total of 247 particles.Syntheticfibers fromfishing nets accounted for 77% of the microplastic observed in the studied area. Thescanning electron micrographs revealed that, while bacteria were the main colonizers of the SVB microplasticparticles, fungalfilaments and spores were also apparent.
This study assessed the seasonal patterns of habitat utilization, feeding ecology and microplastic contamination in different ontogenetic phases of sympatric snooks (Centropomus undecimalis and C. mexicanus) inhabiting a tropical estuary. More than 50% of snooks, in all ontogenetic phases, ingested microplastics (1.5 ± 0.1 and 1.4 ± 0.1 particles ind−1). Juveniles migrated to nursery grounds in the upper estuary, during the early dry (C. undecimalis 6.5 ± 2.8 ind−1) (p < 0.01) and early rainy seasons (C. mexicanus 4.1 ± 1.9 ind−1). There, they fed mostly on invertebrates (Polychaeta) (p < 0.01), and became contaminated by microplastics (C. undecimalis: 0.8 ± 0.4 particles ind−1; C. mexicanus: 1.7 ± 0.5 particles ind−1). Sub-adults of both species forage principally in the estuarine habitats after shifting their diet from invertebrates (shrimps) in the upper reaches (1806.4 ± 1729.6 mg ind−1) to pelagic fishes (R. bahiensis) in seaward habitats (2507.7 ± 1758.4 mg ind−1). During feeding continues the contamination by microplastics (3.1 ± 0.8 part. ind−1). Adults use the adjacent coastal as feeding and spawning grounds during the rainy season. In this phase, snooks are mostly piscivorous (R. bahiensis: up to 5303.8 ± 3213.4 mg ind−1), but also ingest penaeid shrimp as complementary item (up to 175.9 ± 156.7). Microplastics contamination rates increased towards the adult phase, with maximum contamination coinciding with peaks of fish ingestion, suggesting trophic transfer of microplastics. The lower estuary and adjacent coastal zone were important contamination sites, especially during the rainy season (up to 3.1 ± 0.8 part. ind−1) (p < 0.01), when fishery activities is intense and river basin runoff increases. Consequently, the availability of microplastics is higher during this time of year in the lower portion of the estuary. Snooks had similar prey preferences, but the use of different habitats along the life cycle of each species avoids overlaps in estuarine use and minimizes competition.
Reported here is the first evidence of plastic ingestion by freshwater fishes in the Amazon. Plastic bags, bottles, fishing gear, and other products are entering Amazonian water bodies and degrade into meso- and micro-plastic particles that may be ingested, either directly or indirectly via food chains, by fishes. Examination of stomach contents from 172 specimens of 16 serrasalmid species from lower Xingu River Basin revealed consumption of plastic particles by fishes in each of three trophic guilds (herbivores, omnivores, carnivores). Overall, about one quarter of specimens and 80% of species analyzed had ingested plastic particles ranging from 1–15 mm in length. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated 12 polymer types, including 27% identified as polyethylene, 13% polyvinyl chloride, 13% polyamide, 13% polypropylene, 7% poly(methyl methacrylate), 7% rayon, 7% polyethylene terephtalate, and 13% a blend of polyamide and polyethylene terephtalate. Dimensions of ingested plastic particles varied among trophic guilds, even though the frequency and mass of ingested particles were not significantly different among fishes with different feeding habits.
Entanglement of animals is one of the main environmental impacts of waste plastic. A 2015 review of entanglement records found that the proportion of affected seabirds increased from 16% of species to 25% over the last two decades. However, this was restricted to published records; Google Images and other web-based sources indicate that at least 147 seabird species (36%), as well as 69 freshwater birds (10%) and 49 landbirds (0.5%) from 53 families have been entangled in plastic or other synthetic materials. Fishing gear is responsible for entangling most species (83%), although it is often difficult to differentiate entanglement from bycatch on active gear. Mitigation measures include banning high-risk applications where there are alternatives (e.g. six-pack rings), discouraging the use of high-risk items (e.g. balloons on strings, ‘manja’ kites), and encouraging fishers to not discard waste fishing gear by providing specific receptacles and associated educational signage in fishing areas.
