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Vol. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun. 2020. DOI: 10.5380/dma.v53i0.62322. e-ISSN 2176-9109
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Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context
of green chemistry
Cosméticos verdes: perspectivas e desaos no contexto da química verde
Camilla Custoias Vila FRANCA1, Helene Mariko UENO1*
1 University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
* E-mail of contact: papoula@usp.br
Article received on October 15, 2018, nal version accepted on February 21, 2020, published on April 27, 2020.
ABSTRACT: Green cosmetics present ecological appeals and claim to be developed according to the principles of Green
Chemistry. Green Chemistry can be dened as the set of processes and products that reduces or eliminates the
use or generation of hazardous substances. Despite the growing market, there are gaps related to the scope
and regulation of these products. The article consists of a literature review on conceptual, regulatory and risk
analysis limitations and perspectives of green cosmetics. We conducted searches in databases of scientic
articles and analysis of publications by government agencies and organic/natural cosmetic certication
systems. From the data collected, we found that there is a lack of government denitions and regulations for
green cosmetics in the United States, the European Union and Brazil, and there are divergences between the
guidelines adopted by green cosmetic certication systems, although we identied attempts to harmonize these
guidelines. There was also a lack of approaches to the risk assessment of these products. The identication of
limitations and perspectives on green cosmetics can be considered the rst step to overcome these diculties,
promoting the dissemination of these products and maximizing their potential in reducing the risks to human
and environmental health presented by cosmetics, following the principles of Green Chemistry.
Keywords: personal care products; organic; natural; certication systems; pollution prevention.
RESUMO: Os cosméticos verdes apresentam apelos ecológicos e armam ser desenvolvidos de acordo com os princípios
da Química Verde. A Química Verde pode ser denida como o conjunto de processos e produtos que reduz
ou elimina o uso ou a geração de substâncias perigosas. Embora haja um mercado crescente, existem lacunas
relacionadas ao escopo e à regulamentação desses produtos. O artigo consiste em uma revisão bibliográca
sobre as perspectivas e limitações conceituais, regulatórias e relativas à análise de risco dos cosméticos
verdes. Foram realizadas buscas em bases de dados de artigos cientícos e análise de publicações de agências
governamentais e de sistemas de certicação de cosméticos orgânicos/naturais. A partir dos dados coletados,
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
134
vericou-se a falta de denições e regulamentações governamentais para cosméticos verdes nos Estados
Unidos, na União Europeia e no Brasil e a existência de divergências entre as diretrizes adotadas pelos
sistemas de certicação de cosméticos verdes, embora tenhamos identicado tentativas de harmonização
dessas diretrizes. Vericamos também a falta de abordagens para a avaliação de risco desses produtos. A
identicação das perspectivas e limitações dos cosméticos verdes pode ser considerada como o primeiro passo
para transpor essas diculdades, promovendo a disseminação desses produtos e maximizando seu potencial
na redução dos riscos à saúde humana e ambiental apresentados pelos cosméticos, seguindo os princípios de
Química Verde.
Palavras-chave: produto de cuidados pessoais; orgânico; natural; sistemas de certicação; prevenção da poluição.
1. Introduction
The Global Beauty Market refers to the pro-
duction and marketing of cosmetics and personal
care products. In the last 20 years, this market has
grown 4.5% a year on average, showing a trend
of increasing demand, especially in the emerging
markets of Asia and Latin America (Łopaciuk &
Łoboda, 2013). The scenario is also characterized
by the emergence of new products, which is con-
stantly driven by the spread of ever more demanding
beauty standards.
However, the increase of the public concern
about the use of hazardous chemicals in cosmetics
and the emergence of ethical concerns related to the
cosmetics industry boosted the organic cosmetics
market. The global revenue of organic cosmetics
in 2018 has been estimated at USD 13.33 billion
(Grand View Research, 2019). According to con-
sultancy company Kline, natural cosmetics and
skincare were estimated to be worth $33 billion
in 2015, accounting for 13% of the overall global
beauty market, and is predicted to hit $50 billion
by 2019 (Pike, 2015).
Organic and natural cosmetics are general-
ly associated with the “green” attribute (Leja &
Ross-Fichter, 2014), which is used to designate
products that have ecological appeals and follow
specic production principles. In the case of green
cosmetics, common claims are those that ensure that
the products are developed in accordance with the
principles of Green Chemistry. Green Chemistry
can be dened as the use of a set of principles that
reduces or eliminates the use or generation of haz-
ardous substances in the design, manufacture and
application of chemicals (Anastas & Warner, 1998)
so that they pose a lower risk to human health and
the environment.
However, it is possible to highlight some ques-
tions about green cosmetics: How is it possible to
ensure that certain products follow the principles of
Green Chemistry? What characteristics are neces-
sary for a cosmetic to be considered “green”? Are
there standard guidelines to be followed by green
cosmetics producers? How can the consumer be
informed about the dierential characteristics and
benets of these products?
This paper can be considered as the rst step
in addressing these issues. The aim of this study is
to analyze the state of the art of green cosmetics,
focusing on the conceptual, regulatory and risk
assessment limitations and perspectives of these
Desenvolv. Meio Ambiente, v. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun., 2020. 135
products in the context of Green Chemistry. It
consists of exploratory documentary research in
databases of scientic articles and the analysis of
publications of governmental agencies and organic/
natural cosmetic certication systems on aspects su-
ch as the denition, regulation and risk assessment
of these products.
