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Why agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa remains low compared to the rest of the world – a historical perspective
Abstract
Agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa has, in recent times, remained lower than the rest of the world. Many attribute this to factors inherent to Africa and its people, such as climate, soil quality, slavery and disease. This article traces the role of agriculture through history and argues that these are not the main reasons. Before the arrival of European traders, complex agricultural systems existed, which supported food security, manufacturing and trade. External interference manipulated these systems in pursuit of export crops. Independence has not fundamentally changed this; resource and wealth extraction continue to inhibit economic development for Africans in Africa.
... However, as Bjornlund et al [15] pointed out, the vulnerabilities in SSA's agricultural systems are not just caused by current climate challenges but are part of a long process that began over two centuries ago and is still ongoing. Ncube [16] explains that during the colonial era, export-orientated farming was introduced, disrupting local agricultural systems well-suited to the region's environment and needs. ...
... This process did not end with independence, as many post-colonial policies have struggled to rebuild or improve local systems. As a result, SSA remains dependent on narrow agricultural models vulnerable to external shocks, continuing to impact food security and agricultural productivity today [15]. Recent evaluations of Green Revolution-style strategies further reveal that these externally driven approaches have largely failed to address the needs of smallholder farmers in Africa, instead reinforcing market dependency, favouring export-oriented production, and entrenching inequalities in land access and food security [18]. ...
... However, when examining the green economy's effectiveness and applicability in SSA, it is crucial to consider the historical factors that have shaped current agricultural practices. Bjornlund et al [15] argue that agricultural productivity in SSA remains lower than in other regions due to a violent colonial history, which altered traditional farming systems in favour of extractive economic activities designed to benefit colonial powers. Colonial production systems focused on export crops and introduced unsustainable irrigation practices, disregarding local socioeconomic and environmental contexts [20]. ...
This study is the first to investigate the relationship between climate change, green economy, and their combined impact on food security within Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The study employed a targeted non-systematic literature review and annual data spanning 2005 to 2022 and encompassing 39 SSA countries using rigorous econometric techniques, including Driscoll-Kraay
fixed effects, two-step system GMM, and quantile regressions. Focusing on the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of food security, the literature review first concluded that most agricultural systems in SSA over the past nearly 10 decades failed to address food security, especially for the smallholders, the significant population across SSA. This is due to externally introduced agricultural systems and value chains not contributing to food security, whereas green economy actions show potential depending on the local socio-economic conditions. A conceptual model framework is proposed to consider the links between food security, climate change, agriculture, and the green economy. The econometric analysis found that carbon emissions significantly
negatively affect food security in SSA. At the same time, the green economy demonstrates a positive effect, countering the adverse impacts of climate change on food security. Furthermore,
the findings revealed that when climate change interacts with green economic activities, it curtails the adverse effects of carbon emissions on food security. As a result, green policy measures are essential in steering food security and reducing the adverse effects of climate change on food systems. The findings show the imperative for strategic policy interventions to bolster climatesmart agricultural methodologies focused on food security, sustainable land management practices, and inclusive renewable energy initiatives. This research paper contributes to the existing literature by delving into the holistic dynamics of climate change, the green economy, and food security. It
delineates actionable pathways for policymakers and stakeholders. It advocates for a multidimensional approach prioritising food security in SSA, aligning with Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) such as poverty eradication, hunger alleviation, climate action, and sustainable community development, aiming to pave the way for a more resilient and sustainable food future in the region.
... Food security and crop productivity are at grave risk due to climate change, which has a particularly negative impact on African agriculture [1,2]. Conventional agricultural practices are being disrupted by the continent's increasingly unpredictable weather patterns, which include rising temperatures, protracted droughts, and erratic rainfall [3][4][5]. Due to their reliance on rain-fed agriculture, many African nations are especially susceptible to variations in precipitation patterns [6,7]. These climate-related stressors result in lower crop yields, particularly for highly drought-and heat-sensitive staple crops such as rice (Oryza sativa L.), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.), cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), maize (Zea mays L.), and Triticum aestivum (Wheat). ...
... Lack of access to climate-smart technologies is among the main obstacles [33,40,191]. Many African farmers are unable cope with changing climate conditions because they lack access to sophisticated tools like irrigation systems, precision farming methods, and seeds that are tolerance to pests, diseases, salt, drought, and [5,192]. Moreover, this problem is made worse by the exorbitant price of these technologies and the dearth of appropriate extension services [193]. ...
... For instance, some nations may even enact legislation that forbids commercialization of GM crops that are climate resilient [66]. It is challenging to forecast farming conditions caused by climate variability and extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and unpredictable rainfall, which makes efforts to accept sustainable agricultural practices throughout the continent even more challenging [3][4][5]. To address these issues, governments, international organizations, and local communities must cooperate to create and advance climate-resilient agricultural systems. ...
The changing climate is causing more and more problems for Africa's agriculture sector, such as heat stress, drought, and soil erosion, which endanger crop productivity and food security. However, little is known about the use of modern biotechnology tools for climate-smart crop production in Africa. This review investigates how current biotechnology can promote climate-smart crop production throughout the continent. Several biotechnological techniques for creating crop varieties with raised resistance to pests, drought, and salinity, such as genetic engineering, CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, and marker-assisted selection were examined in this study. By focusing on crucial climate-resilient characteristics like improved water-use efficiency, pest resistance, and nutrient-use optimization, these biotechnologies present revolutionary avenues for sustainable farming practices in Africa. Along with problems like public perception, regulatory limitations, and absence of research infrastructure, strategies for overcoming barriers to widespread adoption are covered. This review emphasizes the importance of biotechnology in guaranteeing durable African food systems and reducing agricultural risks connected to climate change, while also emphasizing the necessity of global collaboration and capacity building, and favourable policies.
... Despite the evolvement of the global agricultural landscape in agricultural production methods and advancements in technology that have played a significant role in increasing productivity and efficiency, several reasons have contributed to the underperformance of African agriculture. Agricultural production has faced numerous challenges such as climate change, water scarcity, outbreak of pests that cause considerable damage to crops, and environmental degradation, and political instability (Baudron, Zaman-Allah, et al., 2019;Bjornlund et al., 2020a;Ray et al., 2019). Climate change poses a significant risk that undermines agricultural gains, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where it has adversely affected production of staple crops like maize (Tesfaye et al., 2015). ...
... These challenges have caused agricultural production to not maintain pace with the rapid increase in population growth, leading to demand outstripping supply (Baion et al., 2023). This has escalated food imports making the majority of African countries net food importers, contrary to the 1960s when Africa was self-sufficient in food production (Bjornlund et al., 2020a). This paradox is underscored by the fact that, despite possessing 60% of the world's uncultivated arable land, Africa remains food deficient (AfDB, 2016). ...
... In West Africa, about 60% of the population is employed in agriculture, and the sector accounts for 35% of the gross domestic product (GDP); however, the subregion is not food secure (Fraval et al. 2020;Oyelami et al. 2022). This is because the region has wide yield gaps (Henderson et al. 2016) resulting in some of the lowest per hectare crop yields in the world (Bjornlund et al. 2020;USAID 2024). This situation is due to pest and disease infestations, soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate change (Son et al. 2018;Sultan et al. 2019;Ruzindaza 2020;Bjornlund et al. 2020;Pawlak and Kołodziejczak 2020;Diop et al. 2022). ...
... This is because the region has wide yield gaps (Henderson et al. 2016) resulting in some of the lowest per hectare crop yields in the world (Bjornlund et al. 2020;USAID 2024). This situation is due to pest and disease infestations, soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate change (Son et al. 2018;Sultan et al. 2019;Ruzindaza 2020;Bjornlund et al. 2020;Pawlak and Kołodziejczak 2020;Diop et al. 2022). Additionally, economic constraints and limited access to innovative agricultural technologies hinder the ability of farmers to adapt to these multifaceted challenges (Kone and Uzmay 2024). ...
The yields of important crops, including maize, onion, and tomato in Burkina Faso, are affected by climate- and environmental-induced pests and diseases (P&Ds). The present study aimed to develop a simple, pilot early warning system (EWS) for the management of fall armyworm (FAW), defoliating caterpillars, and bacterial wilt in maize, onion, and tomato farms, respectively. To achieve this objective, the main climate and environmental variables conditioning maize FAW, onion-defoliating caterpillar, and tomato bacterial wilt were determined through a principal component analysis (PCA) using observed field data and values of these variables extracted at different locations and dates. A Weighted Linear Combination (WLC) approach was used to calculate the Occurrence Possibility Index (OPI) for the P&Ds. The results indicate that of a total of 101 climate and environmental variables considered, 25 were consistently influential on the 3 crops. Moreover, 51 are influential for maize-FAW, 58 for onion-defoliating caterpillars, and 61 for tomato bacterial wilt. Spatial analysis shows that the northern part of the country is less favorable for pest and disease occurrence than the southern part. The OPI varies from season to season and year to year. However, the mean OPI for all P&Ds is close to 0.8–0.9, indicating a high risk of outbreaks. The developed EWS, available at https://ppedmas.org/ews.php, provides an opportunity for targeted intervention when conditions are favorable or unfavorable for the occurrence of maize-FAW, onion-defoliating caterpillar, and tomato-bacterial wilt.
... In contexts where formal institutions are weak or inaccessible, the informal social structures that govern interactions among farmers, communities, and local institutions become central to resource sharing, knowledge dissemination, innovation adoption, and collective action. Emerging evidence suggests that social capital can either enable or constrain the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices, depending on the nature and strength of local relationships (Bjornlund et al., 2020;Gadeberg & Lecoutere, 2023). Positive social relations promote collaboration, reduce transaction costs, and facilitate access to inputs and markets. ...
