Sofia_Penabaz_Psychological_Ownership_of_Ethnobotany_for_Strengthening_Social-Ecological_Systems

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PSYCHOLOGICAL OWNERSHIP OF ETHNOBOTANY FOR
STRENGTHENING SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
A case study in Irouzaki, Japan
࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࠿ࡽࡢᚰ⌮ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ㔊ᡂ࡟ࡼࡿ♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒άᛶ໬࡟㛵ࡍࡿ◊✲
̾༡ఀ㇋⏫▼ᗯᓮᆅ༊࡟࠾ࡅࡿ஦౛
Sofia PENABAZ-WILEY
㸨1
, Aiko EGUCHI
㸨1
, Isami KINOSHITA
㸨2
࣌ࢼࣂࢬ࣡࢖࣮ࣜ ࢯࣇ࢕࢔㸪Ụཱྀ ள⥔Ꮚ㸪ᮌୗ ຬ
The theory of psychological ownership (PO) of ethnobotanical (ETB) plants in sustainable tourism for social-ecological
revitalization was studied in Irouzaki, Japan with two objectives: to study PO of residents regarding local ETB plants; and to
study the current state of and locals’ ideas for ETBs in the theory. Review, workshops, interviews and action research were done.
Results showed limited PO of tropical and native ETBs due to modern life and local depression. Although the connection to
landscape is currently low, the locals want to use ETBs for deeper connection with the landscape and culture, and to create a
brand identity.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, Sustainable tourism, Psychological Ownership, Social-ecological systems, Revitalization
࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ᣢ⥆ྍ⬟ほගᚰ⌮ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒άᛶ໬

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Many Japanese rural areas are in need of revitalization. While some receive touristic attention, the majority of them are slowly being
redigested into the surrounding natural environment as elderly residents pass away or youths migrate. At the same time, the previously
rich satoyama environment, the landscape cared for and lived off of symbiotically in traditional Japan, faces being overtaken by a
monoculture of Japanese cedar and overgrowth with the lack of yesteryear’s care1). In sum, this places increasing stress on human rural
communities and landscape ecologies for survival. This interdisciplinary paper poses a theoretical framework for the specific and systemic
use of local ethnobotanical (ETB) resources for sustainable development through tourism by conducting a study in one such area. The
degree to which people care about their surrounding natural landscape is dependent upon how
much they care about the items linking them to it, in this case, we study ETB plants. Currently,
there is an increasing trend of obliviousness to plants, in other words, plant blindness2). However,
in previous generations, people were invested in and thus recognized ETB plants as important.
This is referred to as psychological ownership (PO)3); made up of time invested, subject knowledge,
and control in a situation4). As shown in Fig.1, it leads to relationships with the object of PO5), from
interest to stewardship, including collection and planting of ETBs in the landscape, and further, to
a deepening relationship with the plants depending upon the intensity of use6).
Traditional knowledge (TK) is the knowledge passed down through culture’s evolution over time
in conjunction with the landscape, history, and interactions to create a current of feedback in the
social-ecological system of the area7). ETB is a part of TK, and is defined as the way that people
use plants in the modern setting, inclusive of cultural evolution over time into the present8). The
study of TK has its foundations in the study of ETB because plant knowledge is fundamental to
TK 7). As so, in this paper ETB is the focus in data gathering. Native plants as well as non-natives
that define the local culture are included. The older Japanese population is dying out and TK,
㸨1 Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University
*1
༓ⴥ኱Ꮫ኱Ꮫ㝔ᅬⱁᏛ◊✲⛉
༤ኈᚋᮇㄢ⛬
㸨2 Prof. Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, Doctor of
Engineering.
*2
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ᩍᤵ
༤ኈ㸦ᕤᏛ㸧
Fig.1 An illustration of the study’s
theoretical framework. Results are
illustrated in Fig.6.
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SofiaPENABAZ-WILEY＊1, AikoEGUCHI＊1 and IsamiKINOSHITA＊2
   
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【カテゴリーⅠ】
─ 1135 ─

within that ETB plant knowledge, is being lost with them1), and indeed, this is
happening worldwide in other countries as well7). This loss cuts the connection
between man and nature with increasing dependence upon artificial, modern
amenities which may not be connected to the local culture or landscape. In order
to reach economic, cultural, and environmental sustainability, community-based
bottom-up planning for local stewardship is one viable option9). Fig.2 defines
different types of tourism, (1), (2), (3) and (4), and their relationship with ETB
and Community. For Sustainable Tourism to happen it is not only ecologically
sound, but also integrated into the economic and socio-cultural needs of the
community as well as taking into consideration the tourists upon which they
depend10). Economically, ETB plants can be used in industry or activities to
brand an area. Culturally, ETB, fundamental to TK, supports the retention of it
and the gaining of new knowledge in cultural evolution. Often the cultural
intricacies of a place and its brand identity are not considered when tourism development is done11) . Environmentally, ETB plants in the
landscape create traditional and useful landscape in the surroundings, thus increasing possibilities for biodiversity and sustainable
landscape through stewardship1). When strong, these elements (Fig.1) in an area would fit into what is a healthy, sustainable
social-ecological system (SES). An SES is a complex system of place, time, and people that is adaptable and always changing, with a
feedback mechanism in which sustainable development is one aspect12). The SES theory is not limited to human development, but includes
aspects of the study location; its history, culture, society, ecology, economy, etc. Fig.1 shows the possible cyclic relationship of ETB when
appreciated through PO to a sufficient extent for people to associate them with the landscape. Once ETB plants in the landscape are used
by the community enough to create a cycle, it can be considered a positively flowing SES. As, in more detail, this study observes how these
aspects of the study area can increase the positive feedback mechanism in the SES to aid in revitalization and creating truly sustainable
development, and the question is asked, “Is there a strong enough flow to positively affect the SES?” Here, the issues of loss of natural
environment, disappearing culture, biodiversity degradation, and unsustainable tourism are addressed, the situation in the study area is
researched, and ideas of how to improve these aspects of this particular SES are given by the local people. As was seen in the traditional
satoyama system, when the local people are involved in sustainable development, there is a higher chance that a fully systemic support
system can emerge through their protection and support as they are using the system themselves13). The objectives of this study were to 1.)
study the psychological ownership of residents regarding locally appreciated ETB plants, and 2.) to study the current state of the area
and to research locals’ ideas for incorporation of ETBs into a positive feedback loop in the theoretical framework of the SES.
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Illustrated in Fig.3, Irouzaki, Minami Izu town, Shizuoka Prefecture, is a small community on the tip of the Izu Peninsula, just south of
Tokyo emerging out of the Fuji Hakone Izu National Park. The community subsists on mainly fishing and tourism. Land use consists of a
small valley community at sea level with one shopping street for tourists ending in a boat dock, two current fields of aloe cultivation, and
at approximately 500 feet higher in elevation via a footpath are a lighthouse, two shrines, and a former amusement park. As it is isolated,
there is little traffic. It is located 16.8 km from Shimoda City and 8.7 km south of Minami Izu Town (on the national road that circles the
peninsula). Both areas are dependent upon tourism. Being at the lower
tip of the peninsula, it is a detour to arrive there from either area and
is not on a national road, so there is not much traffic going by the
community. The community faces the decline of mass-tourism since
Japan’s bubble economy crashed in the 1990s, exemplified in how the
biggest touristic facility, the Irouzaki Jungle Park (1969-2003), with a
peak of 73,000 visitors per year, shut down. In addition, the aging
society, migration of youth to nearby Tokyo, and low birthrate are
serious issues. According to Minami Izu town hall, in 2012, registered
residents numbered 224, with 39 children. According to the community
office in 2014, out of 247 registered residents, only about 120 people
resided there. There were 21 children under 18, in 13 families, with 71
families total.
Fig.2 Venn diagram of the discussion surrounding key study
elements.
Fig.3 Research Site
─ 1136 ─

within that ETB plant knowledge, is being lost with them1), and indeed, this is
happening worldwide in other countries as well7). This loss cuts the connection
between man and nature with increasing dependence upon artificial, modern
amenities which may not be connected to the local culture or landscape. In order
to reach economic, cultural, and environmental sustainability, community-based
bottom-up planning for local stewardship is one viable option9). Fig.2 defines
different types of tourism, (1), (2), (3) and (4), and their relationship with ETB
and Community. For Sustainable Tourism to happen it is not only ecologically
sound, but also integrated into the economic and socio-cultural needs of the
community as well as taking into consideration the tourists upon which they
depend10). Economically, ETB plants can be used in industry or activities to
brand an area. Culturally, ETB, fundamental to TK, supports the retention of it
and the gaining of new knowledge in cultural evolution. Often the cultural
intricacies of a place and its brand identity are not considered when tourism development is done11) . Environmentally, ETB plants in the
landscape create traditional and useful landscape in the surroundings, thus increasing possibilities for biodiversity and sustainable
landscape through stewardship1). When strong, these elements (Fig.1) in an area would fit into what is a healthy, sustainable
social-ecological system (SES). An SES is a complex system of place, time, and people that is adaptable and always changing, with a
feedback mechanism in which sustainable development is one aspect12). The SES theory is not limited to human development, but includes
aspects of the study location; its history, culture, society, ecology, economy, etc. Fig.1 shows the possible cyclic relationship of ETB when
appreciated through PO to a sufficient extent for people to associate them with the landscape. Once ETB plants in the landscape are used
by the community enough to create a cycle, it can be considered a positively flowing SES. As, in more detail, this study observes how these
aspects of the study area can increase the positive feedback mechanism in the SES to aid in revitalization and creating truly sustainable
development, and the question is asked, “Is there a strong enough flow to positively affect the SES?” Here, the issues of loss of natural
environment, disappearing culture, biodiversity degradation, and unsustainable tourism are addressed, the situation in the study area is
researched, and ideas of how to improve these aspects of this particular SES are given by the local people. As was seen in the traditional
satoyama system, when the local people are involved in sustainable development, there is a higher chance that a fully systemic support
system can emerge through their protection and support as they are using the system themselves13). The objectives of this study were to 1.)
study the psychological ownership of residents regarding locally appreciated ETB plants, and 2.) to study the current state of the area
and to research locals’ ideas for incorporation of ETBs into a positive feedback loop in the theoretical framework of the SES.
0HWKRGRORJ\
&DVH6WXG\$UHD
Illustrated in Fig.3, Irouzaki, Minami Izu town, Shizuoka Prefecture, is a small community on the tip of the Izu Peninsula, just south of
Tokyo emerging out of the Fuji Hakone Izu National Park. The community subsists on mainly fishing and tourism. Land use consists of a
small valley community at sea level with one shopping street for tourists ending in a boat dock, two current fields of aloe cultivation, and
at approximately 500 feet higher in elevation via a footpath are a lighthouse, two shrines, and a former amusement park. As it is isolated,
there is little traffic. It is located 16.8 km from Shimoda City and 8.7 km south of Minami Izu Town (on the national road that circles the
peninsula). Both areas are dependent upon tourism. Being at the lower
tip of the peninsula, it is a detour to arrive there from either area and
is not on a national road, so there is not much traffic going by the
community. The community faces the decline of mass-tourism since
Japan’s bubble economy crashed in the 1990s, exemplified in how the
biggest touristic facility, the Irouzaki Jungle Park (1969-2003), with a
peak of 73,000 visitors per year, shut down. In addition, the aging
society, migration of youth to nearby Tokyo, and low birthrate are
serious issues. According to Minami Izu town hall, in 2012, registered
residents numbered 224, with 39 children. According to the community
office in 2014, out of 247 registered residents, only about 120 people
resided there. There were 21 children under 18, in 13 families, with 71
families total.