The small number of scientic articles produ-
ced emphasizes the relevance of approaches focused
on conceptual/theoretical aspects of the subject. By
identifying the main obstacles and opportunities
for the dissemination of green cosmetics based on
theoretical analyses, we discuss key elements that
contribute to overcome these obstacles, aiming to
promote a better characterization of these products
in the market and reduce the dissemination of mis-
leading advertisements about green cosmetics, and,
thus, to practical applications as well.
2. Method
The study comprises literature review, based
on exploratory documentary research and the analy-
sis and interpretation of publications in scientic
journals, governmental agencies and organic/natural
cosmetic certication systems. The research on
publications of governmental agencies and certi-
cation systems involved searches on websites,
technical guides, laws, regulations and decrees.
Surveys of scientific articles were carried
out in the Scopus® database. The searches were
performed in advanced form. The elds “subject/
descriptor” (or equivalent) and “words of title” were
used with the terms “green cosmetics”, “organic
cosmetics” and “natural cosmetics”. The terms were
related to each other through the Boolean operator
“OR” to identify papers that dealt with the topic.
Subsequently, the operators “AND” was used to
restrict the topic to the aspects to be discussed: de-
nition, regulation and risk analysis or assessment.
The criterion of inclusion of the articles refers to
the language, since we selected only publications in
English, Portuguese and Spanish. No exclusion cri-
teria were applied for the period or type of material.
3. Theoretical frame of reference
3.1. Green Chemistry: emergence, denition
and principles
According to the American Chemistry Society
(ACS) (2019), until the 1980’s, the chemical indus-
try and the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) were mostly concerned with
pollution control practices. Nevertheless, in 1990,
the Pollution Prevent Act was approved, according
to which the policy of the country should eliminate
pollution by source reduction rather than by the
treatment and disposal of pollutants (United Sta-
tes, 1990). This resulted in a change of regulatory
policies for pollution control to policies aimed at
pollution prevention (Anastas & Warner, 1998).
Thus, the 1990s were marked by a paradigm
shift among chemists, contributing to the consoli-
dation of Green Chemistry as a legitimate scientic
eld (ACS, 2019). Green Chemistry can be consi-
dered a form of pollution prevention by oering a
methodology for changing the intrinsic nature of a
chemical product or process (Anastas & Warner,
1998; ACS, 2019) so that it presents a lower risk to
human health and the environment. According to the
American Chemistry Society (ACS, 2019), Green
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
136
Chemistry can be dened as the arrangement of
processes and chemicals that reduces or eliminates
the use or generation of hazardous substances, con-
sidering the entire life cycle of a product, including
its design, production, use and nal disposal. Green
Chemistry aims to prevent pollution at the mole-
cular level, reduce the use of natural resources and
reduce or eliminate the hazards of existing products
and processes.
In 1998, Paul Anastas and John Warner pu-
blished the Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry
(Table 1), which concern chemical and environmen-
tal characteristics of products or processes (Anastas
& Warner, 1998). The chemical characteristics refer
to the need for chemical syntheses to be simple,
one single step, present 100% yield, aim at atomic
eciency, be safe and eliminate waste. The envi-
ronmental characteristics are related to reduction
of pollutants and waste production, generation of
non-toxic products, use of renewable reagents and
consideration of environmental factors in chemical
synthesis (Machado, 2011).
3.2. Denitions of cosmetics
It is possible to consider a general denition
of cosmetics based on the purpose of these products
and dierentiate conventional cosmetics from green
ones by their composition and production process.
1) Prevention It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed.
2) Atom Economy Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize incorporation of all materials used in the process into
the nal product.
3) Less Hardazous Chemical
Syntheses
Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that possess
little or no toxicity to human health and the environment.
4) Designing Safer Chemicals Chemical products should be designed to preserve eciency of function while reducing toxicity.
5) Safer Solvents and Auxil-
iaries
The use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents, separating agents) should be made unnecessary wherever
possible and, innocuous when used.
6) Design for Energy E-
ciency
Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be
minimized.
7) Use of Renewable Feed-
stocks
A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and econom-
ically practicable.
8) Reduce Derivatives Unnecessary derivatization should be avoided whenever possible, as these steps may require additional
reagents and can generate waste.
9) Catalysis Catalysts reagents are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
10) Design for Degradation Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they do not persist in the envi-
ronment and break down into innocuous degradation products.
11) Real-time analysis for
Pollution Prevention
Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and
control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.
12) Inherently Safer Chemis-
try for Accident Prevention
Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen so as to minimize
the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions and res.
TABLE 1 – Twelve principles of Green Chemistry.
SOURCE: Anastas & Warner (1998).
Desenvolv. Meio Ambiente, v. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun., 2020. 137
Next, we will explore the denitions of conventio-
nal cosmetics adopted by government regulatory
agencies in the United States, the European Union
and Brazil.
In the United States, the Federal Food, Drug
and Cosmetic Act of the United States Food and
Drug Administration (USFDA) denes cosmetics as
(1) articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled,
or sprayed on, introduced into, or otherwise applied to
the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting
attractiveness, or altering the appearance (United
States, 2002).
According to European Directive no.
1223/2009, a cosmetic product can be dened
as any substance or mixture intended to be placed
in contact with the external parts of the human body
(epidermis, hair system, nails, lips and external genital
organs) or with the teeth and mucous membranes of
the oral cavity with a view exclusively or mainly
to cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their
appearance, protecting them, keeping them in good
condition or correcting body odours (European Union,
2009, p. 64).
