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THE FACE OF BATTLE? DEBATING ARROW TRAUMA ON MEDIEVAL HUMAN REMAINS FROM PRINCESSHAY, EXETER
Abstract
Physical evidence of weapon trauma in medieval burials is unusual, and evidence for trauma caused by arrowheads is exceptionally rare. Where high frequencies of traumatic injuries have been identified, this is mainly in contexts related to battles; it is much less common in normative burials. Osteological analysis of one context from an assemblage of disarticulated and commingled human bones recovered from a cemetery associated with the thirteenth-century Dominican friary in Exeter, Devon, shows several instances of weapon trauma, including multiple injuries caused by projectile points. Arrow trauma is notoriously difficult to identify, but this assemblage shows that arrows fired from longbows could result in entry and exit wounds in the skull not incomparable to modern gunshot wounds. Microscopic examination of the fracture patterns and spalling associated with these puncture wounds provides tentative evidence that medieval arrows were fletched to spin clockwise. These results have profound implications for our understanding of the power of the medieval longbow, for how we recognise arrow trauma in the archaeological record and for our knowledge of how common violent death and injury were in the medieval past, and how and where casualties were buried.
... De plus, elle avait la capacité de tourner sur ellemême ce qui accroissait sa puissance à l'impact. Des restes humains de la guerre des Deux-Roses (1455-1485) examinés récemment ont montré un effet traversant puissant au niveau du crâne avec un orifice de sortie plus large que l'orifice d'entrée à la manière des armes à feu modernes (2). Au niveau des membres, l'impact de la flèche s'accompagnait de fractures comminutives particulièrement dangereuses car ouvertes et souillées. ...
Four archaeological sites along the western frontier of China and Mongolia were analyzed for cranial trauma patterns. These patterns were then used to determine levels of violence, who the participants were, and if certain individuals were singled out as specific targets. Two sites, Yingpan and Yanghai, represent agricultural oasis states in the Tarim Basin. Two sites, Nileke and Chandman, represent nomadic pastoralists along the Altai Mountains. Trauma patterns were analyzed for weapon type (blunt, sharp, or high velocity), and cause (interpersonal conflict, warfare, or other). The highest incidence of violent death occurred at Chandman and the lowest at Yingpan. Violence against females was highest in the oasis states with little evidence in the nomadic pastoralists. Yingpan had a specific pattern of trauma among males, females, and juveniles which suggests participation in a contact sport such as polo. Nileke and Chandman had evidence of trepanation, scalping, and facial mutilation. This is probably evidence of extensive warfare and corporal punishment. This study supports historical and artistic documentation of athletic activity, the dangers associated with travel along trade routes, women’s public roles, and the carrying out of government sanctioned punishments.
The Introduction will outline the topic of combat stress in pre-modern history, establish the research context, and, in particular, offer a critical survey of the historiography. It will set out the various schools of thought in the debate surrounding pre-modern PTSD, and how the subject has become popular in ancient and early modern history but not within medieval studies. Finally, this chapter will set out the book’s aim, to establish synergies between the studies of different time periods and cultures through an examination of innovative new directions of study in the subject of combat stress in pre-modern history. It will outline the various chapters, and highlight key threads of thematic continuity and, importantly, divergence of scholarly consensus.KeywordsPTSDCombat traumaHistoriographyPre-modern historyMedical humanities
This chapter discusses land-mammal bones, their biological properties, the various modification processes they can undergo, and the agencies responsible for those modifications. The chapter focuses on how to distinguish hominid-modified bones, particularly fracture patterns, from bones modified by natural—biological and geological—agencies. It also focuses on cultural reconstruction and on how hominids modified bones from large land mammals. Considerable controversy revolves around these issues. Of primary concern is the fracture pattern known as spiral fracturing, how it is induced and under what conditions, and what its relationship is to the way hominids manipulate bone versus manipulation by other agencies. The spiral morphology is helical and is the shape of a curve through a series of planes as it circles around the diaphysis. Another concern is the type of surficial damage bone undergoes once it has been fractured and how that damage relates to the way hominids manipulate bone versus manipulation by other agencies.
The osteological remains of a juvenile woman, 17-20 years, was discovered in grave number 23/88 at Muzla-Cenkov in the Nove Zamky district of Slovakia. Wound resulting from an iron arrowhead was located in her second lumbar vertebral body. Because of presence of the arrowhead in vertebral body and by the complete absence of any signs of healing processes, we conclude on perimortal injury which probably proved quickly extinguishing the life. DNA analysis was instituted for increased accuracy and reliability in establishing sex of this juvenile individual. An association with the old Hungarian troops who previously occupied this area was concluded, based on analytic evidence.