... Ostrom (2009), noted that trust is a foundational element in collective action, enabling the enforcement of informal rules and the mutual monitoring necessary for managing common resources. Bjornlund et al. (2020) similarly emphasize that the breakdown of trust is closely linked to a decline in communal innovation and resilience. In Mkuzi, farmers' reluctance to adopt innovations under such conditions reveals how social disintegration can compromise sustainable agricultural transitions. ...
This study aimed to examine the role of social relations in influencing sustainable agricultural practices, innovation adoption, and market participation among smallholder orange farmers in Mkuzi Village, Muheza District, Tanzania. Specifically, the study investigated: first how trust, cooperation, and networks shape productivity and innovation uptake; second, the barriers posed by mistrust and weak social ties; and third, the institutional and social interventions that can support sustainable farming outcomes. A mixed-methods design was employed, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Data were collected through household surveys (n = 60), semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis via SPSS Version 25, while qualitative data were thematically coded using NVivo 12. Findings reveal that strong social relations, characterized by trust, cooperation, and active group membership, were associated with higher adoption of improved inputs, greater market access, and increased resilience. Conversely, weak social networks, insecure land tenure, and theft undermined innovation and investment, particularly among smallholder farmers. The implications of these results underscore the need to strengthen local institutions, promote inclusive cooperatives, improve land tenure systems, and rebuild community trust. The study recommends that policymakers and development practitioners integrate social capital considerations into agricultural programs to enhance sustainability, innovation uptake, and rural livelihoods.
... Major crops have benefited from continued investment in research and development and explicit support for production and markets (i.e., subsidies and other incentives). However, UNCs are uncompetitive and lack infrastructure, and therefore many unutilized plants remain unrecommended and rejected due to low economic competitiveness [16,96]. ...
... Strategies for increasing the use of UNCs in Africa include research and development (R&D) for enhanced varieties [96]. The goal of research and development is to create crop varieties that are more resistant to environmental stressors like drought and poor soil conditions, as well as pests and diseases [100,101]. ...
Africa has great potential to improve food security and increase climate resilience through underutilized and neglected crops (UNCs). These crops are still underutilized despite their advantageous nutritional qualities, ability to withstand harsh environments, and cultural significance. The main obstacles to their use are examined in this review, which include a lack of research and development, a lackluster market, inadequate policy frameworks, and sociocultural choices for staple crops like rice and maize that are widely used. These barriers are further compounded by insufficient extension services and a lack of awareness. This review suggests ways to maximize the potential of UNCs, including improved value chains, focused crop breeding research, policy changes, and enhanced farmer knowledge transfer. It also covered how consumer awareness campaigns fit into national plans for food security and how to incorporate them. The UNCs can significantly contribute to the achievement of sustainable food security and the diversification of food systems throughout Africa by tackling these issues.
... In addition to supporting socio-economic activities, streamflow forecasting plays an important role in disaster risk reduction and climate resilience efforts in West Africa [10]. Appropriate and accurate forecasts can help decision-makers anticipate and respond to hydrological related hazards, such as floods and droughts [14]. ...
... In terms of agriculture, accurate streamflow forecasts are critical for planning irrigation schedules, managing water resources, and mitigating the impacts of droughts and floods on crops. A lot of farmers depend on timely and reliable information to make informed decisions about planting periods, irrigation water demand, and harvesting patterns [10]. If this is achieved, it will improve agricultural productivity while minimizing risks. ...
... Inefficient production practices or technologies have been attributed to low productivity in smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (Nakawuka et al. 2018;Bjornlund, Bjornlund, and Van Rooyen 2020;Giller et al. 2021;Daum 2023). In response, improved and sustainable technologies or practices are disseminated to farmers to enhance productivity. ...
... However, some of these technologies have been found to be labor-intensive, especially in the absence of small-scale mechanization among these farmers. Seasonal labor shortages are prevalent in African agriculture, especially during the production season (Bjornlund, Bjornlund, and Van Rooyen 2020), and many farmers have limited or no access to mechanization (Dzanku and Tsikata 2022;Daum 2023). Despite producing about 80% of the region's food needs (FAO 2014;FAO et al. 2022), low labor productivity and seasonal labor shortages remain challenges to smallholder production. ...
Smallholder farmers are reverting to traditional production methods due to the high opportunity costs and unintended consequences of new technologies. This study focuses on row planting technology, which is labor-intensive and slow without mechanized operations. Data from 224 nonadopters and 237 adopters of row planting were analyzed using ordinary least squares and instrumental variable techniques. The results show varying effects of row planting on yield and income across different agroecological zones, with labor use being endogenously determined. Comparing labor requirements, we found that row planting demands an additional 14.79 man-hours per acre over broadcasting seeds. The current dissemination approach of sustainable intensification technologies such as row planting prioritizes yield-enhancing technologies over mechanization, hindering adoption. We propose integrating small-scale mechanization, such as small-scale planters and harvesters, to reduce labor hours and promote sustainable intensification technology adoption.
... Globally, GHG emissions from this sector account for 14.8 per cent, whereas in sub-Saharan Africa AFOLU account for 61 per cent of GHG emissions. In addition, productivity in the agricultural sector is low and dominated by traditional farming practices, leading to more emissions per capita or unit of product than the global average (Bjornlund et al., 2020). ...
Climate change and security nexus: Bottle necks and prospects
... In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), significant volumes of food estimated to be about 37% of the total food production are lost after harvest Sustainability sagens.org/journal/agens [157] annually (Curzi et al., 2022) even though sub-Saharan African agricultural productivity and the per capita value of agriculture output is the lowest in the world (Bjornlund et al., 2020). Currently, food production is saddled with declining soil fertility and weather variability due to climate change. ...
This study assessed the current status and potential of postharvest extension in reducing food losses at the Adawso and Asesewa periodic markets in the Eastern Region of Ghana. A survey utilizing direct face-to-face questionnaire interviews to obtain data and information was undertaken on 167 marketers in the two markets by simple random sampling. The results revealed that trading at the two markets was dominated by women (96.4%) mostly of a mixed age group of the youth and middle-aged (72.0%) with the majority (67%) having primary and junior secondary levels of education. Most marketers (71.2%) reported more than 10% postharvest food losses and had no access to postharvest extension services (85.6%) and information on postharvest technologies for food loss prevention or reduction (88.6%). However, marketers were willing to participate in postharvest training (86.6%) and adopt new food loss prevention technologies (85%). Probit regression analysis identified marketers' education level and access to postharvest extension as significant predictors of their perception of postharvest extension contribution to food loss prevention in the markets. Each additional unit of education increases the likelihood of perceiving postharvest extension as beneficial by 1.21, similarly, access to postharvest extension increases the likelihood by 1.1 times. This implies that education and access to postharvest extension services are significant factors in food loss prevention and reduction. The study therefore suggests that provision of the services in the markets that include practical demonstrations and hands-on training presents a valuable opportunity for food loss reduction to promote sustainability.
... The agricultural sector is essential to providing food and jobs that help lessen high poverty levels but this depends on the level of efficiency in the sector. Bjornlund et al. (2020) cited climate change, soil quality and those diseases that cause agricultural inefficiency and food poverty in Africa. However, the role of agriculture in poverty reduction can be negative or positive but according to Bekun and Akadiri (2019), cannot be regarded as an efficient tool for reducing poverty. ...
How is structural transformation related to poverty reduction using a value-added analysis per Southern African Development Community (SADC) sector? SADC endures premature deindustrialisation and high poverty levels. The study investigated the gross domestic product value-added proportion in the manufacturing, service, agricultural, and industrial sectors. This study used a panel autoregressive and distributed lag to examine the relationship between structural transformation and poverty. The study's results indicated that the agricultural and manufacturing sectors were useful for poverty reduction in the short run. In the long run, however, the service and industrial sectors were found to be essential for reducing poverty. These findings indicate that the SADC must prioritise the efficient functioning of the agricultural, manufacturing, service, and industrial sectors for meaningful poverty reduction. It is suggested that the SADC craft robust policies for the service and industrial sectors, harness modern technology, and invest in research and development.
... In addition, significant errors of omission often led to LSNTC being misclassified as OL, LSOP, and SSNTC. This may be related to the diverse farming practices in the region, where farmers frequently engage in mixed farming [54][55][56][57], rotational farming [58,59], and intercropping [60], cultivating food crops (such as cassava, maize, and yam) alongside tree crops to meet both short-term livelihood needs and long-term income goals [61][62][63][64]. Furthermore, we also observed the misclassification of shrubland as SSNTC and LSNTC, mostly in the savanna-dominated (northern and southern) part of the region, especially in central parts of Cameroon, CAR, and the southern parts of DRC. ...