Fig.2
Venn diagram of the discussion surrounding key study
elements.
Fig.3 Research Site
The village is seeking alternatives in tourism and community
development to avoid extinction. For this, in 2013 Minami Izu Town
organized a citizen’s participatory workshop14) to make a redevelopment
plan at the site of the former Jungle Park. Thus, it was selected as a suitable
site for action research to address the aims.
0HWKRGV
The research flow and methodology can be seen in Fig.4. The study lasted
two years and consisted of action research (documented action in the
community for observed changes in the study area), literature review,
interviews that then was synthesized qualitatively according to the
theoretical framework described in Fig.1 to obtain the results. Interviewees
and dates of events are documented in Table1 with specific information in
data Table2. In the first year, it coincided with the final year of the
Minami-Izu Town and Irouzaki citizen participation workshops for the
Irouzaki Jungle Park Redevelopment Project14). Irouzaki demographics, a tourism
survey given by the city to over 250 tourists, and the tropical plant list (94 plants) for the
new park were referred to in this study. Tourists and locals were interviewed and
observed for their interest and interactions with native ETB plants and tropical plants.
The sampling method was through snowballing, and data collection was through
participant observation, interviews and focused interviews using field notes,
photography and audio recording. Local interviewees narrated area histories, TK and
tropical identity. TK was decided by use knowledge and described local culture (Table3).
Eight plant specialists (six tropical park specialists and two with strictly local TK) were
interviewed between July 2014 and December 2015 for their familiarity with local plants,
tropical plants, and park issues. A plant list was made combining plants recommended
by the specialists and the interviews with the locals. Six occasions of intensive action
research were conducted wherein the locals were given ideas or situations and their responses recorded. These included consulting with
community members regarding specific plants, usage, location, interesting plants to them, aspects of their desired community, maps of the
growing spaces for ETBs in the town, and exploring ETB uses.
In the final stage of research, the multiple plant lists of 204 entries were amended to contain only plants deemed ETB based on the
criteria that: they not be commonly used in agriculture (too delicate to transport or having odd harvest periods); be rare or important to
the area; or be important for their uniqueness or abundant harvests. As recommended for ETB interviews, a booklet of pictures labeled
with local names15) was made for the subsequent focused interviews which were conducted with 15 locals involved (as per focus of
research) in both the community and tourism development, and one mother (age 21), to represent the minority youth population. PO of the
population was indicated by residents’ ability to remember specific plants in context as shown in Tables 2 and 3. While some residents
could only remember names and uses, others had deeper memories and feelings toward certain plants, indicating a deeper PO5). The
focused interviews were conducted over three days in November 2015. In order to focus the ETB TK on adult and childhood years, a
shortened page of popular edible and medicinal plants and berries (15 out of 41 plants) with the option to add plants if desired was used.
Questions were based on tourism, community development, and biodiversity. People were asked: 1) which of the plants they had used, 2)
in adulthood, childhood or both, 3) any wild animals or insects seen with the plant, 4) if they were to share these live plants with tourists,
how they wanted to share them. The question of how to share was sourced from urban agriculture Incredible Edible Todmorden walks6,16).
The resultant list of plants was a synthesis of these interviews in combination with previous research, with plants organized in levels of
importance based upon what had been learned through the study, as can be seen in Fig.4. The ideas of the people for how to use the plants
are shown in the results section. The data collected was analyzed through discussion against the framework for a final conclusion as to the
effects of ETB PO upon the landscape and consequently upon the flow of the SES in the Irouzaki community.
5HVXOWV
Results for Tables 2 and 3 will be referenced in the following format: (Table-number, reference letter). i.e., (T-2,A). Table2 shows study
data collection methods and results chronologically. On the other hand, in Table3, all plant names are listed with ethnobotanically specific
information. In Table3, on the left, we can see that non-native (tropical) plants are given a star, and plants indicated as important by a
Table1 Interviews (Int.) and other data sources
Type of Data Source
People
Date
Workshops (both)
16 to
24 each
time
15 times
(10/2013
to 3/2015)
Tourist Questionnaire
281
valid
8/2014 to
9/2014
Int.: Irouzaki Tourists
12
2014 to
2015
Int.: Plant Specialists
8
8/2014 to
11/2016
Int.: Irouzaki individual
locals during town visits
26
7/2014 to
12/2016
Int.: Irouzaki festival prep.
event, action research
44
10/2015
Focused Int:Irouzaki locals
16
11/2015
Fig.4 Research Flow and Methodology
BACKGROUND
& LIT REVIEW
AIM:
1.) PO of ETBs
2.) ETB for SESs
PLANT LISTS (Total 204 plants)
Plant Specialists’
Knowledge & PO /
Question of Tropical
Plants for the area
Local People’s
PO: observation
& interviews
Tourists’
Consciousness:
observation &
interviews
Jungle Park
Redevelopment
Project: data &
results
CASE STUDY & ACTION RESEARCH
Site Selection: Irouzaki Village
FINAL PLANT LIST
(41 plants)
Intensive Action
Research
(6 Occasions)
16 Focused
Interviews (ETB
plants & usage in
the landscape)
CONCLUSION
─ 1137 ─

specialist were given a dot to the left of the name. In the columns to the right, we can see that circles indicate that more than two people
mentioned this plant. The less a botanical was mentioned or found to have potential use in the area, the lower it is on the list. Circles
indicate whether the plant is still being used commonly, then by adults, whether it was used by children, whether family members used it,
each of these demonstrating a further removal of time from the present day, while still having value in memory. Thus, by addressing these
different aspects, Table3 distinguishes between levels of PO clarified in Fig.5, wherein stronger PO coincides with (A) deeper emotional
and bodily connection to the ETB, (B) the three main cumulative factors, and (C) closeness to the present.
Table2 Out line of action r esearch and results N = Number of persons, Obs = Obs ervation, Int = Interview, Ph = Photograph, Au = Audi o
Rec ord, Nt = Notes, C om = Community, PS = Plant Specialist, F = Female, M = Male, Var = Various, X = Ti mes or Visits
Subject(s), Age
N
Data
Detail
Plant(s)
Specific details about the data collection and findings for each subject or
set of subjects
Ref
2014 – 2015 By Observation & Interview
Tourists (20s)
2
Nt
Hibiscus syriacus
Noted that t ourists were stopped, touching and discu ssing it. Inquiry was made. “There should be more…
Pretty flower.”
A
Tourists (50s+)
5
Nt, Obs
Sago palm (Cycas revoluta)
Obs of touch and discussion about leaves and red fruit (No te: poisonous)
B
2014 – 2015 By Snow-balling through Specialists & locals
Local h istorian (M 60s)
1
Au, Nt, ph
Fuuran
The o rchid was stolen from the area by tourists during The Bubble. Now none left in the area except in
houses in the Com.
C
Local historian / shop owners
(M, F 60s)
2
Au, Nt, ph
Ashitaba, aloe gumm i, gu ava
Ofte n used in local dishes. The informative statue of Ennyo gyouja (monk) near the pier. The Gummi across
the parking lot. Spaces for gardens. Guava interest.
D
Former JP worker (M 70s)
1
Nt, Au
Mango, lychee, guava,
banana
“Children used to go and play at the JP. We used to sell the fruit from the trees there. It was a good place.”
E
Shop / restaurant owner (F
60s)
2
NT, Au
Tropical fruit, seaweed,
wasabi
Uses wasab i in ice cream. Sell s seaweeds. Always atte nded the workshops. Tropical fruit is possibly good.
F
Locals at Com office (M 40s-
80s)
5+
Au, Nt, 4X
Ashitaba, fuki, seaweed,
hebiichigo, berries
About land change from 80 years ago, why lan d & en viron ment changed, what people used to eat and 1.
Can’t find now or 2. Don’t eat now.
G
Market owner (F 70s)
1
Nt
Pumpkin, sweet potato,
hebiich igo
Negative memories of starvation wild plant foods during war. Can’t find desirable wild plants anymore.
Grows Hebiichigo for medicine.
H
Oldest Com member (F 80s)
1
Au, Int Nt,
2X
Agricultural plants
Book of local h istory. Diver. Many agricultural plants. Remembered smal l palm near Jungle Park, it was
he r favo rite tropical plant.
I
Local with guava tree (F 70s)
1
Ph, Nt, 2X
Guava, hot pepper
Had no previous knowledge of edibility. Not interested. More interested in hot pepper.
J
Elderly shop owner (F 80s) by
Ennyogyouja
1
Nt, Ph
Ashitaba
Grows Ashitaba there behind the shop. Showed the Ennyogyouja statue and plaque. Ashitaba medicinal
and food source. Good to share with tourists.
K
JP plant maintenance (PS) (M
70s)
1
Ph, Au, Nt
5+X
JP tropical plants
Which ones survived 18 years without heating and 3 years without water. Edibility / survival outside in
village / transplantability / JP soil, temp erature, water
L
Elderly (M 70s) & child (F
<10)
2
Nt, In
Street
Akebi
Elderly man teaching about and giving plant to child after having collected on mountain.
M
Agricultural Research
Specialist (PS) (M 40s)
1
Au, Ph
11 historical plants
Presentation of why these plant s in particular were chosen for sustainable dev. in Izu. Only plants not
mentioned by locals but in the list were marked with a bullet. Not in l ist: uwabamiso u, ubayuri,
juumonjishida, yaburegasa.
N
Banana Crocodile Garden
PS(M50s)
1
Au, Nt
Suitable plants for area
Best types / popul arity of fru its and nuts for o utdoor planting; challenges of the tropical botanical garden
business
O
Shimoka mo Botanical Garden
PS (M 30s, 60s)
2
Au, Int Nt
Suitable plants for area
Most popular edibles; challenges of botanical garden business (economics, maintenance)
P
Fisher men’s leader (Curr Com
leader) (M 60s)
1
Nt
Tropical plants outside
Interest in transplanting existing trop ical plants from a nearby bankru pt tropical garden into the town
Q
Former JP PS (M 70s, 80s)
2
Au, Int Nt
Tropical and local edibles.
Matebashii
How, why and what tropical plants to grow, best ones to grow out side, bes t fo rgotten edible
ethnobotanicals.
R
Elder (M 80s)
1
Nt
Hebiichi go
“I grow hebiichigo in my garden.”
S
Elder (F 80s)
1
Nt, in
market
Tropica l fruit
“Why should we care about the tropical fruit in the Jungle Park? We can make money off a parking lot
there.”
T
Temp le monk (PS) / 2 Locals
PS (fam)(M,F 40s)
3
Au, Nt
Local medicinals / edibles.
Main: matebashii, amacha
What plants are the most e njoyable to collect and eat, valuable to culture, where to collect in forest, how
the land has changed over time.