In Brazil, the Agência Nacional de Vigilância
Sanitária (Anvisa) – Portuguese for the Brazilian
Health Regulatory Agency –, through RDC no. 7 of
2015, establishes the denition on personal hygiene
products, cosmetics and perfumes
as preparations consisting of natural or synthetic subs-
tances, for external use in the various parts of the human
body […] with the sole or main purpose of cleaning
them, perfuming them, changing their appearance and/
or correcting body odors and/or protecting them or
keeping them in good condition (Brasil, 2015).
In the denitions of cosmetics presented abo-
ve, it is possible to state that this category includes
products intended to improve appearance (e.g.
make-up), but also basic hygiene products such as
shampoos, toothpaste and deodorants, as well as
specic products for some health problems (anti-
-acne creams, anti-inammatory lotions, anti-lice
shampoos, etc.).
The governmental definitions previously
presented also apply to green cosmetics. However,
specic denitions and regulations are required to
ensure compliance with certain production princi-
ples to dierentiate these products from conven-
tional cosmetics.
3.3. Adverse eects caused by cosmetics:
drivers for the application of Green
Chemistry to cosmetology
Scientic evidences of some adverse eects
caused by conventional cosmetics and uncertainties
about other eects have largely boosted demand for
green cosmetics. Some examples of these potential
adverse eects on human health are: allergic contact
dermatitis caused by fragrances and preservatives
(Hamilton & De Gannes, 2011), and toxicity caused
by heavy metals present in cosmetics (Borowska &
Brzóska, 2015). Nevertheless, there are also at least
one example of indeniteness (Darbre, 20091) and
1 According to Darbre (2009), the proposed link between breast cancer and the use of cosmetic chemicals with oestrogenic and/or genotoxic
properties provides an evidence-based hypothesis capable of further testing, since it is necessary to investigate the eects of long-term usage
of mixtures of these chemicals over an entire lifetime.
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
138
two of no or negligible risk (Nohynek et al., 20042;
Witorsch, 20143).
The scientic community has also been aler-
ting to the presence of persistent substances with
bioaccumulation potential and bioactivity used in
large quantities in personal care products. In ad-
dition, UV lters, antiseptics and fragrances used
in cosmetics may potentially undergo biomagni-
cation at higher trophic levels in the aquatic envi-
ronment when dumped through the sewage (Peck,
2006; Brausch & Rand, 2011).
Ethical considerations that stressed the ne-
gative aspects of the cosmetics industry are also
noteworthy, having boosted the movement towards
the incorporation of the precepts of Green Chemis-
try to these products. These ethical considerations
refer to the use of animals by the cosmetics industry
in experiments to assess the safety of ingredients
and nal products, the overexploitation of natural
resources and the generation of environmental
pollution in the production, use and disposal of
cosmetics (Sahota, 2014).
Considering that Green Chemistry is a philo-
sophy that can be applied in all areas of Chemistry
(United States, 2019) and has practical applications
in industry (Anastas & Eghbali, 2010), Cosmetolo-
gy, i.e. the production and development of cosmeti-
cs, is a potential area for applying the concepts and
principles of Green Chemistry. Moreover, cosmetics
and personal care products are one of the product
categories in which the Twelve Principles of Green
Chemistry, especially those related to toxicity re-
duction, can be applied, as they have great contact
with users and should be as safe as possible (Cannon
& Warner, 2009).
Thereby, recently, there has been a trend
towards applying the concepts and principles of
Green Chemistry to cosmetics, producing the gre-
en cosmetics. However, it is necessary to analyze
possible conceptual, regulatory and risk assessment
gaps for these products, which will be addressed in
the following sections.
4. Results and discussion
In Scopus® database, we found 52 papers
on green, organic or natural cosmetics in October
2018. Out of this total, 12 are described as belon-
ging to the area of Chemistry. Five articles address
the existence of standards for natural and organic
cosmetics and only 2 address certication systems
of such products.
Considering the few number of articles rela-
ted to conceptual, regulatory and risk assessment
issues of green cosmetics, we focused mainly on
the information obtained through the standards and
technical guides of certication systems.
4.1. Green cosmetics: what does it mean?
Although the term “green” has a strong appeal
in the cosmetics market, there is still no exact de-
nition of what it in fact means. The most intuitive
meaning of this term is its association with “envi-
ronmentally friendly” and with the use of organic/
natural components (Leja & Ross-Fichter, 2014).
2 When commercial dyes were tested under their conditions of use, the results of human and animal studies revealed no evidence of systemic,
genetic and reproductive toxicity or carcinogenic potential, representing no or negligible risk to human health (Nohynek et al., 2004).
3 According to Witorsch (2014), on the basis of this analysis of the literature, it is concluded that triclosan does not present a risk of endocrine
disruptive health eects through exposure to personal care products.
Desenvolv. Meio Ambiente, v. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun., 2020. 139
The term “organic” is also not dened by the
FDA regulations on cosmetics, as well as the term
“natural” (United States, 2002). The European Di-
rective No 1223/2009, which denes conventional
cosmetics, does not present references to organic or
natural cosmetics as well (European Union, 2009). The
same occurs in Brazil (Freitas, 2014; Brasil, 2015).
In order to address this conceptual gap regarding
the lack of government denitions of green/organic/
natural cosmetics, nongovernmental standards have
emerged to ensure the dierential characteristics of
green cosmetics. One example are the voluntary cer-
tication systems.