While the role of expanding agriculture in deforestation and the loss of other natural ecosystems is well known, the specific drivers in the context of small- and large-scale agriculture remain poorly understood. In this study, we employed satellite data and a deep learning algorithm to map the agricultural landscape of Central Africa (Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon) into large- (including for plantations and intensively cultivated areas) and small-scale tree crops and non-tree crop cover. This permits the assessment of forest loss between the years 2000 and 2022 as a result of small- and large-scale agriculture. Thematic [user’s] accuracy ranged between 91.2 ± 2.5 percent (large-scale oil palm) and 17.8 ± 3.9 percent (large-scale non-tree crops). Small-scale tree crops achieved relatively low accuracy (63.5 ± 5.9 percent), highlighting the difficulties of reliably mapping crop types at a regional scale. In general, we observed that small-scale agriculture is fifteen times the size of large-scale agriculture, as area estimates of small-scale non-tree crops and small-scale tree crops ranged between 164,823 ± 4224 km² and 293,249 ± 12,695 km², respectively. Large-scale non-tree crops and large-scale tree crops ranged between 20,153 ± 1195 km² and 7436 ± 280 km², respectively. Small-scale cropping activities represent 12 percent of the total land cover and have led to dramatic encroachment into tropical moist forests in the past two decades in all six countries. We summarized key recommendations to help the forest conservation effort of existing policy frameworks.
... As of 2021/22, maize yields in SSA were at 2.60 tons per hectare, significantly lower than the global average of 3.51 tons per hectare and even further behind the yields in South America (5 tons per hectare) and South and Southeast Asia (4.03 tons per hectare) (USDA, 2022). This disparity has promoted renewed efforts to enhance agricultural efficiency in the region (Bjornlund et al., 2020). A key component of this initiative is agricultural extension, and educational and outreach endeavors crucial for increasing agricultural productivity in SSA (Issahaku and Awudu, 2020;Oduniyi and Tekana, 2021;Sebaggala and Matovu, 2020;Taye, 2013). ...
The study uses the Living Standards Measurement Study–Integrated Surveys on Agriculture to evaluate mobile phone ownership’s direct and indirect effect on yields in Tanzania. The results indicate that transitioning from not owning to owning a mobile phone improves maize yields by about 16%. Mobile phones indirectly affect maize yield by facilitating farmers’ access to extension services – regardless of the type of provider – but only account for about 2% of the total effects. Considering both direct and indirect effects, this study suggests that extension services partially moderate this causal relationship. Further, the impact of mobile phones is stronger among male-headed farm households.
... Conversely, large-scale agricultural technology projects have sometimes struggled due to insufficient attention to local needs and practices. For example, industrial agricultural methods in some African countries, without tailoring them to local farming conditions such as soil quality, climate, and disease or involving local communities, has led to poor adoption and sometimes even worsened food security (Bjornlund et al. 2020). This highlights the importance of context-sensitive collaboration that involves local expertise and considers social and environmental factors-an approach that can strengthen efforts to develop AI capacity effectively in the Global South. ...
The growing application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is evident and has opened vistas of opportunities for research, design, and development in many subject areas. However, among stakeholders (researchers, industry, users, and governments), there has been a widespread call for the adoption of relevant ethical principles in the development of AI technology to reduce its potential harm to the social rights of the people and the environment. Such considerations are essential not only for enhancing human agency but also for improving user experience and advancing other significant aspects. Sustainability ensures an inclusive and safer environment and socio-economic well-being both for the present and future society. Societies in the Global South, especially countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, have fundamental principles and cultural values that guide human relationships and decision-making processes. We argue that digital technologies designed and deployed here should support indigenous users to realize their common good and maintain livable and sustainable cities and communities. This is not the case, however, as emerging AI technologies are being developed with inherent Eurocentric biases (which are at variance with African values) and exported to the Global South without recourse to the views of target users. As a result, the usability of AI technologies is impacted—affecting the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals. Therefore, this chapter’s contribution explores the usability of AI-powered systems to draw insights for enhancing accessibility, user experience, inclusiveness, scalability, and sustainability in practice. It presents a framework that integrates fundamental social values with ethical principles of AI necessary to tailor culturally appropriate and socially responsible recommendations for the design and implementation of interactive AI systems for sustainable cities and communities.
... The revealed differences in METs values between urban and rural female residents affirm prior research [12,27,28] findings of the dominance of labour-intensive activities, associated with high energy expenditure and therefore METs values, in rural areas in Africa, Latin America and Asia, and reports of the higher prevalence of sedentary service and professional jobs in urban areas in Ghana [13]. The higher METs values in rural compared to urban female residents may present valuable protective effects against NCDs. ...
(1) Background: Spatial energy expenditure patterns, driven by physical activity, particularly among females, remain underexplored in Ghana. This study, therefore, investigates spatial energy expenditure clustering or dispersion patterns using metabolic equivalents of task (METs) values among Ghanaian females across rural and urban areas. (2) Methods: Using 13,799 data from the 2022 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, METs values were assigned to self-reported occupation categories as proxies for physical activity. Global and local spatial autocorrelation metrics (Queen contiguity and Moran’s I) were employed to assess spatial clustering or dispersion of METs values across the 16 administrative regions. (3) Results: Rural females reported higher METs (mean = 3.35 ± 1.627) and lower BMI (23.476 ± 3.888) than urban females (METs: mean = 2.42 ± 1.208, BMI: 25.313 ± 4.854). There was a significant but weak global spatial autocorrelation (Moran’s I = 0.003, p-value = 0.001), with stronger clustering observed in rural (Moran’s I = 0.004, p-value = 0.001) than in urban areas (Moran’s I = 0.002, p-value = 0.002). Also, High–High clusters were prevalent in the Northern, Savannah and Northeast regions particularly due to the lingering labour-intensive occupations as compared to Low–Low clusters in the Eastern and Greater Accra regions where jobs are often desk-based and sedentary. (4) Conclusions: Given the revealed geographic heterogeneity (High–High and Low–Low clustering) of female energy expenditure in Ghana, there is a need for regionally tailored health policies targeting physical inactivity and its associated risks.
... In SSA, land degradation through soil erosion and nutrient depletion has so far affected 65% of the total land area (Tefera et al., 2024). Other challenges that further impede agricultural productivity include poor health, limited land tenure and ownership, crop diseases and pests, costly inputs with limited outputs, limited agricultural information, limited credit and market access, lack of appropriate technologies, inadequate policies, and policy inconsistencies, which result in smallholder farmer neglect (Shimeles et al., 2018;Bjornlund et al., 2020). There is therefore a need for sustainable agricultural practices to mitigate these challenges and promote food security (Struik, 2017). ...
Global food production systems are under pressure due to population increase, limited farmland, biotic and abiotic constrains, and ongoing climate change. Sustainable intensification is needed to increase agricultural productivity with minimal adverse environmental and social impacts. Vegetable-integrated push pull (VIPP) technology coupled with black soldier fly (BSF) frass offer such opportunities to smallholder farmers. However, farmers’ vegetable preferences and willingness to adopt these innovations remain unknown and are variable across various geographic scales. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-person interviews with smallholder farmers were conducted to assess vegetable production constraints and select vegetables to be integrated into VIPP coupled with BSF frass biofertilizer in Kenya and Uganda. Twenty-six FGDs followed by in-person interviews were conducted from July to November 2023 with 227 and 106 farmers from Kenya and Uganda, respectively. A total of 23 vegetable types were identified. The most considered discerning parameters and traits included household consumption, income generation, nutritional value, extended harvesting, drought tolerance and resistance to diseases and insect pests. The major constraints were the high cost of agrochemicals and fertilizers and poor seed quality in Kenya while diseases, pests, drought and poor rainfall, low soil fertility, too much rainfall and floods, high cost of agrochemicals and fertilizers, lack of seeds and poor seed quality were pressing constraints among farmers in Uganda. More than 83% of farmers showed readiness to adopt a combination of VIPP+BSF. Kales, spinach, cabbage, Amaranthus, African nightshade and tomatoes were preferred in central Kenya whereas cowpeas, kales, African nightshade, Amaranthus, pumpkin leaves and spider plants in western Kenya were preferred as vegetables to be included in VIPP and BSF frass innovations. Ugandan farmers considered eggplants, Amaranthus, garden eggs, cabbage, kales and tomatoes the most popular vegetables to be incorporated in VIPP and BSF frass innovations. Our results provide a baseline for vegetables to be integrated into VIPP with BSF frass biofertilizer for validation with farmers. The study also underlies how farmer crop preferences vary according to site and the need for participatory selection to increase the chances of adoption of agricultural interventions.
... Climate change and its associated natural hazards, such as drought, storms, floods, and cyclones, have devastated food and nutrition [54]. Climate change is implicated as having severely compromised food security and African livelihoods [55]. Chronic declines in agricultural productivity and water resources are pervasive in Africa. ...
This article examines the connection between political developments, economic structures, and food systems in Africa, focusing on the Russia-Ukraine war. The article explores how the prevailing political economy influences food production, distribution, and consumption, identifies the conduits through which the war impacted the food system value chain, and proposes how national and local governments can build resilient food systems capable of meeting the population’s food needs amidst crises. The findings show that the war affected Africa's food system mainly by disrupting the supply chain of commodities that Africa used to develop and sustain its food system. The war disrupted inputs, energy, and food products from Russia and Ukraine to African countries that depend on these countries for these commodities. The article also proposes response mechanisms to the impacts of the war and how African countries can navigate future disruptions and build resilient food systems capable of meeting the population’s food needs. The article could be exciting for politicians and policymakers working on food security, food sovereignty, and diplomatic issues.
... This gap means that even when valuable research is conducted, it often does not reach the farmers who need it most, slowing the transition to net-zero agriculture. With low domestic investment in agricultural research (Bjornlund et al. 2020), African countries often depend on external knowledge and technologies. This dependency can be problematic as imported solutions may not always suit local conditions. ...