U
2014 – 2015 By Action Research with Locals
Locals at Com office (M 30-
50s)
5
Au, Nt
Shiinomi
Presented cooked Shiinomi and shared. Adults were mildly interested, but not invested.
V
Local people at 11/1 Com
festival rehearsal (Var)
10+
Au
Shiinomi
Presented cooked Shiinomi and shared. Adults were not very inte rested. Children changed over 30 minutes
time . They came back to snack repeatedl y.
W
Locals, tourists & restaurant
staff (Var)
23
Ph
Guava fruit
23 people tried the crushed fruit on ice cream as a topping. Everyone finished theirs. Comments: “very
good” & “I want to try it again ”. Restaurant owners’ problem - how to get the fruit, be relia bly grown
X
Com leader (M 60s)
1
Nt
Byakushin
Presented the possibilit y of using Juniper Berries to make a local Gin – enthusiastic about possible source
of income for the Com.
Y
Com leader, secretary & 1
more (F, M 60s)
3
Nt
Sakura & Fuuran in r oadside
pockets
Presented idea of putting plants in pockets along the roadsid e. Received very well, 40+ trees were brought
to the community to plant.
Z
Com lead er and secretary
2
Nt
Ethnobotanical plant garden
Presented idea to make garden. Interested in idea. He donated, allocated, and began to prepare the land for
cultivation as per the idea.
AA
11/2015 By Focused Interviews specifically with Locals involved in Tourism on Main Street
Locals in tourism/ Com, 1
minority (Var 50s-80s)
16
NT, Ph, Au
Ashitaba & hebiichigo
Locals gave opinions on 15 ETB plants, additional plants, observed instances of biodiversity, and how to
use in landscape and C om.
AB
─ 1138 ─

specialist were given a dot to the left of the name. In the columns to the right, we can see that circles indicate that more than two people
mentioned this plant. The less a botanical was mentioned or found to have potential use in the area, the lower it is on the list. Circles
indicate whether the plant is still being used commonly, then by adults, whether it was used by children, whether family members used it,
each of these demonstrating a further removal of time from the present day, while still having value in memory. Thus, by addressing these
different aspects, Table3 distinguishes between levels of PO clarified in Fig.5, wherein stronger PO coincides with (A) deeper emotional
and bodily connection to the ETB, (B) the three main cumulative factors, and (C) closeness to the present.
Table2 Out line of action r esearch and results N = Number of persons, Obs = Obs ervation, Int = Interview, Ph = Photograph, Au = Audi o
Rec ord, Nt = Notes, C om = Community, PS = Plant Specialist, F = Female, M = Male, Var = Various, X = Ti mes or Visits
Subject(s), Age
N
Data
Detail
Plant(s)
Specific details about the data collection and findings for each subject or
set of subjects
Ref
2014 – 2015 By Observation & Interview
Tourists (20s)
2
Nt
Hibiscus syriacus
Noted that t ourists were stopped, touching and discu ssing it. Inquiry was made. “There should be more…
Pretty flower.”
A
Tourists (50s+)
5
Nt, Obs
Sago palm (Cycas revoluta)
Obs of touch and discussion about leaves and red fruit (No te: poisonous)
B
2014 – 2015 By Snow-balling through Specialists & locals
Local h istorian (M 60s)
1
Au, Nt, ph
Fuuran
The o rchid was stolen from the area by tourists during The Bubble. Now none left in the area except in
houses in the Com.
C
Local historian / shop owners
(M, F 60s)
2
Au, Nt, ph
Ashitaba, aloe gumm i, gu ava
Ofte n used in local dishes. The informative statue of Ennyo gyouja (monk) near the pier. The Gummi across
the parking lot. Spaces for gardens. Guava interest.
D
Former JP worker (M 70s)
1
Nt, Au
Mango, lychee, guava,
banana
“Children used to go and play at the JP. We used to sell the fruit from the trees there. It was a good place.”
E
Shop / restaurant owner (F
60s)
2
NT, Au
Tropical fruit, seaweed,
wasabi
Uses wasab i in ice cream. Sell s seaweeds. Always atte nded the workshops. Tropical fruit is possibly good.
F
Locals at Com office (M 40s-
80s)
5+
Au, Nt, 4X
Ashitaba, fuki, seaweed,
hebiichigo, berries
About land change from 80 years ago, why lan d & en viron ment changed, what people used to eat and 1.
Can’t find now or 2. Don’t eat now.
G
Market owner (F 70s)
1
Nt
Pumpkin, sweet potato,
hebiich igo
Negative memories of starvation wild plant foods during war. Can’t find desirable wild plants anymore.
Grows Hebiichigo for medicine.
H
Oldest Com member (F 80s)
1
Au, Int Nt,
2X
Agricultural plants
Book of local h istory. Diver. Many agricultural plants. Remembered smal l palm near Jungle Park, it was
he r favo rite tropical plant.
I
Local with guava tree (F 70s)
1
Ph, Nt, 2X
Guava, hot pepper
Had no previous knowledge of edibility. Not interested. More interested in hot pepper.
J
Elderly shop owner (F 80s) by
Ennyogyouja
1
Nt, Ph
Ashitaba
Grows Ashitaba there behind the shop. Showed the Ennyogyouja statue and plaque. Ashitaba medicinal
and food source. Good to share with tourists.
K
JP plant maintenance (PS) (M
70s)
1
Ph, Au, Nt
5+X
JP tropical plants
Which ones survived 18 years without heating and 3 years without water. Edibility / survival outside in
village / transplantability / JP soil, temp erature, water
L
Elderly (M 70s) & child (F
<10)
2
Nt, In
Street
Akebi
Elderly man teaching about and giving plant to child after having collected on mountain.
M
Agricultural Research
Specialist (PS) (M 40s)
1
Au, Ph
11 historical plants
Presentation of why these plant s in particular were chosen for sustainable dev. in Izu. Only plants not
mentioned by locals but in the list were marked with a bullet. Not in l ist: uwabamiso u, ubayuri,
juumonjishida, yaburegasa.
N
Banana Crocodile Garden
PS(M50s)
1
Au, Nt
Suitable plants for area
Best types / popul arity of fru its and nuts for o utdoor planting; challenges of the tropical botanical garden
business
O
Shimoka mo Botanical Garden
PS (M 30s, 60s)
2
Au, Int Nt
Suitable plants for area
Most popular edibles; challenges of botanical garden business (economics, maintenance)
P
Fisher men’s leader (Curr Com
leader) (M 60s)
1
Nt
Tropical plants outside
Interest in transplanting existing trop ical plants from a nearby bankru pt tropical garden into the town
Q
Former JP PS (M 70s, 80s)
2
Au, Int Nt
Tropical and local edibles.
Matebashii
How, why and what tropical plants to grow, best ones to grow out side, bes t fo rgotten edible
ethnobotanicals.
R
Elder (M 80s)
1
Nt
Hebiichi go
“I grow hebiichigo in my garden.”
S
Elder (F 80s)
1
Nt, in
market
Tropica l fruit
“Why should we care about the tropical fruit in the Jungle Park? We can make money off a parking lot
there.”
T
Temp le monk (PS) / 2 Locals
PS (fam)(M,F 40s)
3
Au, Nt
Local medicinals / edibles.
Main: matebashii, amacha
What plants are the most e njoyable to collect and eat, valuable to culture, where to collect in forest, how
the land has changed over time.
U
2014 – 2015 By Action Research with Locals
Locals at Com office (M 30-
50s)
5
Au, Nt
Shiinomi
Presented cooked Shiinomi and shared. Adults were mildly interested, but not invested.
V
Local people at 11/1 Com
festival rehearsal (Var)
10+
Au
Shiinomi
Presented cooked Shiinomi and shared. Adults were not very inte rested. Children changed over 30 minutes
time .
They came back to snack repeatedl y.
W
Locals, tourists & restaurant
staff (Var)
23
Ph
Guava fruit
23 people tried the crushed fruit on ice cream as a topping. Everyone finished theirs. Comments: “very
good” & “I want to try it again ”. Restaurant owners’ problem - how to get the fruit, be relia bly grown
X
Com leader (M 60s)
1
Nt
Byakushin
Presented the possibilit y of using Juniper Berries to make a local Gin – enthusiastic about possible source
of income for the Com.
Y
Com leader, secretary & 1
more (F, M 60s)
3
Nt
Sakura & Fuuran in r oadside
pockets
Presented idea of putting plants in pockets along the roadsid e. Received very well, 40+ trees were brought
to the community to plant.
Z
Com lead er and secretary
2
Nt
Ethnobotanical plant garden
Presented idea to make garden. Interested in idea. He donated, allocated, and began to prepare the land for
cultivation as per the idea.
AA
11/2015 By Focused Interviews specifically with Locals involved in Tourism on Main Street
Locals in tourism/ Com, 1
minority (Var 50s
-80s)
16
NT, Ph, Au
Ashitaba & hebiichigo
Locals gave opinions on 15 ETB plants, additional plants, observed instances of biodiversity, and how to
use in landscape and C om.
AB
7RXULVPSHUFHSWLRQ
Over the years, tourists who came to Irouzaki came to visit the tourism generators: The Jungle Park, the shrines, and the lighthouse, and
to enjoy the scenery. In the village area, they were serviced by tourism support facilities: parking, restaurants and guesthouses. Tourism
Table3 Ethnobotanical plant list As Child = used as children by themselves; As Adult = used as adults; Common Usage = commonly used in the
community. C = commercially available; R= religious; * = non-native or non-native use; ࣭= recommended by the Shizuoka Agricultural Research
official; Med = medical use; Prod = product; Cult = cultural usage; Add = use as an additive; (
ࠐ
) = A family member used it
#
Japanese
Name
Japanese
Name
(Romaji)
English Name
Family Name
Genus, Species
Main Usage(s)
Specific Use
As
Child
As
Adult
Common
Usage
1
࢔ࢩࢱࣂ
Ashitaba
Angelica Keiskei
Apiaceae
Angelica keiskei
Food
Tempura
噘
噘
2
࣊ࣅ࢖ࢳࢦ
Hebiichigo
Mock Strawberry
Rosoideae
Potentilla hebiichigo,
Med
Tincture
噘
3 ࣇ࢟ Fuki Giant butterbur Asteraceae Petasites japonicus Food
Tempura or
savory
噘C 噘
4 ࢶ࣡ࣈ࢟ Tsuwabuki
Japanese
Silverleaf
Asteraceae Farfugium japonicum Food Side dish 噘
5
࢔ࢣࣅ
Akebi
Akebia
Lardizabalaceae
Akebia quinata
Food
Fruit
噘
噘
噘
6
࣭ࣀࣅࣝ
Nobiru
Wild Asian Onion
Amaryllidaceae
Allium macrostemon
Food
Spice
噘
C
噘
7 ࢭࣥࣈࣜ Senburi
Japanese Green
Gentian
Gentianaceae Swertia japonica Med Tea (噘)
8
࢔ࢡࢩࣂ
Akushiba
Japanese Heath
Vaccinoideae
Vaccinium japonicum
Food
Fruit
(
噘
)
9 ࢱࢽ࣡ࢱࣜ Tanewatari Bird's Nest Fern Aspleniaceae
Asplenium antiquum
(ENDANGERED)
Food Side dish (噘)
10
ࣇ࣮ࣛࣥ
Fuuran
Neofinetia
Orchidaceae
Neofinetia falcata
Cult
Scent, beauty
噘
噘
11 ࢧ࢝࢟ Sakaki Sakaki Penaphylacaceae Cleyera japonica Cult
Grave
offering
噘 噘R
12
ࣀ࢖ࢳࢦᒓ
Noichigo
Wild strawberry
Rosoideae
Rubus ssp.