Estuarine pollution imposes rapid, increasing and lasting environmental modifications. In the present review, especial
attention is given to estuaries in South America (SA), where legislation, policies and actions to guarantee environmental quality remain ineffective. There, the majority of estuaries face uncontrolled occupation of its margins by urban and industrial centres, agriculture and aquaculture expansion, water extraction and flow control.
The lack of basic sanitation and poor environmental management (including territories within Marine Protected Areas) often lead to hydrological alterations, high nutrient loads, and the presence and dynamics of pollutants (nutrient loads, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), metals and plastic debris) along the entire estuarine
ecocline.Organic enrichment has increased dissolved oxygen consumption, withwide spatio-temporal variability
along latitudes and estuarine gradients. The toxicity, biogeochemistry and availability of metals and POPs depend on the annual fluctuations of salinity, water renewal, dissolved oxygen levels, suspended particulate loads, sediment mobility, grain size and composition at the sink. Plastic debris from land sources are widespread
in estuaries,where they continue to fragment into microplastics. River basins are themain contributors of plastics to estuaries, whose transportation and accumulation are subjected to interannual water flow variations. Although some systems seems to be in a better condition in relation to others around the world (e.g. Goiana and
Negro estuaries), many others are among the most modified worldwide (e.g. Guanabara Bay and Estero Salado
System).We propose that, estuarine conservation plans should consider year-round fluctuations of the ecocline
and the resulting cycles of retention and flush of environmental signals and their influence on trophic webs over the whole extent of estuarine gradients.
The damaging effects of marine debris on wildlife are often noted through the observation of animals that ingest and/or become entangled in debris. Yet, few studies have evaluated the effects of marine litter on benthic habitats. The aim of this study was to investigate if the presence of plastic bags has any effect on benthic macrofauna in an estuary located in an urban area in Northeastern Brazil. Biogeochemical and macrofauna samples were obtained from 10 different deposition locations (location factor), under, border and distant (treatment factor) from plastic bags. The results did not show any significant alterations in the biogeochemical parameters of the sediment due to treatment effect except for summed microphytobenthic pigments. The macrobenthic community structure responded to treatment. The greatest dissimilarity (34%) was between samples that were under and distant. Effects occurred despite the high dynamics of deposition-resuspension of plastic bags and the dominance of opportunistic species. Changes in community structure are a complex result of plastic bags effects on species ecological interactions in the polluted estuarine environment, attracting deposit feeders, diminishing suspension feeders and providing mechanical protection against predation by seabirds.
Microplastic ingestion by mesozooplankton may be an important pathway for the microplastics to enter the food web. To determine microplastic abundance in Guanabara Bay, samples were collected by neustonic haul with a 64-μm-net and oblique hauls using 64- and 200-μm nets. Microplastic size and abundance as well as copepod, fish-larvae, and chaetognath sizes, densities, and preferential prey sizes were determined. Microplastic abundance was higher in samples collected with fine nets (average 4.8 microplastics m−3, maximum 11 microplastics m−3) than in those collected with coarse net. Microplastic abundance in Guanabara Bay was higher than that in other marine ecosystems. Microplastics >100 μm were too large to be ingested by copepods. However, for fish larvae and chaetognaths, the abundance of microplastics, at the corresponding prey size range, were, respectively, ~9000- and 14,400-folds lower than the preferential copepod prey, in the same size range. Thus, in Guanabara Bay, microplastics were available, but too diluted to be frequently ingested by fish larvae and chaetognaths.
This study investigated occurrence of microplastic particles in digestive tracts of fishes from the Amazon River estuary. A total of 189 fish specimens representing 46 species from 22 families was sampled from bycatch of the shrimp fishery. Microplastic particles removed from fish gastrointestinal tracts were identified using Attenuated Total Reflectance – Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR). In total, 228 microplastic particles were removed from gastrointestinal tracts of 26 specimens representing 14 species (30% of those examined). Microplastic particles were categorized as pellets (97.4%), sheets (1.3%), fragments (0.4%) and threads (0.9%), with size ranging from 0.38 to 4.16 mm. There was a positive correlation between fish standard length and number of particles found in gastrointestinal tracts. The main polymers identified by ATR-FTIR were polyamide, rayon and polyethylene. These findings provide the first evidence of microplastic contamination of biota from the Amazon estuary and northern coast of Brazil.