Africa, with 55 Member States and over 1 billion people, is projected to nearly double its population to 2.5 billion by 2050, presenting both opportunities and challenges for sustainable development. Agriculture employs 65% of the labour force and contributes 32% to gross domestic product. The aim of this perspective is to highlight the challenges and opportunities of achieving net-zero agriculture in Africa while proffering appropriate recommendations. The primary issues are how extreme weather events affect food security and how to cut emissions from livestock farming as well as rice cultivation and fertilizer usage alongside evaluating current policies that support climate-smart agricultural practices. Africa needs to investigate how its expanding young population along with research and innovation can advance the move towards net-zero agricultural practices. Challenges of insufficient data availability together with ineffective policy enforcement, financial barriers, and limited awareness, decreasing precipitation levels coupled with regional conflicts and population migration hinder progress in achieving net-zero agriculture on the continent. However, Africa possesses substantial opportunities through its extensive arable land combined with its youthful workforce and renewable energy capabilities. Africa needs to obtain climate funds and strengthen regional partnerships while enhancing climate information services and creating inclusive and gender-responsive policies to address these issues. Investing in innovative technologies alongside renewable energy sources and crops resistant to climate change stands as an essential strategy. The implementation of early warning systems along with the development of alternative livelihoods will enhance efforts towards sustainable management of climate-induced migration. Africa will develop a climate-resilient agricultural system by confronting existing challenges while capitalizing on emerging opportunities.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11625-025-01666-y.
... In response to these systemic injustices, this study employs the frameworks of food sovereignty and feminist agroecology as transformative frameworks that prioritise local food systems, challenge patriarchal norms, and elevate the role of women in agricultural production and community resilience. Food sovereignty goes beyond mere access to food and asserts the right of communities to define their own food systems (Bjornlund et al. 2020), emphasising local production and consumption (Sippel and Larder 2019). In this context, feminist agroecology emerges as a critical lens for studying women smallholder farmers in particular, who are marginalised by conventional agricultural policies that often prioritise industrial farming practices, as well as focus on the production economy, while simply ignoring the reproductive economy (van Niekerk and Wynberg 2017). ...
We investigate how a group of women smallholder farmers built a food system alongside the industrial and the corporate-state-led global agri-food system. The paper shows how the adoption of agroecological practices makes possible the creation of a parallel food system, modifying gender relations, and increasing autonomy and food sovereignty. Thereby, agroecology creates an environment prioritizing an economy of household and social reproduction. We urge policies to recognize systemic inequalities and power within industrial food systems, and their inability to address rural food security. Supporting community well-being, agroecology offers a sustainable solution for rural food security. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Despite this increasing demand, local production has not kept pace, leaving the continent reliant on imports (Yarnell, 2008). Studies have highlighted Africa's ongoing reliance on food imports (Bjornlund et al., 2020;2022;Morris and Fessehaie, 2014;Seck et al., 2010Seck et al., , 2012Taylor, 2016;Zhou and Staatz, 2016). ...
Rice production in Namibia is nascent and primarily relies on imports. Currently, cultivation is limited to Ka-limbeza in the Zambezi region, the University of Namibia's Ogongo Campus, and small-scale farmers in the Omusati region. Locally produced rice has a limited market presence. This study investigates consumer preferences and Willingness to Pay (WTP) for locally produced rice in Omusati, comparing it to imported brands, such as Tastic. A mixed-method approach was employed, utilizing experimental auctions and sensory evaluations to assess preferences and WTP at Ogongo Campus, as well as in Oshikuku and Outapi Towns. Consumer preferences were measured using a 9-point hedonic scale, and WTP was determined through bidding experiments for both uncooked and cooked rice. Locally grown rice varieties, Ir-riga (B) and Supa (C) were compared against Tastic (A) as a benchmark. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA), Kendall's coefficient of concordance, and multinomial logistic regression. Results showed that Tastic, an imported brand, was the most preferred overall (p < 0.001), but it was rated lowest on individual attributes. In terms of WTP, Supa ranked highest, followed by Irriga. The key factors influencing rice purchase decisions were taste, price, swelling capacity, and promotion. Therefore, promoting the cultivation and consumption of local varieties is essential for boosting demand and supporting local production.
... These risks have an adverse impact on the achievement of regional and global targets like the Sustainable Development Goals and Africa Agenda 2063 [2]. High levels of poverty, inadequate institutional and structural frameworks, and poor uptake of contemporary agricultural production systems are the contexts in which climate risks are embedded [3]. ...
... The sector contributes to employment, poverty reduction, and economic growth, while also serving as a common thread linking all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) together (Paroda & Joshi, 2019). In developing countries, agriculture is often the primary source of income and employment, with the sector contributing significantly to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and exports (Bjornlund et al., 2020). However, the sector faces numerous challenges, such as low productivity, limited access to modern technology, and inadequate financing (Ssozi et al., 2019). ...
Agricultural credit is crucial for improving productivity, sustaining economic growth, and supporting smallholder farmers' livelihoods. However, in Tanzania, the sector receives a disproportionately low share of total credit from formal financial institutions. This study analyzes the trends and patterns of agricultural credit from 2005 to 2018 and its implications for agricultural productivity and GDP. The research is guided by Credit Rationing Theory, Financial Intermediation Theory, and Institutional Theory, which provide insights into the challenges affecting credit accessibility. A longitudinal quantitative research design was employed, utilizing secondary time-series data from the Bank of Tanzania (BoT), National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), and other institutional reports. Data analysis included trend analysis, structural break tests (Zivot-Andrews), and comparative sectoral lending assessments. Findings indicate that agriculture receives less than 10% of total commercial bank lending, despite its substantial GDP contribution. The 2009 global financial crisis led to a structural decline in agricultural credit, which has not fully recovered. Key barriers include high interest rates, stringent collateral requirements, and risk perceptions, limiting access, especially for smallholder farmers. Although financial innovations such as value chain financing and government-backed programs have been introduced, their effectiveness is undermined by policy inconsistencies and institutional inefficiencies. To improve access to agricultural credit, targeted financial policies, risk management frameworks, and digital financial solutions are essential. Strengthening financial literacy, promoting inclusive credit mechanisms, and expanding agricultural insurance programs will be critical in fostering a sustainable and equitable credit system.
... Despite these reforms, cotton production and agriculture generally have remained lower in SSA compared to the rest of the world. Bjornlund et al. (2020) blame this phenomenon on the resource-and wealth-extraction policies that continue to inhibit economic development for Africans by Africans despite many years of independence. Others attribute low agricultural production in SSA to attributes inherent to Africa and its people, such as slavery, disease, soil quality, and climate change (Baltenweck et al., 2022;Ros-Tonen et al., 2019). ...
In Zambia, cotton contract farming has faced significant hurdles in scaling, primarily due to the complexities involved in engaging with smallholder farmers at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Therefore, this study examined the determinants of contract farming adoption enabling scaling in the sector. A researcher-administered survey was employed, targeting distributors who are key stakeholders and serve as intermediaries between multinational corporations and smallholder farmers. Using binary logistic regression analysis, the results reveal that localization, focus groups, collaboration with NGOs, leveraging local networks, co-creation, capacity building, and cooperation with traditional leaders are significant predictors of the adoption of contract farming. The study’s comprehensive analysis underscores the critical factors and enablers driving contract farming adoption and scaling in the cotton sector. These findings offer valuable insights and practical implications for broader use by policymakers, MNCs,
NGOs and other stakeholders involved in the cotton value chain aim to inform more inclusive and effective strategies for scaling contract farming in Zambia and the Sub-Saharan region.
... However, Kenyan small-scale farmers suffer setbacks hindering socially responsible investing. Scrupulous traders and colonialists marginalized non-settler agriculture from development (Bernards, 2022;Bjornlund et al., 2020). Unfortunately, this is a global phenomenon (Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2022). ...
This study aimed to establish how socially responsible investing promotes the performance of climate-smart agricultural projects. Wani et al. (2024), investigating the Middle East and North Africa, found environmental quality depends on economic growth. However, to realize economic development in a country where agriculture is the backbone of the economy, stakeholders need to promote the value of the agricultural products and reduce post-harvest loss through value addition. This study anchors on game theory, which opines that the economy is not fixed. Hence, agricultural stakeholders need to be innovative and progressive. A descriptive research design was employed to study two climate-smart agriculture projects, with a population of 516 small-scale farmers. The study found a relationship between socially responsible investing and the performance of climate-smart agricultural projects. However, the interaction between value addition and socially responsible investing had minimal influence. The hurdle was underlying factors such as poverty and insecurity. Consequently, it is imperative to have policies and stakeholders prioritize and promote provision of the scarce public and private goods to enhance small-scale farmers’ resilience and propel them from subsistence to commercial production for value addition of surplus food.
... However, the agriculture sector in ssa countries is marked by relatively lower productivity (Bjornlund, Bjornlund and Van Rooyen, 2020) compared to other sectors, thus prompting policymakers to address the necessity of enact- (Jayne et al, 2021). An opposing viewpoint contends that the labour productivity depicted in national accounts measures is considerably lower than the micro-level measures, because agricultural labourers contribute notably fewer annual working hours than their counterparts in alternative sectors (McCullough, 2017). ...
There are discernible trends in severe food insecurity prevalence among the adult population in sub-Saharan Africa. This study delves into the complex interactions of climate change impacts, agricultural factor productivity, and changes in population growth, which together exacerbate the issue of food insecurity. To comprehend these intertwined effects on rural and urban food insecurity, we employed the Rural Investment and Policy Analysis data and Computable General Equilibrium modelling system developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute. Our findings revealed a decline in urban food consumption associated with increased urban population and decreased agricultural total factor productivity. However, we observed a slight increase in real consumption for rural households. Our analysis indicates a contraction in the economy and a disruption in the volume of international trade. This research contributes valuable insights into the multifaceted challenges sub-Saharan Africa faces in its pursuit of food security, enabling policymakers to construct informed decisions and design effective interventions.