Certification systems verify the ingredients,
processes, production, storage of raw materials, pa-
ckaging, labeling, energy use, waste management and
labeling of producers, ensuring the quality of the nal
product. Certied products have some advantages over
others, including the control and track of the raw mate-
rial supply chain, increased condence in the product
brand, recognition and dierentiation of the product
in the market (Fonseca-Santos et al., 2015). Some
examples of green cosmetic certication systems
and their countries of origin are: BDIH (Germany),
Ecocert (France), IBD (Brazil), ICEA (Italy) and
Natrue (Belgium). Each of these systems establishes
requirements for a cosmetic to be considered organic
and/or natural. This can be considered an attempt to
establish denitions for these products.
Some certication systems analyzed clearly state
in their guidelines that, for a cosmetic to be considered
green, it is necessary to follow the concepts and princi-
ples of Green Chemistry. ICEA, for example, explicitly
determines the use of naturally occurring chemicals or
derived from Green Chemistry (ICEA, 2019a). Other
certication systems, however, do not comply with the
principles of Green Chemistry (Ecocert, 2012; IBD,
2014; BDIH, 2019a; Natrue, 2019b).
Cosmos-Standard, a standard created in conjunc-
tion with ve certication agencies in Europe - BDIH,
Cosmebio, Ecocert, ICEA and Soil Association – ai-
med at harmonizing their guidelines – states that some
of the rules to be adopted by companies certied is
to integrate and develop the concept of “Green Che-
mistry” using organic agricultural products and clean
manufacturing processes (Cosmos-Standard, 2019b).
In general, most denitions of organic cosme-
tics adopted by the certication systems analyzed
set percentages for the minimum content of organic
ingredients or from organic certied farms. In the case
of natural cosmetics, minimum percentages of natural
substances or botanical ingredients and maximum
content of synthetic or natural derived substances are
determined. However, these percentages vary widely
between dierent certication systems, types of labels
and even types of products, since in some cases the
minimum content of organic/natural ingredients is
established according to the product.
The minimum percentage of natural ingredients,
for example, ranges from 15% for IBD’s “natural
cosmetics with organic portions” label to 95% for
Ecocert’s “natural cosmetic” label. It allows certain
products to be certied as organic or natural by some
certication systems and not by others, making it di-
cult for consumers to understand green certicates
and the dierences among them.
Fonseca-Santos et al. (2015) rearm this lack of
harmonization between the guidelines of green cosme-
tic certication systems, which can create conceptual
barriers to the diusion of these products. The Table
2 depicts the general guidelines of the certication
systems.
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
140
Certication
system/country,
year of creation
Scope Requirements for granting certication (by type of label)
BDIH
Germany, 1996
(BDIH, 2019a;
2019b)
Natural Cosmetics
Use natural raw materials from controlled biological cultivation or controlled biological
wild collection, if possible, certied;
Raw materials of plant origin must originate from certied organic raw material.
Ecocert
France, 1991
(Ecocert, 2012;
2019a; 2019b;
2019c)
Natural and/or organic
cosmetics, organic and
ecological textiles, organ-
ic and ecological SPA,
natural detergents, natural
and organic candles and
fragrances and natural
coatings and paints
Natural cosmetics:
• ≥95% ingredients of natural origin;
• ≥50% of plant ingredients organic;
• ≥5% of all ingredients certied as organic.
Natural and organic cosmetics:
• ≥95% ingredients of natural origin;
• ≥95% of plant ingredients organic;
• ≥10% of all ingredients certied as organic.
IBD
Brasil, 1982
(CI Orgânicos,
2015; IBD,
2014; IBD,
2019)
Organic products (cattle
raising, agricultural
production, cosmetics
production, production
of inputs, production
of raw materials for
cosmetics, textile
production, restaurants,
hotels, forestry)
Natural cosmetics:
- For multi-ingredient products: a product can be certied if it is made with water and
uncertied natural ingredients, or ingredients allowed for natural formulations. The
percentage by weight depends on the kind of product:
• Vegetable juices: 100% natural
• Concentrated vegetable juices: only 100% concentrated (as a Natural), not the
water used for dilution
• Aqueous extracts: only one vegetable portion
• Hydro-alcoholic extracts: the plant and alcoholic portions (if it is a natural
substance).
- For raw material: Raw material / ingredient can only be classied and certied as
“natural” if it is in accordance with the above, if the reaction of obtaining the product is
authorized and if the preservative used is on the List of Materials Authorized by IBD.
Natural cosmetics with organic portion:
-For multi-ingredient products:
• ≥15% natural non-modied substances;
• ≤15% natural derived substances;
• ≥70% natural substances of animal and vegetable origin and natural derived
substances should come from organic controlled management and/or extractivism.
- For raw material: raw material/ingredient can only be classied and certied as “made
with organic ingredient” if it is in accordance with the above, if the reaction product is
authorized and if the preservative used is on IBD’s List of Authorized Materials.
Organic cosmetics:
- For multi-ingredient product:
• Follow the requirements for natural cosmetics with organic portion;
• ≥20% natural non-modied substances;
• ≤15% natural derived substances;
• ≥95% natural substances of animal and vegetal origin and natural derived
substances should come from organic controlled management and/or extractivism.
- For raw material: raw material/ingredient can only be certied as “made with organic
ingredient” if it is in accordance with the above, if the reaction product is authorized and
if the preservative used is on IBD’s List of Authorized Materials.