Arraial do Cabo, RJ, Brazil, is known as the diving capital due to its clear waters and great biodiversity, a consequence of the upwelling phenomenon. This feature attracts tourists tripling their population during holidays, causing increase in the amount of debris on beaches and waters endangering marine biodiversity. To evaluate the amount of solid waste found on beaches in two different holiday period, eight people in each beach collected macrodebris (≥2 cm) in a transect covering an 20 m wide area, during 20 min, in winter/2015 and summer/2017. The materials were weighed, quantified and characterized. In the summer, when the number of tourists is greater, a larger total amount of waste in units were found. Plastic and cigarette butts were the most abundant. The results show that the city does not have adequate planning to receive a large amount of tourists, being vulnerable to socioeconomic and environmental damages.
Management of Marine Plastic Debris gives a thorough and detailed presentation of the global problem of marine plastics debris, covering every aspect of its management from tracking, collecting, treating and commercial exploitation for handing this anthropogenic waste. The book is a unique, essential source of information on current and future technologies aimed at reducing the impact of plastics waste in the oceans. This is a practical book designed to enable engineers to tackle this problem-both in stopping plastics from getting into the ocean in the first place, as well as providing viable options for the reuse and recycling of plastics debris once it has been recovered. The book is essential reading not only for materials scientists and engineers, but also other scientists involved in this area seeking to know more about the impact of marine plastics debris on the environment, the mechanisms by which plastics degrade in water and potential solutions. While much research has been undertaken into the different approaches to the increasing problem of plastics marine debris, this is the first book to present, evaluate and compare all of the available techniques and practices, and then make suggestions for future developments. The book also includes a detailed discussion of the regulatory environment, including international conventions and standards and national policies. Reviews all available processes and techniques for recovering, cleaning and recycling marine plastic debris Presents and evaluates viable options for engineers to tackle this growing problem, including the use of alternative polymers Investigates a wide range of possible applications of marine plastics debris and opportunities for businesses to make a positive environmental impact Includes a detailed discussion of the regulatory environment, including international conventions and standards and national policies.
We examined the hypothesis that in an emerging economy such as Chile the abundances of Anthropogenic Marine Debris (AMD) on beaches are increasing over time. The citizen science program Científicos de la Basura (“Litter Scientists”) conducted three national surveys (2008, 2012 and 2016) to determine AMD composition, abundance, spatial patterns and temporal trends. AMD was found on all beaches along the entire Chilean coast. Highest percentages of AMD in all surveys were plastics and cigarette butts, which can be attributed to local sources (i.e. beach users). The Antofagasta region in northern Chile had the highest abundance of AMD compared with all other zones. Higher abundances of AMD were found at the upper stations from almost all zones. No significant tendency of increasing or decreasing AMD densities was observed during the 8 years covered by our study, which suggests that economic development alone cannot explain temporal trends in AMD densities.
This chapter investigates the various measures taken to control and reduce plastic debris, including technologies to capture debris before it reaches the open sea, use of alternative polymers (e.g., biodegradable polymers), cigarette filters with improved degradability, social awareness actions and campaigns, and use of economic incentives and disincentives. Emphasis has been given to the measures to tackle the problem of derelict fishing gear.
This chapter reviews the main international, regional, and selected national agreements and regulations that are related directly or indirectly to marine plastic debris (MPD). Legislative measures have also been presented for specific MPD, including fishing gear, buoys, plastic bags, food plastic packaging and tableware, microplastics, microfibers, cigarettes, and boats made from fiber-reinforced plastic composites.
Marine debris' transboundary nature and new strategies to identify sources and sinks in coastal areas were investigated along the Paranaguá estuarine gradient (southern Brazil), through integration of hydrodynamic modelling, ground truthing estimates and regressive vector analysis. The simulated release of virtual particles in different parts of the inner estuary suggests a residence time shorter than 5 days before being exported through the estuary mouth (intermediate compartment) to the open ocean. Stranded litter supported this pathway, with beaches in the internal compartment presenting proportionally more items from domestic sources, while fragmented items with unknown sources were proportionally more abundant in the oceanic beaches. Regressive vector analysis reinforced the inner estuarine origin of the stranded litter in both estuarine and oceanic beaches. These results support the applicability of simple hydrodynamic models to address marine debris' transboundary issues in the land-sea transition zone, thus supporting an ecosystem transboundary (and not territorial) management approach.