... It has been of major economic importance in the region due to the number of citizens involved in agriculture. However, agricultural productivity in SSA failed to be commensurate with the demands due to the increasing population in the region (Bjornlund, 2020). The slow rate of agricultural productivity could be attributed to climate change factors, low technological adoption and practice, a lack of productive inputs, and weak institutions (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2019). ...
The supply-demand balance of cereals in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries left a gap that needs to be bridged by growth-inclusive agricultural production. Agricultural growth failed to keep pace with the population growth resulting from low technology adoption, mechanization, reduced yield, food loss/waste, trade barrier and distortion, low investment, and tenure security. This study investigates the impact of cereal production and intra-food trade on agricultural growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, utilising a cross-sectional panel dataset of 48 countries from 1986 – 2021. Employing the Im-Pesaran-Shin unit root tests, pairwise correlation analysis, and random effects regression modeling, the study reveals that cereal production significantly contributes to agricultural growth by 0.8 %. In comparison, intra-food trade positively and significantly influences agricultural growth by 2.5 %. The result shows that cereal production positively affects agriculture growth, while intra-food trade and population growth negate the hypothesis of trade-led agricultural growth. Conclusively, the study recommended lifting trade barriers, developing trade-driven policies, encouraging agriculture exports, and expanding free trade agreements within the region.
... Hall et al. (2021) postulate that one of the primary drivers of food insecurity in Africa is high population growth. The growing African population is creating a high demand for food, at a time when the production of food is failing to meet nutritional requirements across the continentdespite agricultural output increasing yearly (Myeki et al., 2022), with Subsaharan Africa having the least growth (Bjornlund et al., 2020;Djoumessi, 2022). Molotoks et al. (2020) note that nations with slower-than-expected population growth rates are expected to have better food security, whereas those with faster-than-expected population growth rates are likely to experience the worst consequences across Africa and throughout the world. ...
This study investigates perceived causes and associated effects of food insecurity in Kotwa, Mudzi district, Zimbabwe. The study comes at a time when most Zimbabweans are food insecure due to the recent El Niño-induced drought and the situation is worse in rural agro-based communities. We made use of decolonised qualitative methodology through the Ubuntu research approach. We collected data from 11 participants and 3 key informants through dialogue and task approaches. Data were analysed through advanced manual analysis which emphasises the use of native languages in data analysis to ensure that cultural aspects reflected in the data are not lost. In line with the perceived causes of food insecurity, participants highlighted a lack of adequate rainfall, high temperatures, poor soils, laziness and dependence, as well as poverty and unemployment as the causes of food insecurity. The consequences that were reflected include poor physical and mental health, domestic violence, child marriages, crime, and family disintegration. We then recommended, among other recommendations, that there is a need to assist rural agro-based populations with resources and knowledge to produce food despite adverse climatic conditions, and the revival of traditional food insecurity practices like the Zunde raMambo to ensure that communities can rescue households that are food insecure, and not wait for external intervention. Moreover, the government of Zimbabwe should urgently refocus its efforts on addressing food insecurity because it is a threat to national development as it affects well-being and productivity whilst also incubating a host of social problems.
... This has been particularly evidenced by the result that only 21.82% of the respondents could not attend either formal or informal school. Omotesho et al. (2019), Lowder et al. (2019) and Bjomlund et al. (2020) who conducted studies in North-central Nigeria, took stock of the global distribution of farmland and reported an historical perspective of why agricultural production in sub-Sahara Africa has been low, respectively, documented similar result. Further, the findings on the farm size of the women farmers revealed that almost 60.00% of the respondents surveyed had cultivated farmland between 1.0 hectare and 2.0 hectares, with 17.27% and 12.73% owning less than 1.0 hectare and 4.1 -6.0 hectares, respectively. ...
Women's active involvement in crop production plays a crucial role in ensuring food security and sustaining rural livelihoods. This study determined the socio-economic characteristics that influenced women’s participation in crop production in Adamawa State, Nigeria. A Multi-stage, random and purposive methods of sampling were used to generate 220 respondents from eight local government areas. Structured questionnaire, group discussion and interview schedules were used for primary data collection. Descriptive statistics, regression analysis, gross margin analysis, and multicollinearity tests provided insights into the intricate relationships between variables. Findings revealed the key roles of education, farming experience, household size, and farm size in significantly (p <0.05) determining women's participation in crop production. A cost-benefit ratio of .079 indicated fairly profitable enterprises in the State. Major identified challenges among women farmers included inaccessibility to credit facility, lack of extension services and expensive farm inputs. Policymakers need to ssubsidise farm inputs for women and make credit facilities available to them, with the intention of improving productivity and by extension sustainable rural community development.
... These moves were laudable approaches because the agriculture sector is the driver of economic growth in many developing countries (Bjornlund and Andre. 2020) and must be subject to structural adjustments to be in tandem with evolving economic prospects needed to enhance agricultural production to positively influence economic growth. Hence, it is noteworthy for governments to encourage there development amid all economic obstacles through the initiation of good policies and programs. ...
The study made use of secondary data accessed from bulletins and published researches whose primary focus was on various aspects of agricultural policies right from colonial rule to contemporary Nigeria and how it has impacted today’s agriculture and economy in the country. The research showed Nigeria hadn’t any explicit National Agricultural Policy before 1988. At independence in 1960, the country’s planning and policies mostly targeted economic growth and development and largely unarticulated administrative pronouncements that guided the operations of agricultural activities. The 1988 National Agricultural Policy document by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (FMARD) was an executive fiat of the then Federal Government that aimed at improving agricultural production and the development of export markets. A look at chronicled submissions in literature suggests Nigeria’s agricultural policy was replete with limitations, showed a general lack of coherence, absence of continuity and an inadequate linkage to other sectors of the economy. Events suggest agriculture related policies were opportunistic and uncoordinated and many scholars bemoan the absence of continuity and lessons from preceding program memes never adequately analyzed. These have made it difficult to track and evaluate policy effectiveness. At the institutional level, it is evident that roles are not clearly segregated among various administrative offices saddled with agricultural development. The study concluded that before the 1960s, the role of agriculture in Nigeria’s economy was of little interest. However, with limited support from the government, agriculture thrived and provided food for the population, raw materials for the industrial sector, revenue and foreign exchange for government and employment opportunities for the citizens. Agricultural policies in Nigeria will be a success if perspective plans and policy discipline are tenaciously held on to. This will enable government link past policies and facilitate an orderly transition ensuring a seamless continuity.
... Since smallholder farmers make up majority of farmers in rural areas, these issues are especially severe there because they lack access to the tools and knowledge necessary to enhance agricultural methods to boost their yields (Chiaka et al., 2022). Compared to other parts of the world, agricultural production has grown far more slowly in sub-Saharan Africa, and crops there only produce 20% of what could be produced (Bjornlund et al., 2020). Poor soil fertility status, which arises from ongoing cropping without replenishing the lost nutrients, is a major cause of the wide output discrepancies. ...
It is crucial for Nigeria to enhance and increase agricultural food production in order to satisfy the country's expanding population's rising food needs. The study assessed the arable crop farmers' perception of modern agricultural extension approaches (MAEAs) in crop production in Ogun State, Nigeria. A systematic questionnaire guide was created to gather pertinent data from 144 randomly chosen crop farmers for the study, the specific objectives of the study include socioeconomic characteristics, the strategies deployed, their perceptions, and the challenges they encountered when evaluating and using the MAEAs. The findings revealed that the majority of arable crop farmers were married (89.6%), male (84.7%), and able to take part in one or more MAEAs. The results demonstrated that the majority of respondents knew of and took part in the Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) extension approach. Majority of the respondents perceived that MAEAs had effectively disseminated relevant agricultural information to them (̅ = 4.40). Furthermore, crop farmers' insufficient financial resources was the main challenge leading to their inability to access and use MAEAs (̅ = 2.50). Arable crop farmers' perceptions of MAEAs had no significant relationship with sex, marital status, or level of education, as revealed by the chi-square test; however, the correlation analysis revealed that farm size (r=0.175, P<0.05) was significant. Arable crop farmers and other agricultural production stakeholders should put their best effort going forward to maintain the positive perceptions of MAEAs on crop production.
... To connect millet producers with consumers and guarantee fair pricing, infrastructure investments-such as storage facilities, transportation networks, and marketplaces-are essential. This will encourage additional investment in millet cultivation (Bjornlund et al., 2020). Governments, international organizations, and nongovernmental organizations must work together to increase consumer demand by promoting the nutritional advantages of millets and their variety in meals (Gruère et al., 2009). ...