TABLE 2 – Main organic/natural cosmetic certication systems, their scopes (types of products/services) and their requirements for a cosmetic
to be considered organic/natural.
Desenvolv. Meio Ambiente, v. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun., 2020. 141
ICEA
Italy, not infor-
med
(Istituto per la
Certicazione
Etica e Ambi-
entale (ICEA,
2019a; 2019b))
Food, cosmetics and
detergents, textiles, sus-
tainable tourism, build-
ings, recycled products,
social responsibility
Eco Bio Label:
The products “ICEA Eco Bio Cosmetics” are cosmetics or other similar products with the
same functions and characteristics even if destined to animals, obtained in compliance with
the “ICEA Environment-friendly Cosmetics” Standard and in particular without the use of
genetically modied organisms; without the use of ionizing radiations; with the use of cer-
tied organic vegetable and animal raw materials; with the use of chemical substances from
natural origin or derived from Green Chemistry, selected under the criteria of environment
sustainability and salubriousness. Other requirements are:
• Plant raw materials of organic certied agriculture;
• Raw materials derived or produced from animals should be certied as organics
and included in the list of ingredients
Natural cosmetics:
The ICEA “Natural Cosmetics” products are cosmetics or other similar products with the
same functions and characteristics even if destined to animals, obtained in compliance with
the “Natural Cosmetics” Standard and in particular without the use of genetically modied
organisms; without the use of ionizing radiations; with the use of chemical substances from
natural origin or derived from Green Chemistry, selected under the criteria of environment
sustainability and salubriousness. The use of organic raw materials is not mandatory, but if
used, should be reported in the product description on the label and in the list of ingredients.
Natrue
Belgium, 2007
(Natrue, 2019a;
2019b)
Natural and organic
cosmetics
Natural cosmetics:
The minimum content of natural substances and the maximum of natural derived sub-
stances vary according to the type of product. Some examples are presented below:
• Parfum/Eaux de parfum, cologne or toilette = ≥60% natural substances and
≤10% derived natural substances;
• Skin care emulsions and oleogels = ≥30% natural substances and ≤30%
derived natural substances;
• Deodorants/antiperspirants = ≥10% natural substances and ≤30% derived
natural substances;
• Sunscreens = ≥10% natural substances and ≤55% derived natural substances;
• Hair treatment products = ≥3% natural substances and ≤40% derived natural
substances;
• Oral care = ≥2% natural substances and ≤70% derived natural substances
Natural cosmetics with organic portion:
• Follow the requirements for natural cosmetics cosmetic, at the same or higher
level of exigence;
• ≥70% natural substances of animal and vegetable origin and natural derived
substances should come from controlled organic farming and/or certied wild collection.
Organic cosmetics:
• Follow the requirements for natural cosmetics and natural cosmetics with
organic portion, at the same or higher level of exigence;
• ≥95% natural substances of animal and vegetable origin and natural derived
substances should come from controlled organic farming and/or certied wild collection.
Cosmos Stan-
dard
Belgium, 2010
(Cosmos
Standard, 2019a;
2019b)
Organic or natural
cosmetics
Natural cosmetics:
There are no requirements on the use of minimal amounts of organic ingredients.
Organic cosmetics:
• ≥95% organic ingredients;
• ≥20% all ingredients should be organic;
• Exceptionally, for products to be rinsed, for non-emulsied aqueous products
and for those with at least 80% of minerals or mineral ingredients, ≥ 10% of all ingredi-
ents should be organic.
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
142
In an attempt to overcome the conceptual barriers
to the denition of green cosmetics derived from the
lack of harmonization between the guidelines of the
certication systems, Cosmos Standard is an initiative
to consolidate a standard procedure for the certication
of organic/natural cosmetics in Europe (Cosmos-S-
tandard, 2019a). This kind of initiatives can help to
establish a more precise and standardized denition for
green cosmetics, facilitating the interpretation of green
certicates by consumers. However, it is important that
this harmonization can be expanded to reach greater
scales of inuence, in order to contribute to the overall
standardization of green cosmetic guidelines.
4.2. Regulations of green cosmetics
The lack of denitions of organic and natural
cosmetics discussed in the previous section hampers
the emergence of specic government denitions on
these products. Likewise, green certication systems
analyzed have established restrictions and regulations
so that these products can be certied as organic/
natural.
The voluntary certication of organic/natural
cosmetics rstly requires compliance with regulations
regarding conventional cosmetics in the country, whi-
ch means that these systems require the fulllment
of requirements that go beyond those determined by
law, dierentiating conventional and green cosmetics.
The verication of compliance with these regu-
lations by certied products is made through periodic
audits performed by accredited independent certi-
cation agencies (third party audits). In these audits,
auditors verify product and process control, corrective
and preventive actions carried out, product traceability,
claims made against the company and aspects such as
the storage and packaging of the product, as well as the
relevant documentation. In addition, laboratory tests
may be carried out on samples of products in order to
evaluate their compliance with the guidelines of the
standard (IBD, 2014; BDIH, 2019a; Cosmos-Stan-
dard, 2019b; Ecocert, 2019b; ICEA, 2019a; Natrue,
2019b).
In general, most certication systems establish
regulations regarding animal welfare, including the
prohibition of animal testing and the restriction of
the use of materials obtained from dead animals. In
addition, all the certication systems present restric-
tions on the ingredients used in the production of
cosmetics, some of which also restrict production
processes. Another frequent restriction is the ban on
the use of genetically modied organisms (GMO) and
the treatment of the nal product and the raw materials
with ionizing radiation. The restriction of ingredients,
processes and GMO can be interpreted as an attempt of
reducing toxicity to human and environmental health,
as stated by the principles of Green Chemistry.