Food
Fruit
噘
13
࢟࢖ࢳࢦᒓ
Kiichigo
Brambleberry
Rosoideae
Rubus linnaeus
Food
Fruit
噘
14
࢔࣐ࢳࣕ Amacha Amacha Saxifragaceae
Hydrangea macrophylla var.
thunbergii
Cult, Food
Religious Tea
噘R
15
ࢢ࣑
Gummi
Silverberry
Elaeagnaceae
Elaeagnus
Food
Fruit
噘
16
ࢡࢳࢼࢩ
Kuchinashi
Cape jasmine
Rubiaceae
Gardenia jasminoides
Add
Food dye
噘
噘
17
࢔࢚ࣟ Aloe Aloe vera Xantho
rrhoeaceae
Aloe vera
Food, Med,
Important Prod
Add, dried 噘 噘C
18
ࢡ࣡ࣀ࣑
Kuwanomi
Japanese Mulberry
Moraceae
Morus bombysis
Food, med
Fruit
噘
19
࣐ࣖࣔࣔ
Yamamomo
Bayberry
Myricaceae
Morella rubra
Food
Fruit
噘
20
ࢩ࢖ࣀ࣑
Shiinomi
Beech
Fagaceae
Castanopsis
Food
Nuts
噘
噘
21
኱ᓥࢧࢡࣛࣥ࣎
Oshima
Sakurambo
Oshima Cherry Rosaceae Cerasus speciosa Food Fruit 噘
22
࢖ࢱࣅ࣭࢖ࢾࣅ
࣡
Itab i Wild Japanese Fig Moraceae Ficus erecta Food Fruit 噘
23
ࢫࢠࢼ Sugina
Common
Horsetail
Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense Food
Side dish,
add
噘
24
ࣀࣈࢻ࢘ Nobudo Porcelain Berry Vitaceae
Ampelopsis
brevipedunculata
Food Fruit
25
࣐ࣖࣈࢻ࢘ Yamabudo
Japanese Wild
Grape
Vitaceae Vitis coignetiae Food Fru it
26
*ࢩ࢟࢟ࢶ Shikikitsu
Calamansi,
Calamondin
Rutaceae Citrus microcarpa Food Fruit
27
࣐ࢸࣂࢩ࢖ Matebashii
Japanese Stone-
oak
Fagaceae Lithocarpus edulis Food Flour
28
*
ࣃࢩࣙࣥࣇࣝ
࣮ࢶ
Passsion fruit Passion fruit Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis Food Fruit
29
*
ࢼࢶ࣓ࣖࢩ
Natsumeyashi
Date Palm
Arecaceae
Phoenix dactylifera
Food
Fruit
30
࣒࢝ࢦ Mukago
Yamaimo
Propagules
Discoreaceae Dioscorea Food
Side dish,
rice add
31
*
ࢢ࢔ࣦ࢓
Guava
Guava
Myrtaceae
Psidium guajava
Food, Med
Fruit
32
*
ࣛ࢖ࢳ
Lychee
Lychee
Sapindaceae
Litchi chinensis
Food
Fruit
33
*
࣐ࣥࢦ
Mango
Mango
Anacardiaceae
Mangifera indica
Food
Fruit
34
࣭࢘࣡ࣂ࣑ࢯ࢘
Uwabamiso
Elatostema
Urticaceae
Elatostema umbellatum
Food
Side dish
35
ࢿ࣒ࣀ࢟ Nemunoki Persian Silk Tree Fabaceae Albizia julibrissin Cult
Textile dying,
Beauty
36
࣭ࣁ࣐ࢲ࢖ࢥࣥ
Hamadaikon
Wild radish
Brassicaceae
Raphanus sativus
Food
Side dish
37
ࢻࢡࢲ࣑
Dokudami
Chameleon plant
Saururaceae
Houttuynia cordata,
Med
Tea
38
ࣅࣕࢡࢩࣥ
(
࢖ࣈ࢟
)
Byakushin /
Ibuki
Juniper Cupressaceae Juniperus chinensis
*Seasoning,
Alcohol add
Gin
39
࢜࢞ࢱ࣐ࣀ࢟ Ogatamanoki
Magnolia
Compressa
Magnoliaceae Michelia compressa Cult Scent
40
࣭࣎ࢱࣥ࣎࢘ࣇ Botanboufu
Wild Japanese
celery
Apiaceae Peucedanum japonicum Food Side dish
41
ࢤࢵࢣ࢖ࢪࣗ
Gekkeiju
Bay laurel
Laureaceae
Laurus nobilis
Cult, Add
Decoration
─ 1139 ─

generators bring tourists to the area, and tourism
support facilities support visitors in their arrival and
visit. According to the survey given to tourists by the
town hall, tourists want to see nature and views but
want the brand identity of something they cannot see
in other places – there are many other places with
shrines, natural beauty, and panoramic views. Tourists
mentioned the importance of the Tropical image to Izu.
Tourism support facilities, like roads and good food,
were also expressed as desirable. Tourists noted
(T-2,A,B) visual aspects of plants or hearsay
(poisonous) knowledge rather than hands-on
knowledge. They voiced PO of a sightseeing level with
a desire for more “pretty flowers.”
(WKQRERWDQ\ZLWKLQWKHORFDOKLVWRU\
The results in Table3 indicate ashitaba and
hebiichigo at the top (T-3.1,2). Indeed, they are the two
most used plants in the community. The area has been inhabited for at least 500 years according to the Ennogyouja statue and Ishimuro
Shrine. The plaque on the statue writes of the use of aloe (T-3.17) and ashitaba, but aloe is primarily used commercially (few mentioned
using it for themselves). The woman with her shop closest to the statue shows tourists the plaque and then introduces her ashitaba plants
behind the shop, with accompanying explanations of the plant usage and local history. Approximately 80 years ago, the area was what can
be defined as satoyama and satoumi1).
The area above the village was control-burned to grow kaya (one of a set of specific members of the Poaceae family) for roofing. During
this time, the forest biodiverse and there were several species of orchid (T-2,G). A considerable loss of habitat occurred after this period
during the Second World War (T-2,H). With the end of the war, the economic boom brought wealth from nearby tourism generators, at the
expense of the environment. Tourism support was constructed, and the Jungle Park was built in the kaya fields. “We stopped growing
kaya and the forest was no longer healthy because we didn’t take care of it” (T-2,G).
Satoyama plants have not returned (T-2,C,G,H). Tourists appropriated native plants, fuuran (T-3.10) in particular (T-2,C). Perception
results can be seen in this comment: “We can’t find it. I guess it isn’t there anymore” (T-2,C). The focused interviews showed that the
greatest perceived dangers are habitat destruction by making things “too clean,” concretization, building and a lack of husbandry.
7URSLFDO,PDJH:LWKLQWKH/RFDO+LVWRU\
The Izu Peninsula’s tropical image, dates back to the beginning of Japan’s economic boom when people took vacations in “the tropics,”
and the image remains (T-2,O,P,Q,R). Other tourism support included transplanting of tropical plants into the community (T-2,Q) and the
offering of land for a community ETB garden incorporating tropical and local plants (T-2,Z,AA). Tropical plants in the area are a product of
a globalized economy but have become a part of local identity. In this study, the definition of tropical plants in Table3 is that of plants that
are non-native, but that have been in the process of naturalizing. These introduced plants have not proven to be invasive, as seen with
several tropical parks area-wide, some of which have been open to the natural environment for over 18 years. In addition, a majority do
not endanger the ecosystem and are actually a positive addition to biodiversity17). For these reasons, in Table3, tropical fruit plants were
included. However, there was a lack of knowledge about tropical fruit uses (T-3. 26,28,29,31,32,33), even guava (T-3.31) which has been
growing in an interviewee’s yard “for 50 years” (T-2,J). Seeing this disconnection, intensive action research was done with a local
restaurant to provide guava fruit topping on soft cream, with positive reactions such as “crunchy” and “sweet fruit flavor,” adding novelty
to the ice cream and leading to ideas for tourism (T-2,Z). A search for understanding the lack of knowledge about tropical plants, despite a
clear identification with them, led to an analysis of the relationship with the Jungle Park. One physical reason why local people had little
knowledge about the plants at the Jungle Park is because of the 500-meter uphill road to walk by foot; a feat for many elderly residents.
On the level of psychological ownership, history and control by developers, government agencies, and global economics are significant. The
massive set of greenhouses was built in 1969 by the Iwasaki Group and contained thousands of species. However, the people were still
reeling from the sudden socioeconomic shifts from satoyama, to war, to booming tourism and because they were marginalized in its
development process, the Park never assimilated into the local identity, though a thriving tropical identity had been created throughout
Minami Izu through tourism and other gardens. During this study, in 2014 and 2015, fruit trees were still abundant, but disregarding the
results of the three-year bottom-up Redevelopment Project14), in 2016 the Jungle Park Ruins were demolished by Minami Izu town and
Fig.5 Development of Psychological Ownership in tourists and locals coincides with
increases in A, B, and C
─ 1140 ─

generators bring tourists to the area, and tourism
support facilities support visitors in their arrival and
visit. According to the survey given to tourists by the
town hall, tourists want to see nature and views but
want the brand identity of something they cannot see
in other places – there are many other places with
shrines, natural beauty, and panoramic views. Tourists
mentioned the importance of the Tropical image to Izu.
Tourism support facilities, like roads and good food,
were also expressed as desirable. Tourists noted
(T-2,A,B) visual aspects of plants or hearsay
(poisonous) knowledge rather than hands-on
knowledge. They voiced PO of a sightseeing level with
a desire for more “pretty flowers.”
(WKQRERWDQ\ZLWKLQWKHORFDOKLVWRU\
The results in Table3 indicate ashitaba and
hebiichigo at the top (T-3.1,2). Indeed, they are the two
most used plants in the community. The area has been inhabited for at least 500 years according to the Ennogyouja statue and Ishimuro
Shrine. The plaque on the statue writes of the use of aloe (T-3.17) and ashitaba, but aloe is primarily used commercially (few mentioned
using it for themselves). The woman with her shop closest to the statue shows tourists the plaque and then introduces her ashitaba plants
behind the shop, with accompanying explanations of the plant usage and local history. Approximately 80 years ago, the area was what can
be defined as satoyama and satoumi1).
The area above the village was control-burned to grow kaya (one of a set of specific members of the Poaceae family) for roofing. During
this time, the forest biodiverse and there were several species of orchid (T-2,G). A considerable loss of habitat occurred after this period
during the Second World War (T-2,H). With the end of the war, the economic boom brought wealth from nearby tourism generators, at the
expense of the environment. Tourism support was constructed, and the Jungle Park was built in the kaya fields. “We stopped growing
kaya and the forest was no longer healthy because we didn’t take care of it” (T-2,G).