Millets, a group of small-seeded annual grasses, are primarily grown as grain crops in arid regions on marginal land. The original purpose of millet, an ancient grain that is currently grown in 131 countries, was for human consumption. For approximate 60 crore people in Asia and Africa, millet is a staple food. The only crop that can potentially address issues with food, fuel, malnutrition, health, and climate change in the future is millet. Nutri cereals, also known as millet, are an excellent source of nutrients. Millets are incredible in terms of nutrition and health benefits. Millets have been shown in a recent study to reduce the risk of heart disease. Millets help people lose the body weight. the unique characteristics of millets, like the abundance of fibre these contain. The consumption of millet in Odisha offers a significant opportunity to improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Through the enhancement of awareness, the improvement of accessibility, and the celebration of traditional culinary practices, millets can significantly contribute to the health and well-being of the populace. In this paper factors were identified that influence the consumer purchase decision-making on buying millets in Odisha i.e. nutritional value (87.63%), doctor recommendations (78.88%), availability of RTE (Ready to Eat) & RTC (Ready to Cook) millet foods (69.12%), quality of foods or varieties of millets (49.74%) and Govt. initiatives (25.68%). By understanding these identified factors, stakeholders in Odisha can better design the strategies to reintegrate millets into local diets, ultimately contributing to the health and well-being of communities in Odisha.
... This also showed for the South Asia region where their agricultural trade export and agriculture value chain added impacted on economic growth rate by 0.9337176 which is at 93 percent at a 5% level of significance with a probability value that is less than 0.05 when compared to Eastern and Southern Africa region which was never the same for Western and Central Africa, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America and Caribbean. This agrees with several studies' outcomes that Agricultural exports substantially impact growth for European countries as found by Seok and Moon [15] but failed for ECOWAS countries as demonstrated by Mamba and Ali [16] and Bjornlund et al. [20]. Looking forward requires Eastern and Southern African regions and Western and Central African regions to change their pattern of export and trade with others. ...
... In Africa, profound vulnerabilities to climate change exacerbate existing socio-economic challenges. The predominantly rain-fed agricultural sector, which supports a substantial segment of the African populace, is particularly susceptible to climatic fluctuations (Bjornlund et al., 2020). With only about 5% of Africa's cultivated land irrigated, agricultural outputs face threats from droughts, floods, and extreme weather events; leading to recurrent crop failures and enduring food insecurity. ...
Internal and external migrations differ significantly in their social, economic, and environmental drivers; as well as their impacts on individuals and regions. This article critically assesses the socio-economic and environmental drivers of internal migration, alongside its effects in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was conducted utilizing a purposive sample of 201 internal migrants from three wards. Data was collected through a mixed-methods approach that incorporated both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative data was examined thematically for deeper insights. The findings revealed that 60% of the migrants were rural-urban movers, primarily originating from Dodoma region. Employment opportunities (34%) and business prospects (31%) emerged as the primary drivers of this migration. However, the rapid population growth resulting from these movements has placed significant pressure on local services, particularly in water supply, market facilities, and waste management. Markedly, 82% of respondents identified inefficient collection of household waste as a major challenge, underscoring the strain on the waste management system. This article concludes that while internal migration contributes to economic diversification and demographic changes in Morogoro Municipality, it has also intensified demands on infrastructure and public services. Therefore, it is crucial for local authorities to prioritize investment in infrastructure, especially in water supply and waste management systems. Comprehensive urban planning is essential to balance residential and commercial development, while safeguarding environmental resources. Similarly, policymakers are urged to adopt strategic approaches to effectively manage the impacts of internal migration, and promote sustainable urban development.
... Despite its importance, maize production in tanzania, as in many other sub-Saharan african countries, is among the lowest globally (Bjornlund et al., 2020). the low maize production in these areas is attributed to both abiotic and biotic factors (logrieco et al., 2021). ...
Twenty maize genotypes including breeding lines along with improved local released varieties were assessed for grain yield and yield component stability under three different maize growing agro-ecological zones from January to August 2023. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replication was employed. additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) and genotype-by-environment interaction (GGE) analysis was utilized to study the genotype and environment (GE) interactions. The combined analysis of variance showed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.001) in grain yield traits between maize genotypes, environments, interactions and IPC components. The average mean grain yield ranged from 3244 to 5103 kg/ha with a grand mean of 4111 kg/ha The maximum and minimum grain yield was 12325.93 kg/ha (G4) and 1159.68 kg/ha (G9) respectively. The biplot results showed genotype G20, G3, G1, G17 and G15 demonstrated consistently high stable grain yield performance. Genotypes G14, G19 and G4 had high yields, but were unstable as they were far from the IPC1 zero line. Multi-trait stability value indicated that the best genotypes in performance for all traits were G5, G17 and G19. AMMI analysis revealed that the environment at Kibaigwa and NM-AIST was the most ideal environment for seed yield traits. Based on the consistently high and stable grain yield performance, along with other superior grain qualities and plant characteristics, genotypes G5 and G17 were selected and recommended to be advanced and released as new commercial maize varieties in Tanzania for wider cultivation by farmers together with G19, a commercially released variety in Tanzania.
Increasing rice consumption is expected to continue shortly spatially in Africa, where its productivity is currently low. The increasing degradation of soil fertility is leading to ever-lower yields in rice cropping systems. This study aimed to assess the fertility of rice-growing soils in Benin, with a view to their sustainable and optimal management. We collected 700 georeferenced composite soil samples from rice-growing plots in 14 communes of Benin's three rice-growing basins. Organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, pH, and cation exchange capacity were determined. Soil fertility indexes were calculated following geospatial analysis. Soil fertility index ranged from 0.37 to 0.92; from 0.43 to 0.99; and from 0.24 to 0.83, respectively in the northern, north-western, and southern rice-growing basins of Benin. The rice-growing soils are classified as low to moderate fertility, with some geographical points for high fertility. Geostatistical analysis of soil fertility index shows variation in rice-growing soil fertility within and between basins. Soil fertility is low and highly dependent on available phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, organic carbon, and cation exchange capacity. Fertilizer use and rates should consider these basins' soil fertility index map.
Food availability remains a pressing issue across the African continent, with millions of people facing chronic hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity. The purpose of the chapter was to provide an overview of the key barriers to achieving food security in Africa, including environmental degradation, climate change, population growth, poverty, conflict, and inadequate infrastructure. Environmental degradation mostly driven by unsustainable agricultural practices and deforestation threatens the productivity of arable land and freshwater resources, undermining agricultural production and food availability. Meanwhile, climate change further exacerbates food insecurity by altering rainfall patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, and disrupting agricultural livelihoods. Population growth, coupled with rapid urbanization, strains food systems and exacerbates competition for land, water, and resources. Persistent poverty and inequality limit access to nutritious food, healthcare, and education, perpetuating cycles of malnutrition and food insecurity. Conflict and instability in several regions of Africa disrupt food production, distribution, and access, leading to acute humanitarian crises and displacement. Inadequate infrastructure, including transportation networks, storage facilities, and market systems, hinders the efficient movement of food and exacerbates food losses and waste. Addressing food security challenges in Africa requires holistic and integrated approaches that prioritize sustainable agricultural development, climate resilience, poverty alleviation, conflict resolution, and investments in infrastructure and social services. Collaboration between governments, civil society organizations, international agencies, and the private sector is essential to implement policies and interventions that promote food security.
Agriculture-led innovation is a sustainable blueprint for the economic growth and nutritional engine in African development and environmental health. However, it faces significant challenges, including drought, pests and diseases, and soil health, that impede productivity and crop nutritive values. The dynamics of plant biotechnology, proven for agricultural innovations, offers a powerful toolbox to address these impediments and enhance food security within this evolving global bioeconomy. This review paper explores the landscape of plant biotechnology in Africa, highlighting its potential applications and the factors influencing its adoption. Techniques including tissue culture, marker-assisted selection, and genetic engineering and bioengineering as well as examining the roles of these techniques in developing clean planting materials for rapid multiplication, development of genetic modified organisms, or gene editing of crops, especially for drought- and pest-resistant crop varieties tailored towards African needs, are being implemented. Biofortification, a technique for increasing the nutritional content of staple crops, is also explored as a strategy to combat malnutrition, particularly vitamin A deficiency. The paper further examines the critical role of intellectual property rights and access to technology for African farmers. It analyzes the challenges and opportunities presented by public–private partnerships in advancing agricultural biotechnology research and development in Africa. Finally, the paper emphasizes the importance of challenges of biosafety regulations and capacity building for responsible research and development. The conclusion highlights the immense potential of plant biotechnology to transform African agriculture. It underscores the need for continued research, capacity building, and collaborative efforts to harness this technology for a more food-secure and sustainable future in Africa.
The Chapter reviews the “agricultural development paths” in West Africa from the 1950s, using Nigeria and Ghana as case studies. It notes that the smallholder farmer production practices in the 1950s and 1960s were generally resilient and sustainable and the countries were food and nutrition secure. Africa’s food insecurity dilemma has been mainly due to the shift of focus to export crops, combined with inappropriate “agricultural modernization” methodologies, and globalization, as well as the sidelining of indigenous knowledge of food systems. The result has been non-resilient and unsustainable food systems, increasing food and nutrition insecurity and negative environmental consequences. Based on historical and field research information, we argue that, to ensure production of adequate, healthy, safe and nutritious foods for all people, especially in West Africa, a shift must be made back to indigenous and local African knowledge of food production, preservation, processing and consumption, but enriched with new and appropriate environmentally friendly and adaptive knowledge systems, such as agroecology, which has its roots in indigenous production systems. The appropriate blending of traditional and new knowledge that is based on “responsible science” (science that enhances the elements of the natural environment and people) is what the plug-in principle is all about.
Fragile Futures explores how population pressure and climate change threaten child health worldwide. Despite progress in reducing infant mortality, rising environmental and resource challenges risk reversing gains. This report highlights urgent solutions to safeguard future generations from worsening health and social inequalities.