This project analyses the wounds sustained by those defending the Crusader castle of Vadum Iacob, which is to the north of the Sea of Galilee in Israel. To our knowledge this is the first Crusader castle garrison to be excavated and studied, and consequently gives unique information concerning medieval battle wounds. The Muslim forces of Saladin stormed the castle in August 1179. The skeletal remains of five of the garrison who were killed during the siege and the execution which followed have been studied, providing a vivid portrait of what it must have been like in the last hours as the castle surrendered. Multiple sword and arrow wounds were noted, and arrowheads were still in situ at the time of their deaths. All the soldiers appear to have been stripped of their armour and then dumped together with corpses of horses that died in the battle. We explore the nature and anatomical location of the wounds in the context of medieval Islamic weapons, battlefield tactics and the defensive armour of the Crusaders. Despite the limited number of soldiers discovered, the unique nature of this site makes the findings of great significance.
In the study of fragmented human remains the plausibility of a cannibalism hypothesis rests primarily on the correct identification of the cause of breakage. Here the use of fracture morphologies and fragmentation indices for distinguishing green from postdepositional bone breakage is assessed using three assemblages of human bone broken by unique and well known causes, i.e., marrow fracturing of green bone, sediment pressure and impact on subfossil bone. Of the tested attributes, five appear to have diagnostic value at the statistical, assemblage level: fracture outline, fracture angle, shaft circumference, shaft fragmentation and breadth/length ratios of shaft splinters.
The bow and arrow were an important part of medieval warfare, and the study of projectile injuries in skeletal assemblages has the potential to give valuable insight into the nature of conflict in this period. Projectile injuries are often overlooked in favour of sharp force trauma, and as of yet there have been no experiments looking at skeletal trauma caused by different types of medieval arrows, although several studies have examined prehistoric impact marks. The current study addresses this deficiency by examining the lesions left by three kinds of medieval arrowheads: leaf-shaped broadheads, armour-piercing bodkins, and barbed hunting broadheads, when fired from a longbow into cattle scapulae. The results show that the vast majority of impacts are puncture lesions with shapes that roughly conform to the cross-section of the heads used, and many of the defects perforate the bone entirely and have internal bevelling. Based mostly on wound shape, it is relatively straightforward to distinguish between bodkin and broadhead punctures, while the different types of broadheads leave more similar, yet distinctive, marks. Further experiments are required in order to assess the extent to which it is possible to distinguish between projectile trauma and penetrating trauma made by other types of medieval weapons.
Diverse pathological processes can produce overlapping or even indistinguishable patterns of abnormal bone formation or destruction, representing a fundamental challenge in the understanding of ancient diseases. This paper discusses increasing rigor in differential diagnosis through the paleopathological study of scurvy. First, paleopathology's use of descriptive terminology can strive to more thoroughly incorporate international standards of anatomical terminology. Second, improved observation and description of abnormal skeletal features can help distinguish between anemia or vitamin C deficiency. Third, use of a structured rubric can assist in establishing a more systematic, replicable, and precise decision-making process in differential diagnosis. These issues are illustrated in the study of two new cases of suspected scurvy from northern Peru. From this, it appears possible that ectocranial vascular impressions may further examined as a morphological marker of scurvy in the skeleton. Also, increased paleopathological attention to pellagra is long overdue, especially as it may produce generally comparable lesions to scurvy. This paper reflexively speaks to the process of paleopathological problem solving and the epistemology of our discipline-particularly regarding the ways in which we can continuously improve description and the construction of diagnostic arguments.
Scurvy is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency and is a key paleopathological indicator of subadult health and nutritional status in the past. Yet, little is known about scurvy in human remains from South America and the Peruvian Central Andes in particular. In the Lambayeque Valley Complex on the north coast of Peru, a sample of 641 archaeologically recovered subadults (A.D. 900–1750) were scored for the skeletal manifestations of vitamin C deficiency, testing the hypotheses that scurvy was common in this region and that prevalence increased following European contact. The findings reveal only five convincing cases of scurvy; overall prevalence appears extremely low, and scurvy did not become perceptibly more common following conquest. Of diagnostic interest, complex ectocranial vascular impressions were documented in two cases. Though rarely attributed to scurvy, examination suggests they formed during scorbutic episodes. Another Colonial Period subadult may demonstrate comorbidity between scurvy and rickets. This work also provides new questions for the investigation of scurvy in Andean South America.
Zooarchaeologists have often employed studies of bone fracture morphology as a means of understanding past human cultural activity, and various methodological approaches have been developed for analyzing archaeological broken bone assemblages. It is widely understood that bones degrade over time, however, few studies have attempted to define and quantify the rate at which bones degrade and fracture morphologies change. This study examines degradation in frozen bones (−20°C) and bones exposed to hot (40°C) dry conditions. These two simulated environmental conditions represent extreme real-world climates, and allow for an actualistic understanding of the rates of degradation that bones experience in nature. When frozen, bones degrade slowly but significantly, and demonstrate measurable differences in samples frozen for 1, 10, 20, 40, and 60 weeks. In hot, dry conditions, bones degrade very quickly, and demonstrate measurable differences after 1, 3, 7, 14, and 21 days. These data allow for a more detailed understanding of the relationship between the cultural and natural processes that result in bone fracture, and the time period during which bones can be expected to maintain fresh fracture characteristics. This research also has implications for understanding human subsistence and survival strategies and for interpreting the archaeological record.