Satoyama plants have not returned (T-2,C,G,H). Tourists appropriated native plants, fuuran (T-3.10) in particular (T-2,C). Perception
results can be seen in this comment: “We can’t find it. I guess it isn’t there anymore” (T-2,C). The focused interviews showed that the
greatest perceived dangers are habitat destruction by making things “too clean,” concretization, building and a lack of husbandry.
7URSLFDO,PDJH:LWKLQWKH/RFDO+LVWRU\
The Izu Peninsula’s tropical image, dates back to the beginning of Japan’s economic boom when people took vacations in “the tropics,”
and the image remains (T-2,O,P,Q,R). Other tourism support included transplanting of tropical plants into the community (T-2,Q) and the
offering of land for a community ETB garden incorporating tropical and local plants (T-2,Z,AA). Tropical plants in the area are a product of
a globalized economy but have become a part of local identity. In this study, the definition of tropical plants in Table3 is that of plants that
are non-native, but that have been in the process of naturalizing. These introduced plants have not proven to be invasive, as seen with
several tropical parks area-wide, some of which have been open to the natural environment for over 18 years. In addition, a majority do
not endanger the ecosystem and are actually a positive addition to biodiversity17). For these reasons, in Table3, tropical fruit plants were
included. However, there was a lack of knowledge about tropical fruit uses (T-3. 26,28,29,31,32,33), even guava (T-3.31) which has been
growing in an interviewee’s yard “for 50 years” (T-2,J). Seeing this disconnection, intensive action research was done with a local
restaurant to provide guava fruit topping on soft cream, with positive reactions such as “crunchy” and “sweet fruit flavor,” adding novelty
to the ice cream and leading to ideas for tourism (T-2,Z). A search for understanding the lack of knowledge about tropical plants, despite a
clear identification with them, led to an analysis of the relationship with the Jungle Park. One physical reason why local people had little
knowledge about the plants at the Jungle Park is because of the 500-meter uphill road to walk by foot; a feat for many elderly residents.
On the level of psychological ownership, history and control by developers, government agencies, and global economics are significant. The
massive set of greenhouses was built in 1969 by the Iwasaki Group and contained thousands of species. However, the people were still
reeling from the sudden socioeconomic shifts from satoyama, to war, to booming tourism and because they were marginalized in its
development process, the Park never assimilated into the local identity, though a thriving tropical identity had been created throughout
Minami Izu through tourism and other gardens. During this study, in 2014 and 2015, fruit trees were still abundant, but disregarding the
results of the three-year bottom-up Redevelopment Project14), in 2016 the Jungle Park Ruins were demolished by Minami Izu town and
Fig.5 Development of Psychological Ownership in tourists and locals coincides with
increases in A, B, and C
building a road and parking lot in their place18). This replaced a high-potential long-term tourism generator and a year-round productive
emergency food source, a possible source of souvenir plant products, and an evacuation building, with a simple tourism support facility
only able to make seasonal money, and dependent upon nearby outdoor tourism generators (T-2,T).
Through the community planning workshops for the Jungle Park, several realizations were made. The people were interested in using
tropical fruit for tourist attraction as well as in case of emergency food sources. They identified with the tropical image of the area and
interviews indicated PO of them. They were interested in using the tropical plants for possible industry, as well as tourist attraction
gardens14). After these workshops were over, a subsequent year of site visits and interviews indicated that the people were interested in
having tropical plants nearby in a garden within the village as well as at the Jungle Park Ruins. The reasons included that many
residents had low physical mobility due to age, and wanting them close for personal use. Restaurant owners wanted to know how to use
the plants, especially the guava that was already there, and one outsider took five seedlings, currently growing on his tea farm. Many
locals wanted to create a useful landscape incorporating both tropical and local plants. Physical uses were not the only ones mentioned, as
supported by PO, attachment can be through emotions and memories as well3). The town’s oldest member expressed a wish to again see
some (unidentified) midget palms that used to grow near the Jungle Park (T1,I).
(WKQRERWDQLFDO3ODQWV
Of the native ETB plants, the few plants being grown and used in the town are weedy or easy to cultivate, the rest have limited
dispersal methods or grow slowly, thus needing attention and a place for cultivation. Others, such as beech, vegetate on the outskirts
along the roadsides with easy access, where a couple of locals collect nuts on the roadside. Now, to contrast with the former satoyama
environment, the populated area is weeded and covered in concrete. Landscape incorporation feasibility questions focused on location and
significant factors to plant growth and weather patterns. Intensive action research led to community members, especially children’s,
interest in shiinomi. It also led to curiosity about possible new uses for plants, such as exploring making a local Gin with byakushin
(T-2,Y). It was found that Ennyougyouja’s profound influence makes ashitaba (T-3.1) the most eaten ETB (and as such the one with the
deepest PO), and aloe (T-3.17) commercially grown here (T-2,D). Focused interviews showed that people do not have extensive knowledge
about common ETB plants, but did experience them as children and because of that have special feelings of PO for the plants. Each person
could recognize a few plants out of the 15 most common (T-3.1 to 15). As for biodiversity, people noticed birds, boar, and monkeys. Of 16
respondents, 14 who were given a selection of outside the village area, a garden inside the village area, or nothing at all, just sharing the
final food or medicine product endorsed the suggestion for a garden in the community, where they and tourists could enjoy the plants.
Secondly popular was the idea of greenery along the paths in the community. One respondent wanted to lead tourists on tours of edible
walks. Two were interested in serving dishes made with ETBs to visitors or preparing edibles with them, similar to a result from the
workshops, wherein one of the resultant projects was for the local people to serve local foods to visitors at restaurants.
The plants in Table3 are there because they are deemed valuable ETBs with PO for this study. They were marked with one focused
interview response or several mentions in general inquiry with villagers. Unmarked specimens are considered relevant because of their
mention by locals or plant specialists and not being commonly used ETB plants outside this area. These were specific points made by
residents. More men than women had eaten berries as children (T-3.5,12,13,15), mostly by climbing trees in the forest. One said, “I don’t
eat them since I don’t go there anymore.” All adults consume ashitaba (T-3.1) and fuki (T-3.3) very often in cooking, and tsuwabuki (T-3.4)
less. A common practice in the town is to make a tincture of hebiichigo fruit (T-3.2) in hard alcohol for use on skin problems or aches, and
several grow it (T-2,G,H,S). They say that it is hard to find and they would like a large space for it to grow, so that many can use it. When
asked if they would be interested in making products with it, one interviewed shop owner said: “no one would be interested in buying it.”
They use kuchinashi seed pods (T-3.16) to color rice orange, and nobiru (T-3.6) as a spice. Many people have native fuuran (T-3.10)
growing in their homes, but there are said to be none left in the mountains. Several women use sakaki (T-3.11) as grave offerings. Two
women collect shiinomi (T-3.20) from the concrete roadside in the fall. One man eats akebi (T-3.5) when he finds it, and it was seen on two
other occasions of collection, including its introduction to a child (T-2,M). Several people in the town are involved in the aloe (T-3.7)
business, but when asked whether they use it, only a few take the dried powder internally as medicine. Akushiba (T-3.8) and senburi
(T-3.7) were used by a few locals’ family members during childhood, but they haven’t seen it recently. Other plants on the list were either
mentioned only in the initial study or by specialists, so they were not noted as being used by adults or by adults when they were children.
Plants marked as commonly used are commonly used, found in stores sometimes, or in commercial or everyday cultural use. Even so, the
people consider these plants culturally significant and identify with them.
Overall, people other than specialists do not appear to know many specific plants, their uses, or how to distinguish them. However,
interest in knowing and sharing is pervasive; the findings show that there is a consensus that TK is important, and the woman with the
baby even requested a field and usage guide so that TK can be passed down to the next generation.
─ 1141 ─

'LVFXVVLRQ̽(WKQRERWDQ\LQ6XVWDLQDEOH5XUDO7RXULVWLF'HYHORSPHQWLQWKH&RQWH[WRIWKH6RFLDO(FRORJLFDO6\VWHP
(WKQRERWDQLFDOV
One objective of this study was to research the PO of residents regarding locally appreciated ETB plants. Both native plants and
established alien tropical plants that have become part of the local identity were identified as ETB plants, as seen in Tables 2 and 3.
Locals expressed interest in new plants and uses from the former Jungle Park, as well as in new uses for native or existing plants (T-2,Y),
verifying the ETB connection in Fig.6 between plants and locals. Despite a lack of extensive ETB knowledge, local identity with tropical
plants was shown in the research: in results of the workshops; an interest for having in the community landscape (i.e., guava),
disappointment at their loss (i.e., ashitaba and akebi), and attraction to their future use for tourists. As for the commercial availability of
ETB plants, some fruit and vegetables are not commonly used for sale and transportation, due to issues of convenience and hardiness,
meaning that they might be suitable for local processing and use, creating local business. Addressing the question as to the usage of
tropical alien plants as examples of TK ETBs, these plants are now part of local identity are permanent residents. The people also
expressed psychological ownership of some ETBs that are becoming difficult to find. The sparsity of TK regarding native ETB plants was
attributed to numerous, some interrelated, issues facing the community: increasing plant blindness due to lack of recent use, loss of
former satoyama and in turn loss of that culture, and decreased physical mobility due to aging. This demonstrated that although there
was PO, the effect of PO on the SES system had to be investigated for a deeper relationship, discussed in the next subsection. It can be
seen that the feedback loop through landscape is important for continued usage, future appreciation, and revitalization and ultimate
sustainability of the SES.
7KH/DQGVFDSHDQG&RPPXQLW\
The other objective was to observe locals’ reactions when considering incorporation of ETBs into the community for sustainable tourism
and revitalization within the framework of the SES. To clarify the concept, Fig.5 shows the relationships of the various elements at work
in developing PO in the minds of tourists and community members by using a synthesis of previous research in another, successful,
location6,16). The current state of the research location here with relation to the study’s theoretical flow is illustrated in Fig.6. As discussed
in the previous subsection, although the connection of ETB exists as a historical connection from memories, there is little relationship to
plant life or plant products. They are not used for livelihood in the community on a wide scale or other than aloe, for commercial purposes,
and there is a lack of interest and stewardship of them in the landscape. This reduces their meaning, in turn reducing the overall strength
of PO4,5,6). Thus the ETB plants cannot support biodiversity nor have a physical connection to the community, being rather rare
(T-2,C,G,H). For increasing the strength of the social-ecological system for sustainability, it was found that combining culture, economy
and environment through the use of ETB communitywide would be valuable. This is because the people clearly remember the plants and
have interest in them, but that currently, the connection of memories, activities, and landscape is not strong enough to create a feedback
loop into the SES for revitalization, as seen in the broken line around the arrows in Fig.6. ETB supports the retention of TK and the
gaining of new knowledge, and creates an integrated pattern of use and appreciation, resulting in a desire for proximity in the landscape,
as shown in the frustration that ashitaba and hebiichigo cannot be found easily for use. This demonstrates the need for ETBs to be
available in the nearby environment. There were various negative feelings about possibilities for improving the community as well,
including that the nearby National Forest is “no longer healthy” (T-2,G). However, few
members of the community are interested in the current ETB landscape. There has been
extensive land use and social-ecological change over these past 80 years1,17). It is important to
note that parks worldwide that have removed people from protected areas in an attempt to
protect them have resulted in a reverse effect13). The local people expressed a wish to change
this estranged situation from the landscape and ETB plants. In this case, focused husbandry
and a place to grow these 41 species near the forest would increase local biodiversity 17) and
encourage interest in surrounding habitats 6). Also, despite the questionnaire results showing
tourists’ desires for the special brand identity of the location in easy to access forms, there was
a lack of faith that ETB would be valued by tourists. However, through the action research
and workshops, the local people gained a deeper understanding of how their traditions,
culture, and environment could sustain them long term, a relationship that can be seen Fig.2.