Irrigation scheduling is crucial for ensuring precise water delivery to crops. However, in many sub-Saharan African irrigation schemes, water is applied without considering crop water needs, resulting in low crop water productivity and low yields. Solar-powered irrigation systems can automatically meet these needs by utilizing solar radiation, which drives both evapotranspiration and solar panel power production for pumping. This study aimed to integrate irrigation scheduling into a solar-driven irrigation system and assess the impact of meteorological variables on reference evapotranspiration (ET o) in Ghana. A 50-watt solar panel powered a 12-V submersible pump, with a flow meter installed on the outlet pipe for hourly volume of water pumped (VWP) data readings. These data were used to examine correlations between solar radiation (R s) and ET o , as well as between R s and VWP. Partial correlation analyses were used to assess the relative influences of R s , wind speed (U 2), relative humidity (RH) and air temperature (T air) on ET o across 10 locations in Ghana's agroecological zones. The study revealed a strong linear correlation between the hourly R s and ET o (R 2 > 0.9) and between the hourly R s and VWP (R 2 = 0.8). The VWP was sufficient to meet crop-water demand year-round. Solar radiation was consistently the primary meteorological factor influencing ET o in Ghana. Résumé La programmation de l'irrigation est importante pour assurer une distribution précise d'eau aux cultures. Cependant, dans de nombreux systèmes d'irrigation en Afrique subsaharienne, l'eau est appliquée sans tenir compte des besoins en eau des cultures,
Climate change remains a critical challenge confronting the contemporary world. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is one of the global regions where over 70% of households directly rely on agriculture for livelihood and income. In this region, agriculture also contributes more to the Gross Domestic Product of national economies, and it is very susceptible to climate variability. Hence, considering the severity of climate change, understanding its link with agriculture and development is significant to ensuring the region’s rural development and industrialisation prospects. This chapter explores how climate change intersects with SSA’s agricultural development and rural industrialisation. Drawing from secondary sources and sectorial expertise, this chapter explores recent climate variations, identifies the impacts of climate change variations on agriculture, and determines how the effects of climate change on agriculture affect rural industrialisation. This chapter shows that climate change is damaging agroecological resources, thus affecting not only agricultural productivity but also livelihood activities. The negative impact on agriculture also adversely impacts industrialisation pulling factors in the countryside. This chapter recommends empowering rural communities to adapt to and mitigate climate change impacts on agricultural productivity to attract investors to the countryside. This empowerment requires rural development policy interventions at levels of government to acknowledge climate variability as one of the broader challenges of the rural development agenda to be able to invest adequately in dealing with the change.
The agricultural sector is rapidly evolving worldwide due to novel Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies, resulting in smarter farming methods. These technologies enable farmers to maximise production while monitoring and controlling every aspect of farming, including pest control, crop monitoring, and soil moisture. The technologies could make farmers more profitable, efficient, and environmentally friendly. However, studies that comprehensively analyse how digitalisation can steer development and industrialisation in Africa remained limited. This is a gap that has both practical and policy implications. This chapter uses secondary literature and abstraction to highlight how digital technologies can increase productivity in the agricultural sector. It also highlights how adopting digital tools in farming could pave the way for rural industrialisation. This chapter argues that agricultural digitalisation wields much potential to revolutionise farming and, thus, steer industrialisation in rural Africa. However, small-scale farmers on the continent are left behind in using 4IR mega technologies due to several factors, including economic, political, social, and policy factors. This chapter recommends implementing capacity-building programmes meant to assist rural small-scale farmers to boost production through the adoption of 4IR technologies.
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into livestock management in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) offers a promising solution for improving food security amid climate change challenges. AI technologies have the potential to optimize agricultural 456 practices, enhance supply chain management, and address animal health concerns. However, barriers to AI adoption, such as inadequate data processing capabilities, remain a challenge, especially for smallholder farmers. Food insecurity is a major issue in SSA, driven by climate change, rapid population growth, overreliance on foreign aid, and weak policies. Livestock supports 1.3 billion global livelihoods and plays a crucial role in SSA's food systems. Smallholders rely on livestock as a pathway out of poverty. By 2030, demand for animal-source food is expected to triple due to population growth and shifting consumption patterns. Despite this, there is a gap in policies supporting sustainable livestock production, essential for meeting demand and ensuring long-term food security. This review explores the links between livestock and food security and policy opportunities for a sustainable livestock system.
Kibale National Park (KNP) is a biodiversity hotspot. Covering 795 km ² it is home to the most diverse population of primates in Africa including 13 species and the largest populations of Eastern Chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii ) in East Africa. Rural communities around the park rely heavily on subsistence agriculture and natural resources that surround the park for survival. Population density near the park is greater than 300 people per kilometer, exacerbating pressure on natural resources around and within the park. UNITE for the Environment (UNITE) is a conservation organization working with KNP that provides communities with conservation education programs that address local environmental needs and promotes sustainable solutions to support the protection of this important primate habitat. In prior work, UNITE found considerable variation in how well these sustainable activities are adopted. To understand the factors that influence uptake of different sustainable practices by households, we conducted a community survey on participants’ motivations and barriers. Results highlight a number of factors influencing adoption including education and awareness, access, convenience, economic and direct benefits associated with the practices as well as community influence. These results imply that efforts to promote the widespread adoption of sustainable practices should focus on creating more awareness on sustainable behaviors in the targeted communities, which can change their perceptions and attitudes towards the practices and emphasize the direct benefits that arise from adoption of such practices.
Recently, the use of improved technologies and increasing technical efficiency have been considered the two major pathways to sustainably increase agricultural productivity. The main aim of this study was to explore which factors might facilitate the designing of more-targeted extension and advisory services ( eas ) that can reduce technical inefficiencies, increase farmers’ knowledge about new agricultural technologies and stimulate their intention to use them.1 Mixed research methods, i.e. surveys, key informant interviews and focus group discussions, were used to collect data. Multivariate analysis, structural equation modelling and non-parametric efficiency analysis techniques were the major data analysis methods used to achieve the objectives of this study. The results reveal that Ugandan dairy farmers operate within various production systems, and that they have a low rate of adoption of information and communication technology ( ict ) in agriculture and a high level of technical inefficiencies. Although targeted eas could result in considerable improvement in their productivity, it should be noted that farmer classification and eas targeting should not be a one-off activity.
This chapter analyses Africa’s participation in fruit and vegetables value chains and discusses challenges and opportunities in this sector, including new prospects with the advent of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
Land alienation under colonial and white settler governments in southern Africa Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/
We use a new trade dataset showing that nineteenth century sub-Saharan Africa experienced a terms of trade boom comparable to other parts of the “global periphery.” A sharp rise in export prices in the five decades before the scramble (1835–1885) was followed by an equally impressive decline during the colonial era. This study revises the view that the scramble for West Africa occurred when its major export markets were in decline and argues that the larger weight of West Africa in French imperial trade strengthened the rationale for French instead of British initiative in the conquest of the interior. -- https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050718000128
This paper investigates regional trade agreements in Africa by using panel data spanning 1995~2014. Trade creation and diversion effects are assessed through a gravity model estimated using the Eicker–White robust covariance Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood method. This method proves superior to the usual nonlinear least square estimators, especially against heteroscedasticity and data with zero value. The findings suggest that regional trade agreements may enhance trade. The differences in effects can be matched with the effectiveness in implementation by respective member countries. The trade gains of regional trade agreements do not come at the expense of trade with non-members. By controlling for the duration within a regional trade agreement, we also show that a very small but significant share of the benefits occurs over time in the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa, Southern African Development Community, Southern African Customs Union, and West African Economic and Monetary Union. Trade benefits seem to decline over time in the East African Community. © 2018-Center for Economic Integration, Sejong Institution, Sejong University, All Rights Reserved.
This paper presents an update and extension of HYDE, the History Database of the Global Environment (HYDE version 3.2). HYDE is an internally consistent combination of historical population estimates and allocation algorithms with time-dependent weighting maps for land use. Categories include cropland, with new distinctions for irrigated and rain-fed crops (other than rice) and irrigated and rain-fed rice. Grazing lands are also provided, divided into more intensively used pasture and less intensively used rangeland, and further specified with respect to conversion of natural vegetation to facilitate global change modellers. Population is represented by maps of total, urban, rural population, population density and built-up area. The period covered is 10 000 before Common Era (BCE) to 2015 Common Era (CE). All data can be downloaded from https://doi.org/10.17026/dans-25g-gez3.
We estimate that global population increased from 4.4 million people (we also estimate a lower range < 0.01 and an upper range of 8.9 million) in 10 000 BCE to 7.257 billion in 2015 CE, resulting in a global population density increase from 0.03 persons (or capita, in short cap) km-2 (range 0–0.07) to almost 56 cap km-2 respectively. The urban built-up area evolved from almost zero to roughly 58 Mha in 2015 CE, still only less than 0.5 % of the total land surface of the globe.
Cropland occupied approximately less than 1 % of the global land area (13 037 Mha, excluding Antarctica) for a long time period until 1 CE, quite similar to the grazing land area. In the following centuries the share of global cropland slowly grew to 2.2 % in 1700 CE (ca. 293 Mha, uncertainty range 220–367 Mha), 4.4 % in 1850 CE (578 Mha, range 522–637 Mha) and 12.2 % in 2015 CE (ca. 1591 Mha, range 1572–1604 Mha). Cropland can be further divided into rain-fed and irrigated land, and these categories can be further separated into rice and non-rice. Rain-fed croplands were much more common, with 2.2 % in 1700 CE (289 Mha, range 217–361 Mha), 4.2 % (549 Mha, range 496–606 Mha) in 1850 CE and 10.1 % (1316 Mha, range 1298–1325 Mha) in 2015 CE, while irrigated croplands used less than 0.05 % (4.3 Mha, range 3.1–5.5 Mha), 0.2 % (28 Mha, range 25–31 Mha) and 2.1 % (277 Mha, range 273–278 Mha) in 1700, 1850 and 2015 CE, respectively. We estimate the irrigated rice area (paddy) to be 0.1 % (13 Mha, range 9–16 Mha) in 1700 CE, 0.2 % (28 Mha, range 26–31 Mha) in 1850 CE and 0.9 % (118 Mha, range 117–120 Mha) in 2015 CE.