Fragmented, co-mingled assemblages of human and animal bones are not uncommon in archaeological deposits, particularly in prehistoric contexts. It is suggested, firstly, that standard approaches to studying the human material do not lend themselves to the complete understanding of such contexts, secondly, that the application of some techniques more common to zooarchaeology are of particular value in understanding such human material, and, thirdly, that fully integrated, identical recording systems for both human and animal material allow for much greater understanding of the relative peri-mortem, depositional and post-depositional histories of human and animal remains in these complex deposits. Such a fully integrated method of recording, that permits direct comparison of the patterning in the human and animal assemblages, is outlined. These methods encompass issues of identification, ageing, quantification, fragmentation, bone fracture analysis, post-depositional taphonomy and evidence of human-induced butchery/trauma and other modifications. The approach is illustrated with examples drawn from the study of the bone deposits at the Middle Bronze Age ritual enclosure of Velim Skalka, Czech Republic.
ARCHAEOLOGlCAUrrecovered QTTQwheads flom the British Isles, dated to between the loth and 16th centunes arc examined. TIe exisiting arrowhead typology in the London Museum Medieval Catalogue is assessed and a new V'Pology consisting of 28 genericforms, and subdivided intofunctional groups, is suggested. The only available reference work for studying medieval arrowheads was published in 1940. I The imention of this paper is to renew an interest in this artefact by suggesting a new typology which takes advantage of numerous excavations undenaken during the last 55 years. The early typology is briefly discussed and then incorporated into the new typology, which is accompanied by a detailed catalogue.
In 1992, Peter Jones established a scientific benchmark for the discussion about the effectiveness of the medieval longbow. Since then it has often been employed as the basis for those seeking to demonstrate, compare or contrast or re-evaluate the historical role played by this weapon system. While the authors of this paper acknowledge the importance of Jones's tests in establishing a foundation for the scientific analysis of the effectiveness of the medieval longbow, it must also be acknowledged that some of the assumptions in the tests made by Jones are now considered flawed or have otherwise been called into question by shifts and developments in historical opinion. The aim of these tests was to complete a series of trials repeating the work done by Jones to a standard that is satisfactory to traditional archery experts, historians, blacksmiths and academics alike, allowing a new evaluation of the power and effectiveness of the longbow and its performance against armoured targets concurrent with current historical opinions from a range of disciplines. Once the tests were completed, the team would try and recreate the results in the laboratory to provide a basis for future testing.
In 1999, renovation work in the 16th century crypt in Saint Peter's Cathedral, Bologna (Italy), uncovered a capuchin-type grave probably from the Early Middle Ages, containing commingled bones belonging to several individuals. A study of the osteoarchaeological material by the Laboratory of Bioarchaeology and Forensic Osteology of the University of Bologna identified two skulls of young males, both presenting signs of direct traumatic lesions produced peri mortem: one on the frontal, the other on the left parietal. The aim of the present study was to examine the lesions in relation to possible aetiological factors. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Between the Upper Palaeolithic and the spread of metallurgy stone-tipped projectiles were of great importance both for subsistence and as weapons. Whilst finds of embedded projectile points in human and animal bone are not uncommon, identifications of such wounds in the absence of embedded points are rare. Previous experimentation involving archaic projectiles has not examined the effects of stone-tipped projectiles on bone. This paper presents the results of experiments in which samples of animal bone were impacted with flint-tipped arrows. The results demonstrate that positive identifications can be made, both grossly and microscopically, of bony trauma caused by flint projectiles. In addition, flint projectiles are shown to often leave small embedded fragments, which can also be identified microscopically. These results compare well with archaeological examples of suspected ‘arrow wounds’ and the article demonstrates the practical application of this data in identifying such injuries. By facilitating the recognition of projectile trauma these findings will have significance both for the investigation of hunting strategies and levels of conflict amongst early human societies.
This article describes metallographic and other studies that have been undertaken to characterize the structure and method of manufacture of medievel longbow arrowheads and armor, both mail and plate. The progressive introduction of carburization heat treatment demonstrates a clear knowledge of the mechanics of hardening iron despite a lack of understanding of the underlying scientific principles. The article concludes with a description of the trials that were conducted to asses the penetration performance of reproduction arrows against representative targets. These showed that by the early 15th century, armor was capable of protecting the vital organs of the body, but not arms and legs, against arrows.
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