The older adult population expressed a desire for the ETB plants to be nearby, in a centralized
location easily accessible to infirm residents, as well as for children (T-3). Combining tropical
identity through high-production edibles and creating something that tourists “cannot find in
other places” with rare, endangered, and prized local ETB plants, clearly labeled and
informed, increases the cultural depth of the people6). As can be seen, despite estrangement, a
Fig.6 Results Current state of the
community within the stud y’s theoretical
framework. Stronger connection to the
landscape is needed for SES feedback loop.
─ 1142 ─

'LVFXVVLRQ̽(WKQRERWDQ\LQ6XVWDLQDEOH5XUDO7RXULVWLF'HYHORSPHQWLQWKH&RQWH[WRIWKH6RFLDO(FRORJLFDO6\VWHP
(WKQRERWDQLFDOV
One objective of this study was to research the PO of residents regarding locally appreciated ETB plants. Both native plants and
established alien tropical plants that have become part of the local identity were identified as ETB plants, as seen in Tables 2 and 3.
Locals expressed interest in new plants and uses from the former Jungle Park, as well as in new uses for native or existing plants (T-2,Y),
verifying the ETB connection in Fig.6 between plants and locals. Despite a lack of extensive ETB knowledge, local identity with tropical
plants was shown in the research: in results of the workshops; an interest for having in the community landscape (i.e., guava),
disappointment at their loss (i.e., ashitaba and akebi), and attraction to their future use for tourists. As for the commercial availability of
ETB plants, some fruit and vegetables are not commonly used for sale and transportation, due to issues of convenience and hardiness,
meaning that they might be suitable for local processing and use, creating local business. Addressing the question as to the usage of
tropical alien plants as examples of TK ETBs, these plants are now part of local identity are permanent residents. The people also
expressed psychological ownership of some ETBs that are becoming difficult to find. The sparsity of TK regarding native ETB plants was
attributed to numerous, some interrelated, issues facing the community: increasing plant blindness due to lack of recent use, loss of
former satoyama and in turn loss of that culture, and decreased physical mobility due to aging. This demonstrated that although there
was PO, the effect of PO on the SES system had to be investigated for a deeper relationship, discussed in the next subsection. It can be
seen that the feedback loop through landscape is important for continued usage, future appreciation, and revitalization and ultimate
sustainability of the SES.
7KH/DQGVFDSHDQG&RPPXQLW\
The other objective was to observe locals’ reactions when considering incorporation of ETBs into the community for sustainable tourism
and revitalization within the framework of the SES. To clarify the concept, Fig.5 shows the relationships of the various elements at work
in developing PO in the minds of tourists and community members by using a synthesis of previous research in another, successful,
location6,16). The current state of the research location here with relation to the study’s theoretical flow is illustrated in Fig.6. As discussed
in the previous subsection, although the connection of ETB exists as a historical connection from memories, there is little relationship to
plant life or plant products. They are not used for livelihood in the community on a wide scale or other than aloe, for commercial purposes,
and there is a lack of interest and stewardship of them in the landscape. This reduces their meaning, in turn reducing the overall strength
of PO4,5,6). Thus the ETB plants cannot support biodiversity nor have a physical connection to the community, being rather rare
(T-2,C,G,H). For increasing the strength of the social-ecological system for sustainability, it was found that combining culture, economy
and environment through the use of ETB communitywide would be valuable. This is because the people clearly remember the plants and
have interest in them, but that currently, the connection of memories, activities, and landscape is not strong enough to create a feedback
loop into the SES for revitalization, as seen in the broken line around the arrows in Fig.6. ETB supports the retention of TK and the
gaining of new knowledge, and creates an integrated pattern of use and appreciation, resulting in a desire for proximity in the landscape,
as shown in the frustration that ashitaba and hebiichigo cannot be found easily for use. This demonstrates the need for ETBs to be
available in the nearby environment. There were various negative feelings about possibilities for improving the community as well,
including that the nearby National Forest is “no longer healthy” (T-2,G). However, few
members of the community are interested in the current ETB landscape. There has been
extensive land use and social-ecological change over these past 80 years1,17). It is important to
note that parks worldwide that have removed people from protected areas in an attempt to
protect them have resulted in a reverse effect13). The local people expressed a wish to change
this estranged situation from the landscape and ETB plants. In this case, focused husbandry
and a place to grow these 41 species near the forest would increase local biodiversity 17) and
encourage interest in surrounding habitats 6). Also, despite the questionnaire results showing
tourists’ desires for the special brand identity of the location in easy to access forms, there was
a lack of faith that ETB would be valued by tourists. However, through the action research
and workshops, the local people gained a deeper understanding of how their traditions,
culture, and environment could sustain them long term, a relationship that can be seen Fig.2.
The older adult population expressed a desire for the ETB plants to be nearby, in a centralized
location easily accessible to infirm residents, as well as for children (T-3). Combining tropical
identity through high-production edibles and creating something that tourists “cannot find in
other places” with rare, endangered, and prized local ETB plants, clearly labeled and
informed, increases the cultural depth of the people6). As can be seen, despite estrangement, a
Fig.6 Results Current state of the
community within the stud y’s theoretical
framework. Stronger connection to the
landscape is needed for SES feedback loop.
community’s need for the landscape is essential to the proper flow of the SES, and in this case, the connection is not strong enough to
create a feedback loop from interest in the environment, to stewardship and connection with the landscape, to a healthy landscape that
feeds both people and environment.
7RXULVPDQG3V\FKRORJLFDO2ZQHUVKLS
Tourism has the potential to create deeper PO for locals as well as tourists, though currently much of tourism is noninteractive and
visually based. This case fits the traditional touristic method, with limitations to visual interaction for tourists (T-2,A,B). They expressed
appropriate PO of a sightseeing level with a desire for more “pretty flowers”; visual appreciation is vital to tourists as that is how they
interact on a most basic level with the location. Tourism has historically been a sight-seeing visually-based, sometimes exploitative
activity worldwide19). Many efforts to create deeper tourist relationships with local areas have led to detrimental activities due to efforts
for deeper interactions through nature tourism and eco-tourism but with disregard to connection with the local people and environment19)
(see Fig.2). A further step for tourism into sustainable practices is to create a nurturing of TK and environment in conjunction with
tourists by creating an interactive arena through sustainable tourism1) and landscape-based ETBs as part of the SES6,16). Not only does
this benefit the local community, it also promotes touristic PO in a variety of modalities including local pride (psychological, social) and
livelihood (economic) as well as supporting the local ecosystemic landscape (pollinators, food and water sources for wildlife, endemic and
naturalized plant propagation)16), leading to more psycho-emotional and bodily connection; deeper PO. Thus, going beyond the traditional
visual experience and creating an interactive ETB experience for tourists based within the SES would be beneficial.
&RQFOXVLRQ
This study was done to research the relationship of several key elements, including the psychological ownership of ethnobotanical
(ETB) plants in sustainable tourism to raise the feedback social-ecological system of a rural community. One objective of this study was to
research the psychological ownership of residents regarding locally appreciated ethnobotanical plants. Despite a lack of knowledge, there
was local psychological ownership of tropical plants originating within the past 80 years. There was little traditional knowledge about
native ethnobotanical plants, however, there were novel uses for those commonly known. It was found that psychological ownership of
ETB plants exists, and is being lost, however, the local people want to build a deeper relationship with plants through usage. To do this,
action research was effective in raising consciousness regarding the use of native and tropical identity plants. During this process, as new
plants were known, traditional plants could be remembered, increasing interest and strengthening the social-ecological system. 2.) The
other objective was to observe reactions for incorporation of ETBs into the community landscape for sustainable tourism and development.
For increasing the strength of the social-ecological system for sustainability, it was found that the people believed that combining culture,
economy, and environment through the use of ETB would be valuable. Commercially, local availability of ETB plants would probably be
beneficial in local processing and use. Ideas for incorporating ETB plants into the central community landscape and integrating this
landscape into sustainable tourism and community development was shared. However, there was little confidence in how to go about
doing this. It was decided that psychological ownership of plants could be further fostered through interaction with them and their use in
sustainable tourism and community development. Tourism has the potential to create deeper PO for locals as well as tourists, through
interactive ETB landscape activities, fostering a better flow in the local SES. Local ideas for ETB plants in centrally located and
easy-access locations for both tourists and community members that could foster community spirit, share unique aspects of the area,
improve biodiversity and opportunities for learning in populated areas and provide resilience in the face of disaster were shared. It was
clear that the local people have psychological ownership of ETB plants and are interested in using these to better their community, to
revitalize their community and ultimately raise the strength of the social-ecological system. Modern ETB is a tool that rural planners can
use to bring people closer to the natural environment in sustainable development to strengthen the vital liaisons between people and the
natural environment.