The estimates for land used for grazing are much more uncertain. We estimate that the share of grazing land grew from 5.1 % in 1700 CE (667 Mha, range 507–820 Mha) to 9.6 % in 1850 CE (1192 Mha, range 1068–1304 Mha) and 24.9 % in 2015 CE (3241 Mha, range 3211–3270 Mha). To aid the modelling community we have divided land used for grazing into more intensively used pasture, less intensively used converted rangeland and less or unmanaged natural unconverted rangeland. Pasture occupied 1.1 % in 1700 CE (145 Mha, range 79–175 Mha), 1.9 % in 1850 CE (253 Mha, range 218–287 Mha) and 6.0 % (787 Mha, range 779–795 Mha) in 2015 CE, while rangelands usually occupied more space due to their occurrence in more arid regions and thus lower yields to sustain livestock. We estimate converted rangeland at 0.6 % in 1700 CE (82 Mha range 66–93 Mha), 1 % in 1850 CE (129 Mha range 118–136 Mha) and 2.4 % in 2015 CE (310 Mha range 306–312 Mha), while the unconverted natural rangelands occupied approximately 3.4 % in 1700 CE (437 Mha, range 334–533 Mha), 6.2 % in 1850 CE (810 Mha, range 733–881 Mha) and 16.5 % in 2015 CE (2145 Mha, range 2126–2164 Mha).
Irrigation development in Sub-Saharan Africa has lagged significantly behind that in other developing countries. Consequently, economic development and food security are also lagging behind. Since the mid-2000s there has been a resurgence in the willingness to invest in irrigation, and Sub-Saharan Africa has the largest potential of any developing region to benefit from it. However, to gain from new investment in irrigation without repeating past failures, it is critical to develop a business model for small-scale irrigation schemes. This article explores the barriers that such a model needs to address to be successful and the opportunities this represents for irrigators’ profitability. © 2016 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
Drawing on a new set of nationally representative, internationally comparable household surveys, this paper provides an overview of key features of structural transformation – labor allocation and labor productivity – in four African economies. New, micro-based measures of sector labor allocation and cross-sector productivity differentials describe the incentives households face when allocating their labor. These measures are similar to national accounts-based measures that are typically used to characterize structural change. However, because agricultural workers supply far fewer hours of labor per year than do workers in other sectors in all of the countries analyzed, productivity gaps shrink by half, on average, when expressed on a per-hour basis. Underlying the productivity gaps that are prominently reflected in national accounts data are large employment gaps, which call into question the productivity gains that laborers can achieve through structural transformation. Furthermore, agriculture’s continued relevance to structural change in Sub-Saharan Africa is highlighted by the strong linkages observed between rural non-farm activities and primary agricultural production.
In a vast and all-embracing study of Africa, from the origins of mankind to the AIDS epidemic, John Iliffe refocuses its history on the peopling of an environmentally hostile continent. Africans have been pioneers struggling against disease and nature, and their social, economic and political institutions have been designed to ensure their survival. In the context of medical progress and other twentieth-century innovations, however, the same institutions have bred the most rapid population growth the world has ever seen. Africans: The History of a Continent is thus a single story binding living Africans to their earliest human ancestors.
Before the age of Industrial Revolution, the great Asian civilisations - whether located in the Middle East, India, South-East Asia, or the Far East - constituted areas not only of high culture but also of advanced economic development. They were the First World of human societies. This 1985 book examines one of the driving forces of that historical period: the long chain of oceanic trade which stretched from the South China Sea to the eastern Mediterranean. It also looks at the natural complement of the seaborne commerce, its counterpart in the caravan trade. Its main achievement is to show how socially determined demand derived from cultural habits and interpretations operated through the medium of market forces and relative prices. It points out the unique and limiting features of Asian commercial capitalism, and shows how the contribution of Asian merchants was valued universally, in reality if not legally and formally. Professor Chaudhuri's book, based on more than twenty years' research and reflection on pre-modern trade and civilisations, was a landmark in the analysis and interpretation of Asia's historical position and development.
A single theme is pursued in this book - the trade between peoples of differing cultures through world history. Extending from the ancient world to the coming of the commercial revolution, Professor Curtin's discussion encompasses a broad and diverse group of trading relationships. Drawing on insights from economic history and anthropology, Professor Curtin has attempted to move beyond a Europe-centred view of history, to one that can help us understand the entire range of societies in the human past. Examples have been chosen that illustrate the greatest variety of trading relationships between cultures. The opening chapters look at Africa, while subsequent chapters treat the ancient world, the Mediterranean trade with China, the Asian trade in the east, and European entry into the trade with maritime Asia, the Armenian trade carriers of the seventeenth century, and the North American fur trade. Wide-ranging in its concern and the fruit of exhaustive research, the book is nevertheless written so as to be accessible and stimulating to the specialist and the student alike.
The economic history of developing countries, particularly the former colonies, has become polarized between two ideologies. The apologists for colonialism have emphasized the stimulus given to the indigenous economy by the introduction of foreign capital; the 'underdevelopment theorists' have turned this interpretation on its head and represented the relationship as being, particularly in 'settler colonies' such as Kenya and Zimbabwe, one not of stimulus but of rape and plunder. In this study, Dr Mosley considers the economies of colonial Kenya and Southern Rhodesia and argues, in the light of recently assembled statistical data, that the truth is more complex than either of these simple interpretations allows. At the level of policy, most white producers acknowledged that they could not afford to let 'white mate black in a very few moves': they needed his cheap labour, cattle and maize too much to wish to damage seriously the peasant economy that sustained them.
Two psychologists, a computer scientist, and a philosopher have collaborated to present a framework for understanding processes of inductive reasoning and learning in organisms and machines. Theirs is the first major effort to bring the ideas of several disciplines to bear on a subject that has been a topic of investigation since the time of Socrates. The result is an integrated account that treats problem solving and induction in terms of rulebased mental models.
Bradford Books imprint
This is the first comprehensive and fully documented history of modern Tanganyika (mainland Tanzania). After introductory chapters on the nineteenth century, Dr Iliffe concentrates on the colonial period, and especially on economic, social and intellectual change among Africans as the core of their colonial experience and the basis of their political behaviour. Particularl attention is paid to the consequences for small-scale societies of their incorporation into the international order; the impact of capitlaism and the emergence of capitalist relationships and attitudes; African attempts to defend or reform indigenous institutions and to organise movements of protest or revolt against European control; the successive formation and dissolution of a specifically colonial society; and the effects of economic change on Tanganyika's ecology in modern times. The book brings together the research which scholars of many nationalities have carried out in Tanzania over the last twenty years, and attempts to synthesise their findings with the evidence available from African and European records in Tanzania, Britain and Germany.
Although recent studies on African colonial tax systems have deepened our understanding of early fiscal capacity building efforts in the region, they have largely ignored the contributions from a widely used but invisible source of state revenue: that of labor contributions. Exploiting data on corvée systems in French Africa, this is the first article to make these in-kind taxes “visible” by estimating a lower bound of how much they augmented governments' revenue base. Revealing that labor taxes constituted in most places the largest component of early colonial budgets, I argue that studies on historical taxation need to make a greater effort to integrate this significant source of government revenue into their analysis.
Saharan trade has been much debated in modern times, but the main focus of interest remains the medieval and early modern periods, for which more abundant written sources survive. The pre-Islamic origins of Trans-Saharan trade have been hotly contested over the years, mainly due to a lack of evidence. Many of the key commodities of trade are largely invisible archaeologically, being either of high value like gold and ivory, or organic like slaves and textiles or consumable commodities like salt. However, new research on the Libyan people known as the Garamantes and on their trading partners in the Sudan and Mediterranean Africa requires us to revise our views substantially. In this volume experts re-assess the evidence for a range of goods, including beads, textiles, metalwork and glass, and use it to paint a much more dynamic picture, demonstrating that the pre-Islamic Sahara was a more connected region than previously thought.
The continuing population growth in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has contributed to a decline in cultivated area per farming population. Consequently, food insecurity is increasingly becoming a major concern in this continent. To ensure food security, a Green Revolution, which dramatically increases crop yield, must be introduced. But, several major questions are being raised: why did SSA fail to achieve a Green Revolution in the past? What are its future prospects? What should be done to realise a Green Revolution in SSA? This article answers these questions based on an examination of crop yield trends, literature review and the results of our own case studies in SSA. © The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Centre for the Study of African Economies. All rights reserved.
The experience on African and Caribbean studies, the first was colonial history in which was published in two major works on the history of the Zaire region of Central Africa, including a detailed study of Belgian rule in the Congo. This experience was broadened by several years of teaching at Ibadan, a leading Nigerian university. The second half of Anstey's academic career was devoted to studies in the slave trade. His wide-ranging interests extended into analyses of religious, political, economic and even quantitative history, all fields which could be explored in future memorial lectures