Microplastics pollution is widespread in marine ecosystems and a major threat to biodiversity. Nevertheless,
our knowledge of the impacts of microplastics in freshwater environments and biota is still very
limited. The interaction of microplastics with freshwater organisms and the risks associated with the
human consumption of organisms that ingested microplastics remain major knowledge gaps. In this
study, we assessed the ingestion of microplastics by Hoplosternum littorale, a common freshwater fish
heavily consumed by humans in semi-arid regions of South America. We assessed the abundance and
diversity of both plastic debris and other food items found in the gut of fishes caught by local fishermen.
We observed that 83% of the fish had plastic debris inside the gut, the highest frequency reported for a
fish species so far. Most of the plastic debris (88.6%) recovered from the guts of fish were microplastics
(<5 mm), fibres being the most frequent type (46.6%). We observed that fish consumed more microplastics
at the urbanized sections of the river, and that the ingestion of microplastics was negatively
correlated with the diversity of other food items in the gut of individual fish. Nevertheless, microplastics
ingestion appears to have a limited impact on H. littorale, and the consequences of human consumption
of this fish were not assessed. Our results suggest freshwater biota are vulnerable to microplastics
pollution and that urbanization is a major factor contributing to the pollution of freshwater environments
with microplastics. We suggest the gut content of fish could be used as a tool for the qualitative
assessment of microplastics pollution in freshwater ecosystems. Further research is needed to determine
the processes responsible for the high incidence of microplastics ingestion by H. littorale, and to evaluate
the risk posed to humans by the consumption of freshwater fish that ingested microplastics.
Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent has been identified as a potential source of microplastics in the aquatic environment. Microplastics have recently been detected in wastewater effluent in Western Europe, Russia and the US. As there are only a handful of studies on microplastics in wastewater, it is difficult to accurately determine the contribution of wastewater effluent as a source of microplastics. However, even the small amounts of microplastics detected in wastewater effluent may be a remarkable source given the large volumes of wastewater treatment effluent discharged to the aquatic environment annually. Further, There is strong evidence that microplastics can interact with wastewater-associated contaminants, which has the potential to transport chemicals to aquatic organisms after exposure to contaminated microplastics. In this review we apply lessons learned from the literature on microplastics in the aquatic environment and knowledge on current wastewater treatment technologies with the aim of identifying the research gaps in terms of (i) the fate of microplastics in WWTPs, (ii) the potential interaction of wastewater-based microplastics with trace organic contaminants and metals, and (iii) the risk for aquatic organisms.
Plastic debris and other floating materials endanger severely marine ecosystems. When they carry attached biota they can be a cause of biological invasions whose extent and intensity is not known yet. This article focuses on knowledge gaps and research priorities needed for, first, understanding and then preventing dispersal of alien invasive species attached to marine litter.
The aim of the present study was to test whether different degrees of human activity affect the diet of the Brazilian silverside Atherinella brasiliensis in two tropical estuaries. Fish were collected along the salinity gradient of two Brazilian estuaries, the heavily impacted Paraiba Estuary and the less impacted Mamanguape Estuary, in the dry and wet seasons. The findings confirm that A. brasiliensis has generalist feeding habits and is able to change its diet under different environmental conditions. The results indicate clear spatial (i.e. along the estuarine gradient) changes in diet composition in both estuaries, but diet was also influenced by the degree of anthropogenic disturbance. During the wet season in the nutrient enriched Paraiba Estuary, when human activity was higher, the diet of A. brasiliensis was poorer and dominated by few dietary items, reflecting the potential impoverishment of prey items in this heavily disturbed system. The specimens collected in the most affected estuary also had a greater frequency of micro-plastics and parasites in their stomachs, reflecting the greater degree of human disturbance in the estuary. The present findings suggest that the diet of A. brasiliensis could be a useful indicator of changes in the ecological quality of these and other tropical estuaries of the western Atlantic Ocean.