5HIHUHQFHV
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࡟ࡼࡗ࡚♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࢆάᛶ໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ᆅᇦࡢ
᣺⯆࡜࡞ࡿྍ⬟ᛶࢆㄽࡌࡓ◊✲࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡜ࡣࠊ᳜≀࡜ே㛫ࡢ┦஫㛵ಀ࠾ࡼࡧࠊே㛫ࡀ⏕άࡢ
୰࡛฼⏝ࡍࡿ᳜≀ࡸࡑࡢ▱㆑ࢆ◊✲ࡍࡿᏛၥ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ㣗⏝ࡸ⸆⏝ࠊ⚍
஦࡛ࡢ฼⏝࡞࡝ࠊ⏕άࡢ୰࡛ࡢ᳜≀ࡢά⏝᪉ἲ࡟㛵ࡍࡿ▱㆑ࡸࠊࡑࡢ
᳜≀ࡑࡢࡶࡢࡢ▱㆑ࢆᕪࡋࠊẸ᪘᳜≀Ꮫ࡜ࡋ࡚᪥ᮏㄒ࡟ヂࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ
ࡀࠊఏ⤫ⓗ࡞฼⏝ἲࡸ▱㆑࡟㝈ࡽࡎࠊ᪂ࡋࡃ⏕ࡳฟࡉࢀࡓࡶࡢࡶྵࡴ
ࡇ࡜ࢆᮏ◊✲࡛᭱㏆ࡢᩥ⊩ࣞࣅ࣮ࣗ࡟ࡼࡗ࡚෌ᐃ⩏ࡋࡓࠋ♫఍࣭⏕ែ
ࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࡣሙᡤࠊ᫬㛫ࠊࡑࡋ࡚ே㛫ࡢ」ྜࢩࢫࢸ࣒࡛࠶ࡾࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟
࡞Ⓨᒎ࡬ࡢᖖ࡟ㄪᩚࡋ࡚㐺⏝ྍ⬟࡞ྍ㏫ⓗࢩࢫࢸ࣒࡛࠶ࡿࠋᅗ-1 ࡟
♧ࡍࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ⎔ቃ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱ࣮ࡢ཰㞟ࡸ᳜࠼௜ࡅࠊࡉࡽ࡟ࡣ
฼⏝ᗘ࡟ࡼࡿ᳜≀࡜ࡢ῝࠸㛵ಀࡲ࡛ࡀࠊ⯆࿡࠿ࡽ⟶⌮ࡲ࡛ࡢᚰ⌮ⓗ࢜
࣮ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ࡟㛵㐃ࡍࡿࠋ⎔ቃ࡟࠶ࡿ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮᳜≀ࡀࡇࡢࢧ࢖
ࢡࣝࢆࡘࡃࡾࡔࡍ࡟༑ศ࡞⛬ᗘࢥ࣑ࣗࢽࢸ࢕࡟ά⏝ࡉࢀࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ♫
఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࡀࡘࡃࡽࢀࡿ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ
 ⌧௦ࡢ᪥ᮏ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣࠊ᭷⏝࡛࠶ࡾ࡞ࡀࡽࠊ฼⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸࡞࠸᳜≀
ࡣᑡ࡞ࡃ࡞࠸ࠋࡑࡢࡓࡵᚰ⌮ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ㔊ᡂ࡟ࡼࡾᆅᇦ࡛ࡢ࢚
ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡀάᛶ໬ࡉࢀࡿ࡜௬ㄝⓗ࡟⪃࠼ࡓࠋ
ᮏ◊✲ࡢ┠ⓗࡣࠊձᆅᇦఫẸࡢ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡢ᳜≀࡟㛵ࡍࡿᚰ⌮
ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ࡟㛵ࡍࡿㄪᰝࠊ࠾ࡼࡧղ⌧ᆅࡢ⌧≧࡜ᆅᇦఫẸࡽࡀ
ᣢࡘ▱㆑ࢆ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡢほⅬ࠿ࡽ᫂ࡽ࠿࡟ࡋࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟ᆅᇦάᛶ
໬ࡢ⌮ㄽⓗᯟ⤌ࡳࢆᵓ⠏ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࠊࡢ㸰Ⅼ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ᑐ㇟ᆅ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ⇕ᖏ᳜≀ᅬࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ࡋࡓほගࡢ⾶㏥ࠊேཱྀῶᑡࡀⴭ
ࡋ࠸㟼ᒸ┴༡ఀ㇋⏫▼ᗯᓮᆅ༊ࢆ࡜ࡾ࠶ࡆࠊ⌧ᆅほᐹࠊ࢖ࣥࢱࣅ࣮ࣗࠊ
࣮࣡ࢡࢩࣙࢵࣉ࡛ࡢ࢔ࢡࢩࣙࣥࣜࢧ࣮ࢳࠊ࢔ࣥࢣ࣮ࢺㄪᰝ࡞࡝ᐃᛶⓗ
࡞ㄪᰝࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ㄪᰝࢆᐇ᪋ࡋࡓࠋ
ࡑࡢ⤖ᯝࠊ⌧ᆅほᐹࡸࠊ࢖ࣥࢱࣅ࣮ࣗㄪᰝ࠿ࡽࠊ41 ✀ࡢ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎
ࢱࢽ࣮᳜≀ࣜࢫࢺࡀసᡂࡉࢀࡓࠋ
࢔ࢡࢩࣙࣥࣜࢧ࣮ࢳ࠾ࡼࡧ࢖ࣥࢱࣅ࣮ࣗㄪᰝ࠿ࡽࠊ௨ୗࡢⅬࡀ᫂ࡽ
࠿࡜࡞ࡗࡓࠋ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡣᆅᇦᅛ᭷ࡢ᳜≀ࡸఏ⤫ⓗ▱㆑࡟ᚑ᮶ࡣ
╔┠ࡋ࡚࠸ࡓࠋࡇࡇ࡛ࡶ㸲㸯✀ࡢከࡃࡀᅾ᮶✀ࡢࡼࡃࡳࡿ᳜≀ࡀࣜࢫ
ࢺ࡟࠶ࡀࡗࡓࠋࡓࡔࡋࡑࢀࡽࡢ฼⏝ࡶྂ࠸ୡ௦࡟㞟୰ࡋࠊⱝ࠸ୡ௦࡬
ࡢ⥅ᢎࡀ㏵⤯࠼࡚࠸ࡿࡶࡢࡀᑡ࡞ࡃ࡞࠸ࠋᆅᇦ≉᭷࡛ࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ほ
ග࡬᭷⏝࡞࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡜ࡋ࡚ࡣᾏᓊ㒊࡟⏕⫱ࡍࡿ࢔ࢩࢱࣂࡀὀ
┠ࡉࢀࡿࠋࡇࡢ᳜≀࡬ࡢᚰ⌮ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉࢆᙉ໬ࡋࠊ♫఍࣭⏕ែ
ࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࡢ෌ᵓ⠏ࡀ୍ࡘࡢ㘽࡜࡞ࡿྍ⬟ᛶࡀ♧ࡉࢀࡓࠋ
஧Ⅼ┠࡟ࡣࠊࡇࢀࡲ࡛ࡢ኱ᆺほග࡟࠾࠸࡚ᙧᡂࡉࢀࡓᆅᇦ࢖࣓࣮ࢪ
࡟Ḟ࠿ࡏ࡞࠸እ᮶✀ࡢ⇕ᖏ᳜≀ࡶࠊ௒ᚋࡢほග࡟ࡶ᭷⏝࡞࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱ
ࢽ࣮࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࡿࠋ౛࠼ࡤࢢ࢓ࣂࡣ ᐊෆࡢࡳ࡞ࡽࡎࠊᒇእ✵㛫
ࡢẸᐙࡢ⬥࡟⫱ࡗ࡚ᐇࡾࢆࡘࡅ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡓࡔࡋࠊࡑࡢά⏝࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣ
ᆅᇦఫẸࡣព㆑ࡋ࡚࠸࡞࠸ࠋᆅᇦᅛ᭷ࡢ᳜≀ࡸఏ⤫ⓗ࡞▱㆑ࡢࡳ࡞ࡽ
ࡎࠊእ᮶✀ࡶ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡜ࡋ࡚♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒࡟⤌ࡳ㎸ࡳᒎ
㛤ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀㄢ㢟࡜ࡋ࡚ᾋ࠿ࡧୖࡀࡗࡓࠋ
࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡟ࡼࡿே㛫࡜᳜≀ࡢ㛵ಀࡀྍ㏫ⓗ࡞♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫ
ࢸ࣒࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ᙧᡂࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࣔࢹࣝࢆᮏ◊✲࡛ࡣᥦ㉳ࡋࠊㄪᰝ࡟ࡼࡗ
࡚ࡑࡢࡘ࡞ࡀࡾࡀษࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆከࡃࡢ᳜≀࡟࠾࠸࡚᫂ࡽ࠿࡟ࡋ
ࡓࠋ௒ᚋࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ᆅᇦࡢⓎᒎࢆ⪃࠼ࡿ࡟ࠊࡇࡢ♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ
࣒ࢆάᛶ໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ᭷ຠ࡛࠶ࡾࠊ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣᚰ⌮ⓗ
࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉࢆቑࡍࡓࡵࡢྲྀࡾ⤌ࡳ࠿ࡽ㐍ࡵࡿࡇ࡜ࡀᚓ⟇࡛࠶ࡿ
࡜࠸࠺᪉ྥᛶࢆᑟ࠸ࡓࠋࡑࡢࡓࡵ࡟ࡣᮍ฼⏝ࡢఏ⤫ⓗ᳜≀ࡢࡳ࡞ࡽࡎࠊ
እ᮶ࡢ⇕ᖏ᳜≀ࡶྵࡵ࡚ࠊᆅᇦࡢᬒほ㠃ࡶྵࡵ࡚ࠊά⏝᪉⟇ࢆ⪃࠼ࡿ
ࡇ࡜ࡀࠊ⊂⮬ᛶࢆ㧗ࡵ࡚ࠊ⤒῭ࠊ⎔ቃࠊ♫఍㠃࡟࠾࠸࡚ᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ᆅ
ᇦ᣺⯆࡟ࡘ࡞ࡀࡿ࡜࠸࠺ྍ⬟ᛶࡀ♧ࡉࢀࡓࠋ

pp. 1251-1262, 2000.10
8) Bennett, B. C.: Ethnobotany and Economic Botany: Subjects in Search of Definitions, Miami. FL.,
Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems
, 2002
9) Kinoshita, I.:
Workshop: Methodology for Community-Based Town Planning
(In Japanese), Tokyo, Gakugei Shuppansha, 2007.
ᮌୗຬ㸸࣮࣡ࢡࢩࣙࢵࣉ― ఫẸ୺యࡢࡲࡕ࡙ࡃࡾ࡬ࡢ᪉ἲㄽ㸪Ꮫⱁฟ∧♫㸪2007
10) Hunter, C. J.: On the need to re-conceptualise sustainable tourism development.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism
, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 155-165, 1995.1
11) Konecnik, M. & Lehu, J.-M.: Tourism destination brand identity: The case of Slovenia.
Journal of Brand Management
, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 177-189, 2007.8
12) Ostrom, E.: A General Framework for Analyzing Sustainability of Social-Ecological Systems.
Science
, Vol. 325, No. 5939, pp. 419-422, 2009.7
13) Ostrom, E.: Insights on linking forests, trees, and people from the air, on the ground, and in the laboratory.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences - PNAS
, Vol. 103, No. 51, pp. 19224-19231, 2006.9
14) Kimura, A., Penabaz-Wiley, S. M., Takahashi, N. & Kinoshita, I.: The Usefulness and Difficulties of Conducting Community Development Workshops:
The Case of the Irouzaki Jungle Park's Redevelopment Project -
Reports of the City Planning Institute of Japan
, No. 14, pp. 87-90, 2015.5 (in Japanese)
 ᮌᮧள⥔Ꮚ㸪࣌ࢼࣂࢬ࣡࢖࣮࣭ࣜࢯࣇ࢕࢔㸪㧗ᶫ⳯᭶㸪ᮌୗຬ㸸▼ᗯᓮࢪࣕࣥࢢࣝࣃ࣮ࢡ㊧ᆅ฼⏝ィ⏬⟇ᐃ࣮࣡ࢡࢩࣙࢵࣉࢆ஦౛࡜ࡋ࡚. 㒔ᕷィ⏬ሗ࿌㞟.
➨14 ྕ, pp. 87-90, 2015.5
15) Thomas, E., Vandebroek, I. & Van Damm, P.: What Works in the Field? A Comparison of Different Interviewing Methods in Ethnobotany with Special
Reference to the Use of Photographs.
Economic Botany
, Vol. 61, No. 4, pp. 376-384, 2007.8
16) Warhurst, P. and Dobson, J.:
Incredible! Plant veg, grow a revolution
. Troubador Publishing Ltd., Leicester, 2014
17) Sagoff, M.: Do Non-Native Species Threaten The Natural Environment?
Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics
, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 215-236,
2005.5
18) Botes, L. & Van Rensburg, D.: Community participation in development: nine plagues and twelve commandments.