As much as identied in this work, Cosmos-Stan-
dard is the only system that, in addition to making ex-
plicit mention to Green Chemistry, sets out indicators
to verify that certied products are in fact complying
with some of the Twelve Principles, such as calcu-
lating the atomic economy of cosmetic production
reactions, establishing minimum aquatic toxicity and
biodegradability requirements for ingredients used and
produced and the prohibition of the use and generation
of bioaccumulative and non-biodegradable substances.
However, this certication system claims that, in the
current state of development of Green Chemistry, it is
not yet possible to specify limits or requirements for
all principles. (Cosmos-Standard, 2019b).
Desenvolv. Meio Ambiente, v. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun., 2020. 143
Certication systems
Restrictions BDIH Ecocert IBD ICEA Natrue Cosmos-Standard
Prohibition of animal testing or use of raw materials tested on
animals X1X2X3X4X5
Prohibition of the use of materials obtained from dead animals
(e.g. glycerin, collagen, keratin, chitosan, ceramides, enzymes
of animal origin)
X1X6X3X7X8X9
Rules for packaging X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15
Green Chemistry – Less toxicity requirements – Prohibition of
the use of Genetically Modied Organisms (GMO) X10 X16 X17 X8X19 X20
Green Chemistry – Less toxicity requirements – Prohibition
of treatment of raw materials or nal products with ionizing
radiation
X21 X22 X17 X23 X24 X25
Green Chemistry – Less toxicity requirements – Prohibition of
ingredients X26 X27 X28 X29 X30 X31
Green Chemistry – Less toxicity requirements - Prohibition of
processes X10 X32 X33 X30 X34
Green Chemistry - Atom economy requirements X35
Green Chemistry – Aquatic toxicity and biodegradability
requirements X36 X35
Green Chemistry – Prohibition of non-renewable raw mate-
rials X37 X32 X35
TABLE 3 – Regulations of organic and/or natural cosmetics established by each certication system.
1 BDIH, 2019a, section “2. Animal protection”, p. 1.
2 Ecocert, 2012, section “5. Animal testing of the nished products”, p. 21.
3 IBD, 2014, section “5 – Proteção animal e testes em animais”, p. 3.
4 Natrue, 2019b; section “1.2.1 Cosmetics Products: Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009”, p. 1.
5 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b; section “5.2 – Animal testing”, p. 9.
6 Ecocert, 2012, section “d) Animal ingredient and ingredient from animal origin”, p. 18 (Ecocert, 2012).
7 ICEA, 2019a; section “6.3 Animal raw materials”, p. 5.
8 Natrue, 2019b; section “2.1 – Natural substances”, p. 3.
9 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b, section “6.1.3 - Physically processed agro-ingredients”, p. 11.
10 BDIH, 2019a, section “Further goals”, p. 3.
11 Ecocert, 2012, section “V – Conditioning and packaging”, p.22.
12 IBD, 2014, section “5 – Embalagens”, p. 12.
13 ICEA, 2019a, section “6.8 Packaging”, p. 6.
14 Natrue, 2019b; section “5. Requirements to be met by packaging and packaging materials”, p. 7
15 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b, section “8. Storage, manufacturing and packaging”, p. 19.
16 Ecocert, 2012, section “5. Biotechnological processed ingredient”, p. 19.
17 IBD, 2014, section “7 – Ingredientes proibidos”, p. 7.
18 ICEA, 2019a, section “6 - Genetically Modied Organisms”, p. 6.
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
144
Based on the analysis of certication systems
guidelines, it is possible to verify signicant varia-
tions between the types of regulations established.
Certain restrictions are adopted by some agencies
and not by others. These dierences can be obser-
ved in Table 3, which depicts the regulations of
certication systems concerning green cosmetics,
including restrictions linked to the Principles of
Green Chemistry.
Likewise, attempts to harmonize certication
systems globally also become relevant, allowing
greater equality between the requirements followed
by certied products and enhancing restrictions
linked to the Principles of Green Chemistry.
4.3. Risk assessment applied to green
cosmetics
Risk assessment refers to the use of a factual
basis to dene the health eects to individuals or
populations caused by the exposure to materials and
hazardous situations, involving epidemiological,
clinical, toxicological and environmental studies
(RiskCom, 2018).
The chemical composition of cosmetics, both
conventional and organic/natural, may include ad-
ditives or toxic impurities, which reveals the need
of development and application of risk assessment
models for both classes of products.
4.3.1. Prospects for replacing harmful
ingredients in green cosmetics
Red lists are checklists of chemicals whose
use is not recommended because of their possib-
le hazards. Some ingredients or impurities most
19 Natrue, 2019b; section “1.2.3 Prohibition on the use of Genetically Modied Organisms (GMOs)”, p. 2.
20 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b; section “5.1.2 Genetically modied organisms (GMOs)”, p. 9. 21BDIH, 2019a, section “7 - No radioactive radia-
tion”, p. 2.
22 Ecocert, 2012, section “List of authorized and forbidden processes”, p. 35.
23 ICEA, 2019a, section “6.7 Irradiation”, p. 6.
24 Natrue, 2019b; section “2.1 – Natural substances”, p. 4.
25 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b; section “5.1.3 Irradiation”, p. 9.