Once non-biodegradable, microplastics remain on the environment absorbing toxic hydrophobic compounds making them a risk to biodiversity when ingested or filtered by organisms and entering in the food chain. To evaluate the potential of the contamination by microplastics in mussels cultivated in Jurujuba Cove, Niterói, RJ, waters of three stations were collected during a rain and dry seasons using a plankton net and later filtered. Microplastics were quantified and characterized morphologically and chemically. The results showed a high concentration of microplastics in both seasons with diversity of colors, types and sizes. Synthetic polymers were present in all samples. The presence of microplastics was probably due to a high and constant load of effluent that this area receives and to the mussel farming activity that use many plastic materials. Areas with high concentrations of microplastics could not be used for mussel cultivation due to the risk of contamination to consumers.
In South America, the conservation of natural resources, particularly in relation to water and aquatic fauna, is an often-discussed issue. Unfortunately, there is still a large gap between thoughts and action. Scientists from different countries of the continent have however, produced a significant body of literature that should finally become the basis of emerging managerial models.
Microplastic pollution (particles <5mm) is a widespread marine threat and a trigger for biological effects, especially if ingested. The mussel Perna perna, an important food resource, was used as bioindicator to investigate the presence of microplastic pollution on Santos estuary, the most urbanized area of the coast of São Paulo State, Brazil. A simple and rapid assessment showed that 75% of sampled mussels had ingested microplastics, an issue of human and environmental concern. All sampling points had contaminated mussels and this contamination had no clear pattern of distribution along the estuary. This was the first time that microplastic bioavailability was assessed in nature for the southern hemisphere and that wild P. perna was found contaminated with this pollutant. This is an important issue that should be better assessed due to an increase in seafood consumption and culture in Brazil and worldwide.
This chapter aims to provide an overview of the regulation and management instruments developed at international, regional and national levels to address marine litter problems, put forward the potential gaps in the existing management body and suggest solutions. While not covering the gamut of all relevant instruments, a number of existing instruments, including specific management measures contained therein, were profiled as illustration. The management measures illustrated are either on a mandatory or voluntary basis and provide a general, snapshot picture of the management framework of marine litter. They can be broadly divided into four categories: preventive, mitigating, removing and behavior-changing. The preventive and behavior-changing measures are particularly important in addressing marine litter at its root. The former schemes include source reduction, waste reuse and recycling, containing debris at points of entry into receiving waters and land-based management initiatives (e.g. restriction of the use of plastic bags, establishment of extended producer responsibility). The latter schemes aid people’s engagement in the other three types of measures, including education campaigns and activities raising awareness (e.g. Fishing for Litter). The potential gaps include limits of existing instruments in addressing plastic marine litter, deficiencies in the legislation and a lack of enforcement of regulations, poor cooperation among countries on marine litter issues and insufficient data on marine litter. To fill these gaps, recommendations are proposed, including establishment of a new international instrument targeted to the plastic marine litter problem, amending existing instruments to narrow exceptions and clarify enforcement standards, establishing national marine litter programe, enhancing participation and cooperation of states with regard to international/regional initiative, and devising measures to prevent marine litter from fishing vessels.
The Goiana Estuary was studied regarding the seasonal and spatial variations of microplastics (o5 mm)
and their quantification relative to the zooplankton. The total density (n 100 m�3) of microplastics
represented half of the total fish larvae density and was comparable to fish eggs density. Soft, hard
plastics, threads and paint chips were found in the samples (n¼216). Their origins are probably the river
basin, the sea and fisheries (including the lobster fleet). In some occasions, the amount of microplastics
surpassed that of Ichthyoplankton. The highest amount of microplastics was observed during the late
rainy season, when the environment is under influence of the highest river flow, which induces the
runoff of plastic fragments to the lower estuary. The density of microplastics in the water column will
determine their bioavailability to planktivorous organisms, and then to larger predators, possibly
promoting the transfer of microplastic between trophic levels. These findings are important for better
informing researchers in future works and as basic information for managerial actions.