Community Development Journal
,
Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 41-58, 2000.1
19) Lane, B. & Kastenholz, E.: Rural tourism: the evolution of practice and research approaches – towards a new generation concept?
Journal of
Sustainable Tourism
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20) Holland, N.:
Holland's Guide to Psychoanalytic Psychology and Literature-and-Psychology
. Oxford University Press on Demand, Oxford, 1990

࿴ᩥせ⣙ 
ᮏ◊✲ࡣࠊᆅ᪉άᛶ໬ࡢࡓࡵࡢᆅᇦ㈨※ࡢ୍ࡘ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱ
ࢽ࣮ࡢほⅬ࠿ࡽ᭷⏝࡞᳜≀࡟╔┠ࡋࠊࡑࡢᚰ⌮ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ㔊ᡂ
࡟ࡼࡗ࡚♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࢆάᛶ໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ᆅᇦࡢ
᣺⯆࡜࡞ࡿྍ⬟ᛶࢆㄽࡌࡓ◊✲࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡜ࡣࠊ᳜≀࡜ே㛫ࡢ┦஫㛵ಀ࠾ࡼࡧࠊே㛫ࡀ⏕άࡢ
୰࡛฼⏝ࡍࡿ᳜≀ࡸࡑࡢ▱㆑ࢆ◊✲ࡍࡿᏛၥ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ㣗⏝ࡸ⸆⏝ࠊ⚍
஦࡛ࡢ฼⏝࡞࡝ࠊ⏕άࡢ୰࡛ࡢ᳜≀ࡢά⏝᪉ἲ࡟㛵ࡍࡿ▱㆑ࡸࠊࡑࡢ
᳜≀ࡑࡢࡶࡢࡢ▱㆑ࢆᕪࡋࠊẸ᪘᳜≀Ꮫ࡜ࡋ࡚᪥ᮏㄒ࡟ヂࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ
ࡀࠊఏ⤫ⓗ࡞฼⏝ἲࡸ▱㆑࡟㝈ࡽࡎࠊ᪂ࡋࡃ⏕ࡳฟࡉࢀࡓࡶࡢࡶྵࡴ
ࡇ࡜ࢆᮏ◊✲࡛᭱㏆ࡢᩥ⊩ࣞࣅ࣮ࣗ࡟ࡼࡗ࡚෌ᐃ⩏ࡋࡓࠋ♫఍࣭⏕ែ
ࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࡣሙᡤࠊ᫬㛫ࠊࡑࡋ࡚ே㛫ࡢ」ྜࢩࢫࢸ࣒࡛࠶ࡾࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟
࡞Ⓨᒎ࡬ࡢᖖ࡟ㄪᩚࡋ࡚㐺⏝ྍ⬟࡞ྍ㏫ⓗࢩࢫࢸ࣒࡛࠶ࡿࠋᅗ-1 ࡟
♧ࡍࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ⎔ቃ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱ࣮ࡢ཰㞟ࡸ᳜࠼௜ࡅࠊࡉࡽ࡟ࡣ
฼⏝ᗘ࡟ࡼࡿ᳜≀࡜ࡢ῝࠸㛵ಀࡲ࡛ࡀࠊ⯆࿡࠿ࡽ⟶⌮ࡲ࡛ࡢᚰ⌮ⓗ࢜
࣮ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ࡟㛵㐃ࡍࡿࠋ⎔ቃ࡟࠶ࡿ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮᳜≀ࡀࡇࡢࢧ࢖
ࢡࣝࢆࡘࡃࡾࡔࡍ࡟༑ศ࡞⛬ᗘࢥ࣑ࣗࢽࢸ࢕࡟ά⏝ࡉࢀࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ♫
఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࡀࡘࡃࡽࢀࡿ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ
 ⌧௦ࡢ᪥ᮏ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣࠊ᭷⏝࡛࠶ࡾ࡞ࡀࡽࠊ฼⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸࡞࠸᳜≀
ࡣᑡ࡞ࡃ࡞࠸ࠋࡑࡢࡓࡵᚰ⌮ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ㔊ᡂ࡟ࡼࡾᆅᇦ࡛ࡢ࢚
ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡀάᛶ໬ࡉࢀࡿ࡜௬ㄝⓗ࡟⪃࠼ࡓࠋ
ᮏ◊✲ࡢ┠ⓗࡣࠊձᆅᇦఫẸࡢ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡢ᳜≀࡟㛵ࡍࡿᚰ⌮
ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉ࡟㛵ࡍࡿㄪᰝࠊ࠾ࡼࡧղ⌧ᆅࡢ⌧≧࡜ᆅᇦఫẸࡽࡀ
ᣢࡘ▱㆑ࢆ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡢほⅬ࠿ࡽ᫂ࡽ࠿࡟ࡋࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟ᆅᇦάᛶ
໬ࡢ⌮ㄽⓗᯟ⤌ࡳࢆᵓ⠏ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࠊࡢ㸰Ⅼ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ᑐ㇟ᆅ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ⇕ᖏ᳜≀ᅬࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ࡋࡓほගࡢ⾶㏥ࠊேཱྀῶᑡࡀⴭ
ࡋ࠸㟼ᒸ┴༡ఀ㇋⏫▼ᗯᓮᆅ༊ࢆ࡜ࡾ࠶ࡆࠊ⌧ᆅほᐹࠊ࢖ࣥࢱࣅ࣮ࣗࠊ
࣮࣡ࢡࢩࣙࢵࣉ࡛ࡢ࢔ࢡࢩࣙࣥࣜࢧ࣮ࢳࠊ࢔ࣥࢣ࣮ࢺㄪᰝ࡞࡝ᐃᛶⓗ
࡞ㄪᰝࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ㄪᰝࢆᐇ᪋ࡋࡓࠋ
ࡑࡢ⤖ᯝࠊ⌧ᆅほᐹࡸࠊ࢖ࣥࢱࣅ࣮ࣗㄪᰝ࠿ࡽࠊ41 ✀ࡢ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎
ࢱࢽ࣮᳜≀ࣜࢫࢺࡀసᡂࡉࢀࡓࠋ
࢔ࢡࢩࣙࣥࣜࢧ࣮ࢳ࠾ࡼࡧ࢖ࣥࢱࣅ࣮ࣗㄪᰝ࠿ࡽࠊ௨ୗࡢⅬࡀ᫂ࡽ
࠿࡜࡞ࡗࡓࠋ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮ࡣᆅᇦᅛ᭷ࡢ᳜≀ࡸఏ⤫ⓗ▱㆑࡟ᚑ᮶ࡣ
╔┠ࡋ࡚࠸ࡓࠋࡇࡇ࡛ࡶ㸲㸯✀ࡢከࡃࡀᅾ᮶✀ࡢࡼࡃࡳࡿ᳜≀ࡀࣜࢫ
ࢺ࡟࠶ࡀࡗࡓࠋࡓࡔࡋࡑࢀࡽࡢ฼⏝ࡶྂ࠸ୡ௦࡟㞟୰ࡋࠊⱝ࠸ୡ௦࡬
ࡢ⥅ᢎࡀ㏵⤯࠼࡚࠸ࡿࡶࡢࡀᑡ࡞ࡃ࡞࠸ࠋᆅᇦ≉᭷࡛ࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ほ
ග࡬᭷⏝࡞࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡜ࡋ࡚ࡣᾏᓊ㒊࡟⏕⫱ࡍࡿ࢔ࢩࢱࣂࡀὀ
┠ࡉࢀࡿࠋࡇࡢ᳜≀࡬ࡢᚰ⌮ⓗ࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉࢆᙉ໬ࡋࠊ♫఍࣭⏕ែ
ࢩࢫࢸ࣒ࡢ෌ᵓ⠏ࡀ୍ࡘࡢ㘽࡜࡞ࡿྍ⬟ᛶࡀ♧ࡉࢀࡓࠋ
஧Ⅼ┠࡟ࡣࠊࡇࢀࡲ࡛ࡢ኱ᆺほග࡟࠾࠸࡚ᙧᡂࡉࢀࡓᆅᇦ࢖࣓࣮ࢪ
࡟Ḟ࠿ࡏ࡞࠸እ᮶✀ࡢ⇕ᖏ᳜≀ࡶࠊ௒ᚋࡢほග࡟ࡶ᭷⏝࡞࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱ
ࢽ࣮࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࡿࠋ౛࠼ࡤࢢ࢓ࣂࡣ ᐊෆࡢࡳ࡞ࡽࡎࠊᒇእ✵㛫
ࡢẸᐙࡢ⬥࡟⫱ࡗ࡚ᐇࡾࢆࡘࡅ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡓࡔࡋࠊࡑࡢά⏝࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣ
ᆅᇦఫẸࡣព㆑ࡋ࡚࠸࡞࠸ࠋᆅᇦᅛ᭷ࡢ᳜≀ࡸఏ⤫ⓗ࡞▱㆑ࡢࡳ࡞ࡽ
ࡎࠊእ᮶✀ࡶ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡜ࡋ࡚♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ࣒࡟⤌ࡳ㎸ࡳᒎ
㛤ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀㄢ㢟࡜ࡋ࡚ᾋ࠿ࡧୖࡀࡗࡓࠋ
࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡟ࡼࡿே㛫࡜᳜≀ࡢ㛵ಀࡀྍ㏫ⓗ࡞♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫ
ࢸ࣒࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ᙧᡂࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࣔࢹࣝࢆᮏ◊✲࡛ࡣᥦ㉳ࡋࠊㄪᰝ࡟ࡼࡗ
࡚ࡑࡢࡘ࡞ࡀࡾࡀษࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆከࡃࡢ᳜≀࡟࠾࠸࡚᫂ࡽ࠿࡟ࡋ
ࡓࠋ௒ᚋࠊᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ᆅᇦࡢⓎᒎࢆ⪃࠼ࡿ࡟ࠊࡇࡢ♫఍࣭⏕ែࢩࢫࢸ
࣒ࢆάᛶ໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ᭷ຠ࡛࠶ࡾࠊ࢚ࢫࣀ࣎ࢱࢽ࣮࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣᚰ⌮ⓗ
࣮࢜ࢼ࣮ࢩࢵࣉࢆቑࡍࡓࡵࡢྲྀࡾ⤌ࡳ࠿ࡽ㐍ࡵࡿࡇ࡜ࡀᚓ⟇࡛࠶ࡿ
࡜࠸࠺᪉ྥᛶࢆᑟ࠸ࡓࠋࡑࡢࡓࡵ࡟ࡣᮍ฼⏝ࡢఏ⤫ⓗ᳜≀ࡢࡳ࡞ࡽࡎࠊ
እ᮶ࡢ⇕ᖏ᳜≀ࡶྵࡵ࡚ࠊᆅᇦࡢᬒほ㠃ࡶྵࡵ࡚ࠊά⏝᪉⟇ࢆ⪃࠼ࡿ
ࡇ࡜ࡀࠊ⊂⮬ᛶࢆ㧗ࡵ࡚ࠊ⤒῭ࠊ⎔ቃࠊ♫఍㠃࡟࠾࠸࡚ᣢ⥆ྍ⬟࡞ᆅ
ᇦ᣺⯆࡟ࡘ࡞ࡀࡿ࡜࠸࠺ྍ⬟ᛶࡀ♧ࡉࢀࡓࠋ

          
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