26 BDIH, 2019a, section “5. Deliberate rejection of”, p. 2.
27 Ecocert, 2012, section “Positive list of authorized synthetic ingredients and ingredients from mineral origin”, p. 36.
28 IBD, 2014, section “7 – Ingredientes proibidos”, p. 7.
29 ICEA, 2019a; section “Annex 1 – List of substances to NOT use to obtained the certied brand ICEA Organic Cosmetics”, p. 10.
30 Natrue, 2019b; section “2. Denition of permitted ingredients and processes”, p. 3.
31 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b; section “11.2 - Approval of ingredients”, p. 26.
32 Ecocert, 2012, section “Appendix I: Validation criteria for processes used to obtain ingredients”, p. 29.
33 IBD, 2014, section “6 – Processos de obtenção de ingredientes”, p. 3.
34 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b; section “Appendix III: examples of processes not allowed”, p. 33.
35 Cosmos-Standard, 2019b; section “6. Ingredients categories”, p. 12.
36 Ecocert, 2012, section “3. The biodegradability and ecotoxicity of ingredients”, p. 30.
37 BDIH, 2019a, section “Transparency for the consumer”, p. 1.
Desenvolv. Meio Ambiente, v. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun., 2020. 145
commonly mentioned by red lists of dierent ins-
titutions are: 1,4-dioxane; coal tar; BHA (butylated
hydroxyanisol)/BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene);
formaldehyde and formaldehyde releaser preser-
vatives; ethanolamine compounds; hydroquinone;
lead and heavy metals; microbeads; nanoparticles;
nitrosamines; parabens; petrolates; phthalates;
silicones and triclosan (UL, 2015). Certication
systems analyzed incorporate restrictions to several
of the compounds present in red lists, aiming at
reduce risks to the environment and human health,
as one can see for silicones (IBD, section “7. For-
bidden ingredients”, p. 7), formaldehyde (Ecocert,
2012, section “2. Restricted substances”, p. 32) and
nanoparticles (Cosmos-Standard, 2019b, section
“5.1.1 Nanomaterials”, p. 9; Ecocert, 2012, section
“1. Nanoparticular ingredients”, p. 18).
In exchange, natural and botanical products or
waste products derived from agriculture, food and
beverages can be used in cosmetic formulations,
performing various types of functions (Fonseca-
-Santos et al. 2015) and may substitute hazardous
ingredients present in red lists, as it will be presented
next.
Some examples of the potential use of natural
compounds as cosmetic ingredients are the gra-
pevine pulp muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia Michx
1803) and cassis juice (Ribes nigrum L. 1753)
in topical applications of cosmetics to avoid skin
hyperpigmentation (Plundrich et al., 2013) and the
use of green coee oil (Coea canephora Pierre
ex Froehn. 1897) in formulations of sunscreens,
increasing the sun protection factor and perfor-
ming satisfactory antioxidant activity (Chiari et al.,
2014). Besides that, there are studies that show the
increase of skin hydration after two weeks of use of
formulations containing dierent concentrations of
freeze-dried aloe vera (Aloe vera (L., 1753) Burm.f,
1768) extracts (Dal’Belo et al., 2006).
Additionally, it has been demonstrated that
essential oils in the examined concentrations show
higher inhibitory activity against bacteria and yeasts
compared with methylparaben, the main preserva-
tive used in conventional cosmetics (Herman et al.,
2013). Thus, mixtures of dierent essential oils and
extracts may be eective in inhibiting the growth of
a broad spectrum of microorganisms and replacing
or reducing the amount of synthetic preservatives
added to cosmetics
The scientic studies mentioned demonstrate
that various types of natural ingredients may be
used in cosmetics to replace the use of possibly
harmful substances. However, such studies should
evaluate the ecacy of these substitutes in cosmetic
formulations, interacting with other ingredients,
ensuring that they perform the functions for which
they are assigned.
Other possibility is reducing the expiration
period of cosmetic products as an alternative for
minimizing the exposure to preservatives both
synthetic and natural. By making expiration periods
more compatible with product package volumes,
it would be possible to reduce the risk of adverse
eects from the use of these substances.
4.3.2. Safety of substitute ingredients in green
cosmetics
Despite the existence of signicant scientic
literature on the potential of using natural or bo-
tanical ingredients in cosmetic formulations, it is
necessary to develop appropriate approaches for
the risk assessment of these ingredients.
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
146
Excessive reliance on the red lists of hazardous
ingredients in cosmetics may lead many manufactu-
rers to substitute potentially hazardous compounds
for substances whose potential health and safety
eects are not yet well established (UL, 2015).
In addition, the increasing number and com-
plexity of organic and natural cosmetic ingredients
and the lack of internationally harmonized standards
may result in the emergence of products that lack
quality and/or safety acceptable standards. It is also
important to highlight the absence of approaches to
assess benets or safety of botanical ingredients.
Being natural does not always mean a lack of toxici-
ty or risks to human health. Plants or botanical pro-
ducts may contain potential contaminants, irritants,
allergens, phototoxic or photoallergenic substances
or allergens when used in cosmetic formulations
(Antignac et al., 2011).
Thereby, despite the popular belief in the inno-
cuousness of natural ingredients, there are several
reports of adverse reactions to plant extracts, in
particular cutaneous eects, such as allergic contact
dermatitis, irritative contact dermatitis, phototoxic
reactions and contact urticaria. (Fonseca-Santos et
al. 2015)4. These eects can be explained by the
complexity of botanical ingredients, natural varia-
bility between populations and lineages, seasonal,
cyclical or irregular uctuations in the production of
the compound by the plant, production of potentially
toxic substances, interactions with human drugs,
presence of heavy metals, incorrect identication
of plants, adulteration with active substances of
medicinal products or with other plant species and
improper preparation or processing of the products
(Antignac et al., 2011). Although these factors do
not always justify the occurrence of adverse eects,
they should be properly addressed during selection,
preparation and use of botanical ingredients to en-
sure their safe use.
Among the 1,358 natural substances listed
in the International Nomenclature of Cosmetics
Ingredients (INCI), 38% are classied as hazardous
to human health, causing skin irritation, severe eye
damage and irritation or respiratory diculty. In
addition, 53 natural substances on the INCI list are
classied as carcinogenic, mutagenic and toxic for
reproduction (Klaschka, 2015).
According to Antignac (2011), the risk or
safety assessment of plant-derived ingredients
should involve the characterization of the plant and
its origin and the chemical characterization of the
ingredient to be used. It is also necessary to compare
the material under analysis with others that have a
history of safe human use. It is recommended that
the risk assessment preferably uses tests performed
by the skin route, avoiding the uncertainties of the
extrapolation of results between dierent exposure
routes and include analysis of local and systemic
eects. In addition, it is important to verify the
natural variability of plant strata. Finally, the risk
assessment of botanical ingredients should be alig-
ned with the current safety assessment paradigm
and should have a system to control chemical and
biological contamination during the production
chain of these ingredients.
4 Fonseca-Santos et al. (2015) cite: Ernst, E. Adverse eects of herbal drugs in dermatology. Brit. J. Dermatol., 143(5), 923-929, 2000.; Simp-
son, E. L.; Law, S. V.; Storrs, F. J. Prevalence of botanical extract allergy in patients with contact dermatitis. Dermatitis, 15(2), 67-72, 2004.; e
Corazza, M. et al.. Topical botanically derived products: use, skin reactions, and usefulness of patch tests: a multicentre Italian study. Contact
Dermatitis, 70(2), 90-97, 2014.
Desenvolv. Meio Ambiente, v. 53, p. 133-150, jan./jun., 2020. 147
Thereby, the choice of plant extracts should
be based on the conrmation of their biological
activity and toxicological evaluation. Their stability
and possible synergistic eects in cosmetic formu-
lations should also be considered (Fonseca-Santos
et al., 2015).
In addition, there are many natural substances
that are not easily degradable in the environment
and their use in cosmetic products implies a great
dispersive use and a continuous discharge, which
can generate impacts to the aquatic environment
and the organisms that inhabit it. Among the 1,358
INCI natural substances, 185 (28%) are classied
as hazardous to the aquatic environment (Klaschka,
2015). It demonstrates the need for ecotoxicological
studies for these components, as well as the impro-
vement of legal requirements about them (Klaschka,
2016), aiming at following properly the principles of
Green Chemistry that state about reducing toxicity.
5. Conclusion
Green cosmetics represent a perspective of
reducing the risks to human health and the envi-
ronmental impacts caused by cosmetics. However,
there are conceptual, regulatory and risk-related
limitations to its development and diusion.
From conceptual and regulatory perspectives,
the lack of government denitions and regulations
on organic/natural cosmetics in many countries
highlights the need to establish specic denitions
and regulations by governmental and nongovern-
mental bodies, such as green cosmetic certication
systems. However, the existence of many agencies
and certication systems and dierent types of
labels can create confusion for the general public
and even discredit green certicates. Thereby, it
is important that the guidelines adopted by these
systems are standardized and fulll their role in
ensuring compliance by the companies and in
communicating consumers properly.
Regarding the compliance with Green Che-
mistry, most certication systems do not state in
their guidelines the following of the concepts and
principles of Green Chemistry explicitly, although
some systems incorporate some of these principles
into their own guidelines. As an example, Cosmos-
-Standard sets out indicators to verify that certied
products are meeting some of the Twelve Principles
of Green Chemistry, such as the atomic economy
of cosmetic production reactions, the establishment
of minimum aquatic toxicity and biodegradability
requirements for ingredients used and produced
and the prohibition of the use and generation of
bioaccumulative and non-biodegradable substances.
However, in the state of development of Green Che-
mistry as in 2013, it was not yet possible to specify
limits or requirements for all principles.
The prospects for the risk analysis of green
cosmetics include the existence of studies demons-
trating the possibility of using natural ingredients
with dierent functions instead of synthetic ingre-
dients known to be harmful to human and envi-
ronmental health. However, the use of alternative
ingredients, including those of vegetable origin,
in green cosmetics requires reliable tests to verify
their ecacy in cosmetic formulation, careful risk/
safety analyses, ecotoxicological studies on the ef-
fects of these substances on other organisms in the
environment and compliance with the principles of
Green Chemistry.
From this eort to analyze the state of the art
of green cosmetics and place them in the context of
FRANCA, C. C. V.; UENO, H. M. Green cosmetics: perspectives and challenges in the context of green chemistry
148
Green Chemistry, the paper contributes to provide
a current and compiled overview of theoretical
aspects that can subsidize future decision making
to promote progressive incorporation of concepts
and principles of Green Chemistry into the overco-
ming of conceptual, regulatory and risk assessment
limitations of green cosmetics.
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